Refrigeration Manual

Part 1 - Fundamentals of Refrigeration

 FOREWORD

The practice of refrigeration undoubtedly goes back as far as the history of mankind, but
for thousands of years the only cooling mediums were water and ice. Today refrigeration in
the home, in the supermarket, and in commercial and industrial usage is so closely woven
into our everyday existence it is difficult to imagine life without it. But because of this rapid
growth, countless people who must use and work with refrigeration equipment do not fully
understand the basic fundamentals of refrigeration system operation.

This manual is designed to fill a need which exists for a concise, elementary text to aid
servicemen, salesman, students, and others interested in refrigeration. It is intended to
cover only the fundamentals of refrigeration theory and practice. Detailed information as to
specific products is available from manufacturers of complete units and accessories. Used
to supplement such literature—and to improve general knowledge of refrigeration—this
manual should prove to be very helpful.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Table of Contents
Section 1  Basic Refrigeration Principles
Thermodynamics 1-1
Heat 1-1
Temperature 1-1
Heat Measurement 1-2
Heat Transfer 1-2
Change of State 1-3
Sensible Heat 1-3
Latent Heat of Fusion 1-3
Latent Heat of Evaporation 1-4
Latent Heat of Sublimation 1-4
Saturation Temperature 1-4
Superheated Vapor 1-4
Subcooled Liquid 1-4
Atmospheric Pressure 1-4
Absolute Pressure 1-5
Gauge Pressure 1-5
Pressure-Temperature Relationships, Liquids 1-5
Pressure-Temperature Relationships, Gases 1-5
Specific Volume 1-6
Density 1-6
Pressure and Fluid Head 1-6
Fluid Flow 1-7
Effect of Fluid Flow on Heat Transfer 1-7
Section 2  Refrigerants
Terminology and Examples 2-1
Pure Fluid 2-1
Mixture and Blend 2-1
Azeotropic Refrigerant Mixture 2-1
Zeotropic Mixture 2-2
Near-Azeotropic Refrigerant Mixture 2-2
How are Components Chosen 2-2
Mixture Behavior 2-3
Azeotrope 2-3
Zeotrope 2-3
Near-Azeotropic Refrigerant Mixtures 2-3
What Happens to Mixture Composition During
System Charging? 2-3
Temperature Glide 2-4
What Happens to Refrigerant Mixture
Composition During a Leak? 2-5
Types of Refrigerant 2-5
Refrigerants 2-8
Refrigerant 12 2-8
Refrigerant R-401A/B 2-8
Refrigerant R-409A 2-8
Refrigerant 134a 2-8
Refrigerant 22 2-9
Refrigerant R-502 2-9
Refrigerant R-402A 2-9
Refrigerant R-408A 2-9
Refrigerant R-404A 2-9
Refrigerant R-507 2-10
Refrigerant Saturation Temperature 2-10
Refrigerant Evaporation 2-10
Refrigerant Condensation 2-10
Refrigerant-Oil Relationships 2-10
Refrigerant Tables 2-11
Saturation Properties 2-12
Pocket Temperature-Pressure Charts 2-12
Section 3  The Refrigeration Cycle
Simple Compression Refrigeration Cycle 3-1
Heat of Compression 3-2
Volumetric Efficiency of the Reciprocating
Compressor 3-2
Volumetric Efficiency of the Scroll Compressors 3-4
Effect of Change in Suction Pressure 3-4
Effect of Change in Discharge Pressure 3-4
Effect of Subcooling Liquid Refrigerant with
Water or Air 3-4
Effect of Subcooling Liquid Refrigerant by
Superheating the Vapor 3-4
Effect of Superheating the Vapor Leaving
the Evaporator 3-5
Effect of Pressure Drop in the Discharge Line
and Condenser 3-5
Effect of Pressure Drop in Liquid Line 3-5
Effect of Pressure Drop in the Evaporator 3-5
Effect of Pressure Drop in Suction Line 3-6
Internally Compound Two-Stage Systems 3-6
Externally Compound Systems 3-6
Cascade Systems 3-10
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 Section 1
BASIC REFRIGERATION PRINCIPLES

Most users of refrigeration products normally associate
refrigeration or air conditioning with cold and cooling,
yet the practice of refrigeration engineering deals almost
entirely with the transfer of heat. This seeming contradic-
tion is one of the most fundamental concepts that must
be grasped to understand the workings of a refrigeration
or air conditioning system. Cold is really only the ab-
sence of heat, just as darkness is the absence of light,
and dryness is the absence of moisture.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is that branch of science dealing
with the mechanical action of heat. There are certain
fundamental principles of nature, often called laws of
thermodynamics, which govern our existence here on
Earth. Several of these laws are basic to the study of
refrigeration.
The first and most important of these laws is the fact
that energy can neither be created or destroyed. It can
only be converted from one type to another. A study
of thermodynamic theory is beyond the scope of this
manual, but the examples that follow will illustrate the
practical application of the energy law.
zero Celsius. By comparison with this standard, the
coldest weather we might ever experience on Earth is
much warmer.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the scale used to measure the intensity
of heat, the indicator that determines which way the
heat energy will move. In the United States, tempera-
ture is normally measured in degrees Fahrenheit. The
Celsius scale (previously termed Centigrade) is widely
used in most other parts of the world. Both scales have
several basic points in common, (See Figure 1-1) the
freezing point of water, and the boiling point of water at
sea level. At sea level, water freezes at 32°F (0°C) and
water boils at 212°F (100°C). On the Fahrenheit scale,
the temperature difference between these two points is
divided into 180 equal increments or degrees F, while on
the Celsius scale the temperature difference is divided
into 100 equal increments or degrees C. The relation
between Fahrenheit and Celsius scales can always be
established by the following formulas:
Fahrenheit = 9/5 Celsius + 32°
Celsius = 5/9 (Fahrenheit -32°)

HEAT
Heat is a form of energy, primarily created by the trans-
formation of other types of energy into heat energy. For
example, mechanical energy turning a wheel causes
friction and is transformed into heat energy. When a
vapor such as air or refrigerant is compressed, the
compression process is transformed into heat energy
and heat is added to the air or refrigerant.
Heat is often defined as energy in motion, for it is never
content to stand still. It is always moving from a warm
body to a colder body. Much of the heat on the Earth is
derived from radiation from the sun. The heat is being
transferred from the hot sun to the colder earth. A spoon COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURE SCALES
in ice water loses its heat to the water and becomes Figure 1-1
cold. Heat is transferred from the hot spoon to the colder
ice water. A spoon in hot coffee absorbs heat from the Further observing the two scales, note that at -40°,
coffee and becomes warm. The hot coffee transfers both the Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are at
heat to the colder spoon. The terms warmer and colder the same point. This is the only point where the two
are only comparative. Heat exists at any temperature scales are identical. Using this information, the follow-
above absolute zero even though it may be in extremely ing formulas can be used to determine the equivalent
small quantities. Fahrenheit or Celsius values.
Absolute zero is the term used by scientists to de- Fahrenheit = ((Celsius + 40) x 9/5) - 40
scribe the lowest theoretical temperature possible, the Celsius = ((Fahrenheit + 40) x 5/9) - 40
temperature at which no heat exists. This occurs at
approximately 460° below zero Fahrenheit, 273° below

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
1-1
HEAT MEASUREMENT
The measurement of temperature has no relation to
the quantity of heat. A match flame may have the same
temperature as a bonfire, but obviously the quantity of
heat given off is vastly different.
The basic unit of heat measurement used today in the
United States is the British Thermal Unit, commonly
expressed as a BTU. A BTU is defined as the amount
of heat added or removed to change one pound of wa-
ter one degree Fahrenheit. For example, to raise the
temperature of one gallon of water (approximately 8.3
pounds) from 70°F to 80°F will require 83 BTUs.
1 gallon (8.3 pounds) x (80°F - 70°F)∆T = 83 BTUs
heat added
8.3 pounds x 10°∆T = 83 BTUs
In the metric system, the basic unit of heat measure-
ment is the Calorie. A Calorie is defined as the amount
of heat added or removed to change one gram of water
one degree Celsius. For example, to lower one liter
of water (1000 grams) from 30°C to 20°C will require
10,000 Calories of heat to be removed.
1000 grams X (30°C - 20°C)∆T = 10,000 Calories of
heat removed.
HEAT TRANSFER
The second important law of thermodynamics is that
heat always travels from a warm object to a colder
one. The rate of heat travel is in direct proportion to the
temperature difference between the two bodies.
390°F 400°F
travel in any of three ways; radiation, conduction, or
convection.
Radiation is the transfer of heat by waves similar to light
waves or radio waves. For example, the sun's energy
is transferred to the Earth by radiation.
Figure 1-3
One need only step from the shade into direct sunlight
to feel the impact of the heat waves even though the
temperature of the surrounding air is identical in both
places. Another example of radiation is standing in
front of a bonfire. The side of you facing the bon fire
is receiving radiant heat and that side is hot. The side
away from the fire may feel cool. There is little radiation
at low temperatures and at small temperature differ-
ences. As a result, radiation is of little importance in the
actual refrigeration process. However, radiation to the
refrigerated space or product from the outside environ-
ment, particularly the sun, may be a major factor in the
refrigeration load.
Conduction is the flow of heat through a substance.
Actual physical contact is required for heat transfer to
take place between two bodies by this means. Conduc-
tion is a highly efficient means of heat transfer as any
serviceman who has touched a piece of hot metal can
testify.

Heat
Flow HOT WARM COOL

Figure 1-2
Assume that two steel balls are side by side in a perfectly
insulated box. One ball weighs one pound and has a
temperature of 400°F, while the second ball weighs
1,000 pounds and has a temperature of 390°F. The
heat content of the larger ball is much greater than the
small one, but because of the temperature difference,
heat will travel from the small ball to the large one (See
Figure 1-2) until the temperatures equalize. Heat can Figure 1-4

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

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1-2
Figure 1-4 shows a flame heating one end of a metal
rod. Heat is conducted to the other end by the process
of conduction.
Convection is the flow of heat by means of a fluid me-
dium, either vapor or liquid, normally air or water. Air
may be heated by a furnace, and then discharged into
a room to heat objects in the room by convection.
Figure 1-5
In a typical air conditioning/refrigeration application, heat
normally will travel by a combination of processes. The
ability of a piece of equipment to transfer heat is referred
to as the overall rate of heat transfer. While heat transfer
cannot take place without a temperature difference,
different materials vary in their ability to conduct heat.
Metal is a very good heat conductor. Fiberglass has a lot
of resistance to heat flow and is used as insulation.
CHANGE OF STATE
Most common substances can exist as a solid, a liquid,
or a vapor, depending on their temperature and the
pressure to which they are exposed. Heat can change
their temperature, and can also change their state.
Heat is absorbed even though no temperature change
takes place when a solid changes to a liquid, or when a
liquid changes to a vapor. The same amount of heat is
given off, rejected, even though there is no temperature
change when the vapor changes back to a liquid, and
when the liquid is changed back to a solid.
The most common example of this process is water. It
generally exists as a liquid, but can exist in solid form
as ice, and as a vapor when it becomes steam. As ice
it is a usable form for refrigeration, absorbing heat as
it melts at a constant temperature of 32°F (0°C). As
water, when placed on a hot stove in an open pan, its
temperature will rise to the boiling point, 212°F (100°C)
at sea level. Regardless of the amount of heat applied,
the waters temperature cannot be raised above 212°F
(100°C) because the water will vaporize into steam. If
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
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1-3
this steam could be enclosed in a container and more
heat applied, then the water vapor, steam, temperature
could again be raised. Obviously the fluid during the
boiling or evaporating process was absorbing heat.
When steam condenses back into water it gives off ex-
actly the same amount of heat that it absorbed during
evaporation. (The steam radiator is a common usage of
this source of heat.) If the water is to be frozen into ice,
the same amount of heat that was absorbed in melting
must be extracted by some refrigeration process to
cause the freezing action.
The question arises, just where did those heat units go?
Scientists have found that all matter is made up of mol-
ecules, infinitesimally small building blocks which are ar-
ranged in certain patterns to form different substances.
In a solid or liquid, the molecules are very close together.
In a vapor the molecules are much farther apart and
move about much more freely. The heat energy that
was absorbed by the water became molecular energy,
and as a result the molecules rearranged themselves,
changing the ice into water, and the water into steam.
When the steam condenses back into water, that same
molecular energy is again converted into heat energy.
SENSIBLE HEAT
Sensible heat is defined as the heat involved in a change
of temperature of a substance. When the temperature
of water is raised from 32°F to 212°F, an increase in
sensible heat content is taking place. The BTUs required
to raise the temperature of one pound of a substance
1°F is termed its specific heat. By definition, the specific
heat of water is 1.0 BTU/lb. The amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of different substances through
a given temperature range will vary. It requires only .64
BTU to raise the temperature of one pound of butter 1°F,
and only .22 BTU is required to raise the temperature of
one pound of aluminum 1°F. Therefore the specific heats
of these two substances are .64 BTU/lb. and .22 BTU/lb.
respectively. To raise the temperature of one pound of
liquid refrigerant R‑22, 1°F from 45° to 46°, requires .29
BTUs, therefore its specific heat is .29 BTU/lb.
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION
A change of state for a substance from a solid to a liquid,
or from a liquid to a solid involves the latent heat of fu-
sion. It might also be termed the latent heat of melting,
or the latent heat of freezing.
When one pound of ice melts, it absorbs 144 BTUs at
a constant temperature of 32°F. If one pound of water
is to be frozen into ice, 144 BTUs must be removed
from the water at a constant temperature of 32°F. In the
freezing of food products, it is only the water content
for which the latent heat of freezing must be taken into
account. Normally this is calculated by determining the
percentage of water content in a given product.
LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION
A change of a substance from a liquid to a vapor, or
from a vapor back to a liquid involves the latent heat of
evaporation. Since boiling is only a rapid evaporating
process, it might also be called the latent heat of boil-
ing, the latent heat of vaporization, or for the reverse
process, the latent heat of condensation.
When one pound of water boils or evaporates, it absorbs
970 BTUs at a constant temperature of 212°F (at sea
level). To condense one pound of steam to water, 970
BTUs must be extracted from the steam.
Because of the large amount of latent heat involved in
evaporation and condensation, heat transfer can be
very efficient during the process. The same changes
of state affecting water applies to any liquid, although
at different temperatures and pressures.
The absorption of heat by changing a liquid to a vapor,
and the discharge of that heat by condensing the vapor
is the keystone to the whole mechanical refrigeration
process. The movement of the latent heat involved is
the basic means of refrigeration.
When one pound of refrigerant R‑22 boils, evaporates,
it absorbs 85.9 BTUs at 76 psig. To condense one
pound of R‑22, 85.9 BTUs must be extracted from the
refrigerant vapor.
LATENT HEAT OF SUBLIMATION
A change in state directly from a solid to a vapor without
going through the liquid phase can occur with some
substances. The most common example is the use of
"dry ice" or solid carbon dioxide when used for cooling.
The same process can occur with ice below the freez-
ing point. This process is utilized in some freeze-drying
processes at extremely low temperatures and deep
vacuums. The latent heat of sublimation is equal to the
sum of the latent heat of fusion and the latent heat of
evaporation.
SATURATION TEMPERATURE
The condition of temperature and pressure at which
both liquid and vapor can exist simultaneously is
termed saturation. A saturated liquid or vapor is one
at its boiling point. For water at sea level, the saturation
temperature is 212°F. At higher pressures, the saturation
temperature increases. With a decrease in pressure,
the saturation temperature decreases.
1-4
The same condition exists for refrigerants. At the refrig-
erants boiling point, both liquid and vapor exist simul-
taneously. For example, refrigerant R‑22 has a boiling
point of 45°F at a pressure of 76 psig. It's boiling point
changes only as it pressure changes.
SUPERHEATED VAPOR
After a liquid has changed to a vapor, any further heat
added to the vapor raises its temperature. As long as
the pressure to which it is exposed remains constant,
the resulting vapor is said to be superheated. Since a
temperature rise results, sensible heat has been added
to the vapor. The term superheated vapor is used to
describe a vapor whose temperature is above it's boil-
ing or saturation point. The air around us is composed
of superheated vapor.
Refrigerant 22 at 76 psig has a boiling point of 45°F. At
76 psig, if the refrigerants temperature is above 45°F,
it is said to be superheated.
SUBCOOLED LIQUID
Any liquid that has a temperature lower than the satura-
tion temperature corresponding to its saturation pres-
sure is said to be subcooled. Water at any temperature
less than its boiling temperature (212°F at sea level) is
subcooled.
The boiling point of Refrigerant 22 is 45°F at 76 psig. If
the actual temperature of the refrigerant is below 45°F
at 76 psig, it is said to be subcooled.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The atmosphere surrounding the Earth is composed of
gases, primarily oxygen and nitrogen, extending many
miles above the surface of the Earth. The weight of
that atmosphere pressing down on the Earth creates
the atmospheric pressure in which we live. At a given
point, the atmospheric pressure is relatively constant
except for minor changes due to changing weather
conditions. For purposes of standardization and as a
basic reference for comparison, the atmospheric pres-
sure at sea level has been universally accepted. It has
been established at 14.7 pounds per square inch, (psi).
This is equivalent to the pressure exerted by a column
of mercury 29.92 inches high.
At altitudes above sea level, the depth of the atmo-
spheric blanket surrounding the Earth is less, therefore
the atmospheric pressure is less. At 5,000 feet eleva-
tion, the atmospheric pressure is only 12.2 psi., 28.84
inches of mercury.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
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ABSOLUTE PRESSURE unit of measurement since even inches of mercury is
too large for accurate reading. The micron, a metric
Absolute pressure, normally expressed in terms of unit of length, is used for this purpose. When we speak
pounds per square inch absolute (psia), is defined as of microns in evacuation, we are referring to absolute
the pressure existing above a perfect vacuum. Therefore pressure in units of microns of mercury.
in the air around us, absolute pressure and atmospheric
pressure are the same. A micron is equal to 1/1000 of a millimeter and there
are 25.4 millimeters per inch. One micron, therefore,
GAUGE PRESSURE equals 1/25,400 inch. Evacuation to 500 microns would
be evacuating to an absolute pressure of approximately
A pressure gauge is calibrated to read 0 psi regardless .02 inch of mercury. At standard conditions this is the
of elevation when not connected to a pressure producing equivalent of a vacuum reading of 29.90 inches mer-
source. The absolute pressure of a closed system will cury.
always be gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, therefore, PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS,
at sea level, absolute pressure will be gauge pressure LIQUIDS
plus 14.7. Pressures below 0 psig are actually negative
readings on the gauge, and are usually referred to as The temperature at which a liquid boils is dependent on
inches of mercury vacuum. A refrigeration compound the pressure being exerted on it. The vapor pressure
gauge is calibrated in the equivalent of inches of mer- of the liquid is the pressure being exerted by the tiny
cury for negative readings. Since 14.7 psi is equivalent molecules seeking to escape the liquid and become
to 29.92 inches of mercury, 1 psi is approximately equal vapor. Vapor pressure increases with an increase in
to 2 inches of mercury on the gauge dial. In the vacuum temperature until at the point when the vapor pressure
range, below 0 psig, 2 inches of mercury vacuum is equals the external pressure, boiling occurs.
approximately equal to a -1 psig.
Water at sea level boils at 212°F, but at 5,000 feet eleva-
It is important to remember that gauge pressure is only tion it boils at 203°F due to the decreased atmospheric
relative to absolute pressure. Table 1-1 shows rela- pressure. (See Table 1-1) If some means, a compressor
tionships existing at various elevations assuming that for example, is used to vary the pressure on the sur-
standard atmospheric conditions prevail. face of the water in a closed container, the boiling point
can be changed at will. At 100 psig, the boiling point is
Table 1-1 337.9°F, and at 1 psig, the boiling point is 215.3°F.
Pressure Relationships at Varying Altitudes
Boiling Since all liquids react in the same fashion, although at
Altitude Inches different temperatures and pressure, pressure provides
PSIG PSIA Point of
(Feet) Hg. a means of regulating a refrigerant's temperature. The
Water
evaporator is a part of a closed system. A pressure can
0 0 14.7 29.92 212°F be maintained in the coil equivalent to the saturation
1000 0 14.2 28.85 210°F temperature (boiling point) of the liquid at the cooling
temperature desired. The liquid will boil at that tempera-
2000 0 13.7 27.82 208°F
ture as long as it is absorbing heat and the pressure
3000 0 13.2 26.81 206°F does not change.
4000 0 12.7 25.84 205°F
In a system using refrigerant R‑22, if the pressure
5000 0 12.2 24.89 203°F within the evaporator coil is maintained at 76 psig,
the refrigerants boiling point will be 45°F (7.2°C). As
Table 1-1 shows that even though the gauge pressure long as the temperature surrounding the coil is higher
remains at 0 psig regardless of altitude, the absolute than 45°F (7.2°C), the refrigerant will continue to boil
pressure does change. The absolute pressure in inches absorbing heat.
of mercury indicates the inches of mercury vacuum that
a perfect vacuum pump would be able to reach at the PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS,
stated elevation. At 5,000 feet elevation under standard GASES
atmospheric conditions, a perfect vacuum would be
24.89 inches of mercury. This compares to 29.92 inches One of the basic fundamentals of thermodynamics is
of mercury at sea level. the "perfect gas law." This describes the relationship of
the three basic factors controlling the behavior of a gas:
At very low pressures, it is necessary to use a smaller (1) pressure, (2) volume, and (3) temperature. For all

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1-5
practical purposes, air and highly superheated refriger-
ant vapors may be considered perfect gases, and their
behavior follows this relationship:
Pressure One x Volume One  =  Pressure Two x Volume Two
Temperature One Temperature Two
P1V1 P2V2
This is most commonly stated, T = T   .
1 2
Although the "perfect gas" relationship is not exact, it
provides a basis for approximating the effect on a gas
with a change in one of the three factors. In this relation-
ship, both pressure and temperature must be expressed
in absolute values, pressure in psia, and temperature in
degrees Rankine or degrees Fahrenheit above abso-
lute zero (°F plus 460°). Although not used in practical
refrigeration work, the perfect gas relation is valuable
for scientific calculations and is helpful in understanding
the performance of a refrigerant vapor.
One of the problems of refrigeration is disposing of the
heat that has been absorbed during the cooling process.
A practical solution is achieved by raising the pressure
of the vapor so that its saturation or condensing tem-
perature will be sufficiently above the temperature of
the available cooling medium (air or water) to assure
efficient heat transfer. This will provide the ability of the
cooling medium to absorb heat from the refrigerant and
cool it below its boiling point (dew point). When the low
pressure vapor with its low saturation temperature is
drawn into the cylinder of a compressor, the volume
of the gas is reduced by the stroke of the compressor
piston. The vapor is discharged as a high pressure high
temperature vapor and is readily condensed because
of its high saturation temperature.
If refrigerant R‑22’s pressure is raised to 195 psig, its
saturation temperature will be 100°F (37.8°C). If the
cooling medium’s temperature is lower than 100°F, heat
will be extracted from the R‑22 and it will be condensed,
converted back to a liquid.
SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific volume of a substance is defined as the number
of cubic feet occupied by one pound (ft3/lb). In the case
of liquids and gases, it varies with the temperature and
the pressure to which the fluid is subjected. Following
the perfect gas law, the volume of a gas varies with
both temperature and pressure. The volume of a liquid
varies with temperature. Within the limits of practical re-
frigeration practice, it is regarded as non-compressible.
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density (lb/ft3).
DENSITY
The density of a substance is defined as weight per
1-6
unit volume. In the United States, density is normally
expressed in pounds per cubic foot (lb./ft3). Since by
definition, density is directly related to specific volume,
the density of a vapor may vary greatly with changes
in pressure and temperature, although it still remains
a vapor, invisible to the naked eye. Water vapor or
steam at 50 psia pressure and 281°F temperature is
over 3 times as heavy as steam at 14.7 psia pressure
and 212°F.
Refrigerant 22 vapor at 76 psig and at 45°F has a density
of 1.66 lb/ft3. At 150 psig and at 83°F, the refrigerants
density is 3.02 lb/ft3 or 1.82 times as heavy.
PRESSURE AND FLUID HEAD
It is frequently necessary to know the pressure created
by a column of liquid, or possibly the pressure required
to force a column of refrigerant to flow a given vertical
distance upwards.
Densities are usually available in terms of pounds per
cubic foot, and it is convenient to visualize pressure in
terms of a cube of liquid one foot high, one foot wide,
and one foot deep. Since the base of this cube is 144
square inches, the average pressure in pounds per
square inch is the weight of the liquid per cubic foot di-
vided by 144. For example, water weighs approximately
62.4 pounds per cubic foot, the pressure exerted by 1
foot of water is 62.4 ÷ 144 or .433 pounds per square
inch. Ten feet of water will exert a pressure of 10 X .433
or 4.33 pounds per square inch. The same relation of
height to pressure holds true, no matter what the area of
a vertical liquid column. The pressure exerted by other
liquids can be calculated in exactly the same manner if
the density is known.
The density of liquid refrigerant R‑22 at 45°F, 76 psig is
78.8 lb./ft3. The pressure exerted by one foot of liquid
R‑22 is 78.8 ÷ 144 or .55 psig. A column of liquid R‑22
10 feet high would then exert a pressure of 5.5 psig. At
100°F liquid temperature, the density is 71.2 lb./ft3. A
one foot column then exerts a pressure of .49 psig. A
ten foot column exerts a pressure of 4.9 psig.
Comparing other refrigerants at 45°F, R‑404A has a den-
sity of 70.1 lb./ft3. It then exerts a pressure of .49 psig per
foot of lift. R‑134a has a density of 79.3 lb./ft3, therefore
it exerts a pressure of .55 psig per foot of lift.
Fluid head is a general term used to designate any kind
of pressure exerted by a fluid that can be expressed
in terms of the height of a column of the given fluid.
Hence a pressure of 1 psi may be expressed as being
equivalent to a head of 2.31 feet of water. (1 psi ÷ .433
psi/ft. of water). In air flow through ducts, very small
pressures are encountered, and these are commonly
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
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expressed in inches of water. 1 inch of water = .433 ÷ As fluid flows through tubing, the contact of the fluid and
12 = .036 psi. the walls of the tube create friction, therefore resistance
to flow. Valves, fittings, sharp bends in the tubing and
Table 1-2 other obstructions also create resistance to flow. The
Pressure Equivalents in Fluid Head basic design of the piping system and its installation
Pounds Per will determine the pressure required to obtain a given
Inches Inches Feet flow rate.
Square Inch
Mercury Water Water
Absolute
In a closed system containing tubing through which a
.036 .07 1.0 .083 fluid is flowing, the pressure difference between two
.433 .90 12.0 1.0 given points will be determined by the velocity, viscosity,
and the density of fluid flowing. If the flow is increased,
.491 1.0 13.6 1.13 the pressure difference will increase since more friction
1.0 2.03 27.7 2.31 will be created by the increased velocity of the fluid.
14.7 29.92 408.0 34.0 This pressure difference is termed pressure loss or
pressure drop.
FLUID FLOW
Since control of evaporating and condensing pressures
For a fluid to flow from one point to another, there must is critical in mechanical refrigeration work, pressure
be a difference in pressure between the two points. drop through connecting lines can greatly affect the
With no pressure difference, no flow will occur. Fluids performance of the system. Large pressure drops must
may be either liquids or vapors, and the flow of each is be avoided. When designing and installing refrigeration
important in refrigeration. and air conditioning system piping, pressure drop and
refrigerant velocity must be given serious consideration.
Fluid flow through pipes or tubing is governed by the Section 18 in this series of manuals discusses piping
pressure exerted on the fluid, the effect of gravity due and proper sizing and installation.
to the vertical rise or fall of the pipe, restrictions in the
pipe resisting flow, and the resistance of the fluid itself EFFECT OF FLUID FLOW ON HEAT TRANSFER
to flow. For example, as a faucet is opened, the flow
increases even though the pressure in the water main is Heat transfer from a fluid through a tube wall or through
constant and the outlet of the faucet has no restriction. metal fins is greatly affected by the action of the fluid
Obviously the restriction of the valve is affecting the in contact with the metal surface. As a rule, the greater
rate of flow. Water flows more freely than molasses due the velocity of flow and the more turbulent the flow, the
to a property of fluids called viscosity which describes greater will be the rate of heat transfer. Rapid boiling of
the fluid's resistance to flow. In oils, the viscosity can an evaporating liquid will also increase the rate of heat
be affected by temperatures, and as the temperature transfer. Quiet liquid flow (laminar flow) on the other
decreases the viscosity increases. hand, tends to allow an insulating film to form on the
metal surface that resists heat flow, and reduces the
rate of heat transfer.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
1-7
 Section 2
REFRIGERANTS
Large quantities of heat can be absorbed by a substance
through an increase in sensible heat involving either a
large temperature difference between the cooling media
and the product being cooled or a large quantity (weight)
of the cooling media. When the cooling media is involved
in a change of state, latent heat, a smaller amount of
the cooling media is needed to absorb an equivalent
large quantity of heat. (Refer to Section 1.)
In mechanical refrigeration, a process is required that
can transfer large quantities of heat economically and
efficiently on a continuous basis. The processes of
evaporation and condensing of a liquid are the logical
steps in the refrigeration process.
Many liquids could be used for absorbing heat through
the evaporation process. Water is ideal in many re-
spects. Unfortunately it boils at temperatures too high
for ordinary cooling purposes. It freezes at temperatures
too high for low temperature conditions. A refrigerant
must satisfy three main requirements:
1. It must readily absorb heat and change state to a
vapor at the temperature required by the load.
2. It must readily reject heat and be returned to a liquid
at a temperature required by the external cooling
media, water or air.
3. For economy and continuous cooling, the system
must use the same refrigerant over and over
again.
There is no perfect refrigerant for all applications. There
are varying opinions as to which refrigerant is best for
a specific application.
TERMINOLOGY AND EXAMPLES
The following definitions primarily deal with the way
the described materials behave as a working fluid in a
thermodynamic system. There may be more specific
or technically complete definitions which deal with the
chemistry, transport properties, or other aspects of these
materials’ composition or behavior which are unimport-
ant in the present context.
PURE FLUID
A pure fluid is a single component fluid which does
not change composition when boiling or condens-
ing. A pure fluid is made up of one type of molecule.
Examples: R‑11, R‑12, R‑22, R‑134a.
2-1
MIXTURE AND BLEND
Technically, there is no difference in the terms mixture
and blend. They include any fluids which are composed
of more than one component (i.e., more than one type
of molecule). Azeotropic Refrigerant Mixtures (ARMs),
Near-ARMs, and zeotropes (each is discussed below)
are subsets of the larger group consisting of blends
and mixtures.
The following definitions apply to dual component mix-
tures, but three (“ternary”) or more component mixtures
have similar but more complicated characteristics. From
a thermodynamic working fluid point of view, the number
of components in the fluid has little or no effect.
AZEOTROPIC REFRIGERANT MIXTURE
An azeotropic refrigerant mixture (ARM) is a multi-com-
ponent which at the azeotropic point does not change
composition when it evaporates or condenses since
both components have exactly the same boiling tem-
perature at that composition and pressure. It is made up
of two or more types of molecules. In actuality, an ARM
only exhibits such behavior at one temperature and
pressure. Deviations from this behavior at other pres-
sures are very slight and essentially undetectable.
ARMs are fairly complex mixtures whose properties
depend upon molecular interactions which may result
from polarity differences. They can be either minimum or
maximum boiling point ARM’s. Even more complicated
behavior can occur with ARMs. However, factors such
as these are relatively unimportant when considering
their performance in a system. The most important fac-
tor is that they essentially behave as a pure substance
when changing phase.
Examples of how minimum and maximum boiling point
ARMs behave at their azeotropic and zeotropic compo-
sition ratios at constant pressure are shown in Figures
2-1 and 2-2. These figures show the “Dew Line” (the
temperature at which droplets appears as superheated
vapor is cooled) and “Bubble Line” (the temperature at
which bubbles first appear as subcooled liquid is heated)
for mixtures at various fluid temperature and concentra-
tions for one pressure value. At concentrations values
away from the azeotropic value, the components (“A”
and “B”) have different boiling temperature, and the liq-
uid and vapor phases change percentage composition
as the mixture evaporates or condenses.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.

Figure 2-1
Figure 2-2
Examples:
R‑502, an azeotrope of 48.8% R‑22 and 51.2% R‑115
at +66°F, has lower discharge temperatures than does
R‑22 for high compression ratio applications.
R‑500, an azeotrope of 73.8% R‑12 and 26.2% R‑152a
at +32°F, has approximately 15% more capacity than
pure R‑12 and was used to compensate for the capac-
ity reduction arising from using a 60 Hz. R‑12 system
on 50 Hz.
R‑507, a non-ozone depleting azeotrope at -40°F is
50% R‑125 and 50% R‑143a. It is an HFC replacement
for R‑502.
ZEOTROPIC MIXTURE
A zeotrope is a working fluid with two or more com-
ponents of different vapor pressure and boiling points
whose liquid and vapor components have different com-
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
2-2
position when the fluid evaporates or condenses. It is
made of two or more types of molecules. Under constant
pressure, the evaporating and condensing temperatures
change with composition. (See Figure 2-3.) This change
in temperature during constant pressure phase change
is called glide, and varies with the components used and
their proportions. (See Temperature Glide.) The amount
of glide exhibited by a particular zeotrope is a measure
of its deviation from being an azeotrope. By definition,
azeotropes have zero glide at their azeotropic point. At
other conditions, however, they can exhibit glide.
Figure 2-3
Examples:
R‑401A is a mixture of R‑22, R‑152a, and R‑124 which
closely approximates the vapor pressure and perfor-
mance of R‑12. (R‑401A is considered to be a Near
Azeotropic mixture.)
NEAR-AZEOTROPIC REFRIGERANT MIXTURE
A Near-ARM is a zeotropic fluid whose composition is
such that it exhibits a “small” amount of glide. Thus,
“near-azeotropic” is a relative term. (See Figure 2-4.)
Some researchers use a maximum glide temperature
value of 10°F to distinguish Near-ARMs from zeo-
tropes.
R‑404A is a ternary mixture which closely approximates
the vapor pressure and performance characteristics of
R‑502. R‑402A is a mixture of R‑22, R‑125, and R‑290
(propane) which closely approximates the vapor pres-
sure and performance characteristics of R‑502.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXTURES
HOW ARE COMPONENTS CHOSEN?
Components are primarily chosen based on the final
characteristics desired in the mixture. These character-

Figure 2-4
istics could include vapor pressure, transport properties,
lubricant and materials compatibility, thermodynamic
performance, cost, flammability, toxicity, stability, and
environmental properties. Availability of components to
a particular chemical manufacturer may also be a factor
in component selection.
Proportions of components are chosen based on the
exact characteristics desired in the final product. It is
possible to modify the percentage composition and
alter such parameters as capacity, efficiency, discharge
temperature, vapor pressure, etc. Of course, changing
one parameter will likely change others as well. There
must also be a need to balance proportions to guarantee
that a given mixture cannot become flammable, toxic,
or environmentally undesirable under any foreseeable
circumstance, such as leakage.
In many cases, there are computer programs which can
use the properties of the individual components and cal-
culate the resulting mixture properties and performance
with a fairly high degree of accuracy.
MIXTURE BEHAVIOR
When an azeotropic or zeotropic mixture is entirely in
the vapor state (i.e., no liquid is present in the container)
the composition is totally mixed and all properties are
uniform throughout.
When that same mixture is entirely in the liquid state
(i.e., no vapor present in the container), like the 100%
vapor state, the composition is totally mixed and all
properties are uniform throughout.
In a partially full sealed container of a refrigerant mix-
ture, the composition of the vapor and liquid phases
can be different. The degree of difference depends
upon whether the mixture is an azeotrope, zeotrope,
or near azeotrope.
2-3
AZEOTROPE
The percentage of an ARM will be virtually the same in
the saturated region where both liquid and vapor are
in contact with each other, except at the Azeotropic
composition point (See Figures 2-1 and 2-2). At this
point its liquid and vapor components will have the same
boiling point. At this condition each component has the
same boiling point and each vaporizes in proportion to
the amount present in the liquid phase. The resulting
vapor is the same composition as the liquid. The same
is true for the reverse (condensing) process. At other
conditions, however, the percentage composition of
liquid and vapor phases will be slightly different.
ZEOTROPE
The percentage composition of a zeotropic mixture
may be substantially different in the saturated mode
when liquid and vapor are in contact with each other.
This is because there is no unique boiling point for
each component, and they will not vaporize at the rates
proportional to their composition in the liquid state. The
higher vapor pressure component (with the lower boiling
point) will vaporize faster than the lower vapor pressure
component (with the higher boiling point), and result in
percentage composition changes in both the liquid and
vapor phases as vaporization progresses. The higher
vapor pressure component will be in higher composi-
tion in the vapor phase above the liquid. This process
is called “fractionation.”
Near-Azeotropic Refrigerant Mixtures
The percentage composition of the liquid and vapor
phases of a Near-ARM will be nearly identical, due to the
very similar vapor pressure values of each component.
Thus, a Near-ARM behaves essentially the same as an
ARM from this standpoint.
WHAT HAPPENS TO MIXTURE COMPOSITION
DURING SYSTEM CHARGING?
Depending on how system charging is performed (i.e.
with vapor or liquid being removed from the cylinder), the
refrigerant may change phase in the cylinder. Since pure
fluids and ARMs (except as discussed in a previous sec-
tion) do not change composition with changes in phase,
there is no change in composition with these materials
during system charging with vapor or liquid. On the other
hand vapor charging with a zeotropic mixture can result
in significant composition changes due to fractionation
of the components as discussed earlier.
If an entire cylinder of refrigerant is used to charge a
system, then the composition change process has no
effect since the entire contents of the cylinder will go
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
into the system. However, if only part of a cylinder of
a zeotropic refrigerant is vapor charged into a system,
the vapor composition can change substantially during
the process. As a result, only liquid charging (i.e., what
leaves the cylinder) should be used for zeotropes un-
less the entire cylinder is to be used for one system.
Of course, proper protection against liquid ingestion by
the compressor must be provided. This could be in the
form of an accumulator-type device which allows the
liquid to boil and enter the compressor as a vapor or
meters small amounts of liquid into the suction side of
the system. Another choice is the “Dial-a-Charge” type
of charging system, which takes a measured amount
of liquid from the cylinder and puts all of it into the sys-
tem being sure that it goes into the suction side of the
compressor as a vapor.
Since Near-ARMs are actually zeotropes, they also
result in composition changes during charging, but
to a much smaller extent than occurs with zeotropes.
When charging Near-ARM refrigerants, liquid (from the
cylinder) should be used to avoid composition changes
(unless the entire contents is going into the system).
The last few percent of the contents of a cylinder should
not be used as this is when composition changes can
be the greatest.
Guidelines for charging procedures and how much
of cylinder’s refrigerant to use during charging will be
provided by the refrigerant manufacturers.
Azeotropes, as described above behave as a pure
material during boiling and condensing, and do not ap-
preciably change percentage composition.
Zeotropes, on the other hand, do not behave as a pure
material during boiling and condensing, and the percent-
age composition of the liquid and vapor phases can
be different. This characteristic can have a significant
effect on the composition of the refrigerant left in the
system after a leak in the vapor-containing region of a
system, and to the subsequent composition after the
lost refrigerant had been replaced.
The magnitude of this effect depends strongly upon how
much the mixture departs from being an ARM.
Leakage scenarios are discussed later.
TEMPERATURE GLIDE
Figure 2-5 shows how a zeotropic two-component
mixture behaves during change of phase at various
concentrations for a constant pressure. As subcooled
liquid is heated, the higher vapor pressure component
eventually reaches its boiling point and begins to form
vapor. This condition is called the “Bubble Point,” and
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
2-4
is the temperature at which bubbles (flash gas) begin to
appear. The vapor is rich with the high vapor pressure
component. As the temperature increases, more and
more of the high vapor pressure component vaporizes,
reducing its component in the liquid phase. At the same
time, the lower vapor pressure component eventually
reaches its boiling point and begins to vaporize. Finally,
the high vapor pressure component is fully evaporated.
All that is left is the low vapor pressure component
and when the last drop evaporates, the “Dew Point”
temperature is established. This is the temperature at
which liquid begins to appear when the zeotropic vapor
is cooled. The difference between the dew point and the
bubble point temperature is known as “temperature
glide.” It varies with percentage composition of the
components as well as pressure.
Figure 2-5
The practical effect of glide in heat exchangers is that as
the refrigerant mixture flows through the tubing at con-
stant pressure, the evaporating (or boiling) temperature
will change as the composition of the liquid and vapor
phase change. Thus, a constant evaporating tempera-
ture does not occur, even with constant pressure.
The amount of glide varies with the pressure and
percentage composition of each component present
in the mixture. Glide can vary from an imperceptible
amount with a Near-ARM to ten or more degrees F with
a zeotrope. Many researchers consider a Near-ARM to
have glide less than ten degrees F. The glide of many
mixtures is given in Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
Changeover Guidelines and TIP card/PT chart.
In any heat exchanger, flow of refrigerant through the
tubing results in a pressure drop from the entrance to
the exit. Consequently, since the pressure at which
the phase change is occurring is decreasing along the
length of the heat exchanger, the evaporating or con-
densing temperature will decrease as the saturated re-
frigerant moves through the heat exchanger. Of course,
the amount of change in evaporating or condensing
temperature depends upon the magnitude of the pres-
sure drop, but it can be several degrees. The change in
evaporating and condensing temperature which occurs
with today’s pure fluids in many systems is similar to
that which occurs with Near-ARMs due to glide as they
pass through the heat exchanger.
Figure 2-6
A schematic example of how glide with a zeotrope af-
fects temperatures in an evaporator and condenser
in a system is shown in Figure 2-6. As a result of the
composition change as the refrigerant flows through
the heat exchangers, the evaporating and condensing
temperatures decrease. Of course, with Near-ARMs
the temperature change is very slight and probably
undetectable.
As a practical matter, the pressure drop in the evapora-
tor tends to counteract the temperature glide being less
than would be expected at constant pressure conditions.
The effects are additive in the condenser.
WHAT HAPPENS TO REFRIGERANT
COMPOSITION DURING A LEAK?
In a single component refrigerant there is no change in
percentage composition of the refrigerant. In an azeo-
tropic mixture there is virtually no change in percentage
composition of the refrigerant. is very small. Theoretical leakage effect calculations
If a leak occurs in a zeotropic mixture in a portion of an
operating system where only vapor is present (such
as at the compressor discharge or suction line), the
system’s refrigerant composition will not change since
the percentage composition of the vapor is identical to
the mixture and each component will leak at the same
2-5
rate. If a leak occurs in a portion of an operating system
where only liquid (such as in the liquid line) is present,
the composition will not change since the percentage
composition of the liquid is identical to the mixture and
each component will leak at the same rate.
However, if a leak occurs in a portion of an operating
system where both liquid and vapor exist simultaneously
(such as in the evaporator or condenser), “fractionation”
(unequal evaporation or condensing of the refrigerant
in a change in percentage composition between liquid
and vapor phase as discussed previously) will occur and
there can be a change in percentage composition of the
refrigerant left in the system. For example, if a leak oc-
curs in the two-phase potion of the evaporator and only
vapor leaks out, the vapor will be richer in the higher
vapor pressure component, resulting in a change in the
percentage composition of the remaining refrigerant in
the system. If the system is recharged with the original
composition, the mixture in the system can never get
back to the original composition, and system perfor-
mance (such as capacity or efficiency) may change to
some degree. Repeated leak and recharge cycles will
result in additional change. However, in most operating
systems where two phases are present, turbulent mixing
occurs and liquid will leak along with the vapor which
minimizes the effect the vapor leakage effect
It is important to keep in mind that to have a change
in composition in an operating system, the leak must
occur in a portion of the system where both liquid and
vapor phases exist simultaneously, and only vapor
leaks out.
While a system is off, there will be parts of the system
where pure vapor exists and parts where pure liquid
exists, and these locations can change with varying
environmental conditions. Since the composition of the
liquid and vapor phases will be different for a zeotrope
in liquid-vapor equilibrium (as discussed previously), a
leak in the area where vapor alone is present can result
in a composition change in the system. Such a leak
could be significant during the long wintertime off cycle
of an air conditioning system, or during long periods of
non-use for any system.
The effect of such leaks with Near-Azeotropes is
much less due to the fact that the percentage compo-
sition difference between the liquid and vapor phases
(verified by initial laboratory testing) with Near-ARMs
are undetectable, even with several repeated leak and
recharge cycles.
TYPES OF REFRIGERANT
There are many different types of refrigerants avail-
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
able. Several have been in common use for a number
of years. In the United States, because of the Clean
Air Act of 1990 amended, the common refrigerants are
changing. The Montreal Protocol also effects the com-
mon usage refrigerants in many parts of the world.
In early refrigeration applications, ammonia, sulfur diox-
ide, methyl chloride, propane, and ethane were widely
used. Some of these are still used today. Because these
products are either toxic, dangerous, or have other
undesirable characteristics, they have been replaced
by compounds developed especially for refrigeration
use. Specialized refrigerants are used for ultra-low
temperature work, and in large centrifugal compressors.
For normal commercial refrigeration and air condition-
ing applications utilizing reciprocating compressors,
refrigerants R‑12, R‑22, and R‑502 have been used
almost exclusively. These were developed originally by
DuPont as Freon® refrigerants. The ASHRAE numerical
designations are now standard with all manufacturers
of refrigerants
These refrigerants use chlorine as one of the elements
in their composition. The scientific community has de-
termined that chlorine reaching the upper atmosphere
causes a reduction in the upper atmospheric Ozone
(O3). R‑12 and R‑502 are classified as ChloroFluoro-
Carbons (CFCs) and are being phased out in favor of
non Ozone depleting refrigerants. R‑22 is classified as
a HydroChloroFluoroCarbon (HCFC). the hydrogen
molecule allows the chlorine to break down lower in the
atmosphere reducing its Ozone Depletion Potential.
The replacement refrigerants are referred to as Hy-
droFluoroCarbons (HFCs). These refrigerants do not
contain chlorine. R‑134a is the HFC replacement for
medium temperature R‑12 applications. It is not rec-
ommended for use in application at saturated suction
temperatures below -10°F. R‑404A and R‑507 are the
HFC replacement for R‑502 for use in medium & low
temperature applications. R‑407C and R‑410A are the
HFC replacements for R‑22 for use in high temperature
air conditioning applications. R‑410A is a high pressure
refrigerant and is not a retrofit refrigerant for R‑22.
These HFC refrigerants are similar to the CFC and
HCFC refrigerants, however, they are not identical with
respect to pressures, temperatures and enthalpy.
Service Refrigerants
The Clean Air Act of 1990 Amended prohibits the
manufacture or import of CFC refrigerants into the
United States after December 31, 1995. In order to
maintain those systems already in operation using these
refrigerants, the chemical companies have developed
service replacement refrigerant blends. These blends
are an HCFC. They use R‑22 as the base refrigerant
and blend other refrigerants with it to achieve a desir-
able property.
It is desirable to have a service replacement that looks
very much like the CFC refrigerant in the system.
However, they cannot be mixed with the CFC refriger-
ant. CFC refrigerant in the system must be properly
recovered before the replacement HCFC refrigerant is
put into the system.
R‑401A/B and R‑409A are service replacements for
R‑12. R‑402A and R‑408A are service replacements
for R‑502.
NOTE: Not all service replacement refrigerants are
approved for use in Copeland® brand compres-
sors.
Refrigerants Solubility of Water
Table 2-1 lists several comparative properties of refriger-
ants including the Solubility of Water in different refriger-
ants at two different temperatures. We would consider
the 100°F point to be liquid refrigerant entering the TEV

Table 2-1
Comparative Properties of Several Refrigerants

R-12 R-401A R-401B R-409A R-134a R-22 R-407C R-410A R-502 R-402A R-408A R-404A R-507

  Saturation Pressure,
  psig at 70°F 70.2 85.8* 91.9* 106.1* 71.2 121.4 114.9* 200.6* 137.6 160.4* 135.1* 147.5* 153.6

  Boiling Point, °F, at

  14.7 psia (Standard
  Atmospheric Pressure) -21.6 -27.3** -30.41** -29.6** -14.9 -41.4 -46.4** -69.9** -49.8 -56.5** -46.7** -51.6** -52.1

  Liquid Density, lb./ft3

  at 70°F 82.7 75.4 75.2 77.06 76.2 75.5 71.8 67.6 78.6 72.2 80.9 66.5 66.5

  Solubility of Water,
  PPM at 100°F 165 NA NA 1600 1900 1800 NA 2850 740 NA 900 970 970

  Solubility of Water,
  PPM at -40°F 1.7 NA NA 190 NA 120 NA 90 12 NA 100 100 100
NA - Not Available * Dew Point Pressure ** Bubble Point Temperatures

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
2-6
 Table 2-2
Comparative Refrigeration Effect

R-12 R-401A R-401B R-409A R-134a R-22 R-407C R-410A R-502 R-402A R-408A R-404A R-507

  Evaporating Pressure,
  psig 0.6 2.9 *0.8 *1.9 *3.7 10.2 6.2 26.3 15.5 18.1 13.4 16.3 17.8

  Condensing Pressure
  psig 136 166.1 176.3 140.6 146.5 226 256.6 365.4 246 289.3 252.1 270.3 280.6

  Compression Ratio 9.9 10.3 13.4 11.3 12.5 9.7 13 9.3 8.6 9.3 9.5 9.2 9.1

  Specific Volume of
  Return Gas, ft3/lb 3.03 3.7 4.2 4.1 5.7 2.53 1.6 1.5 1.66 1.4 2.1 1.79 1.69

  Refrigeration Effect
  BTU/lb 53.7 71.7 72.1 68.6 69.5 73.03 70.7 77.3 48.72 51 62 51.8 53.7

* In/Hg
(Data shown at -20°F evaporating temperature, 110°F condensing temperature, 0°F liquid subcooling, 65°F return gas temperature.)
Not all of the refrigerants are recommended at this conditions.

and the -40°F point to be saturated refrigerant in the
evaporator. The concern of the technician should be how
much water can the refrigerant hold before it becomes
free water and causes problems. Ideally there should not
be any moisture in the refrigerant in the system. Proper
installation and service techniques should assure that
the system is clean and dry. This includes the proper
use of a vacuum pump and micron gage.
The table lists the solubility in PPM (parts per million
by weight). PPM may be a meaningless number to the
average technician and installer so let’s equate it to
something more understandable. Filter dryers are rated
in drops of water before they become saturated and
can no longer hold any additional water. ARI (The Air
Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute) standard is that
20 drops of water equals 1 cc or 1 gram by weight.
Table 2-1 lists R‑22 at 100°F having a solubility of 1800
PPM. This simply means that R‑22 liquid at 100°F can
hold up to 11 drops of water per pound before there
is free water. In an Air Conditioning system, when the
refrigerants temperature is lowered to +40°F, the solu-
bility drops to 690 PPM (Not shown in Table 2-1.). This
equates to 6 drops of water before there is free water. In
an Air Conditioning system, the free water will not freeze
but may cause other chemical reaction damage.
When the refrigerant goes through the TEV and its
temperature is lowered to -40°F, the solubility drops to
120 PPM. This now equates to one drop of water per
pound of refrigerant. Once there is more than one drop
of water per pound at -40°F, there is free water in the
system and the TEV will freeze closed.
Comparative Refrigeration Effect
Each refrigerant has different suction and discharge
pressures for the same operating conditions. This
should be expected in that each refrigerant is made up
of different chemicals. It is interesting however that the
compression ratio for the refrigerants is not that dis-
similar. The highest is R‑401B, 13.4:1, and the lowest
is R‑502, 8.6:1.
The Specific Volume (ft3/lb.) of the return gas varies
significantly, with the medium pressure refrigerants
having the largest Specific Volume, the lowest Density.
This equates to a fewer number of pounds of refrigerant
being circulated through the compressor per revolution
of the compressor motor. The Refrigeration Effect is the
pounds of refrigerant in circulation times the refrigerants
Enthalpy.
Table 2-3
Refrigerant/Lubricant Chart
  Conventional Service Blends (HCFC) Non-Ozone
  Refrigerants Depleting (HFC)
Refrigerants
  CFC R-12 R-401A R-134a
R-401B
R-409A
  CFC R-502 R-402A R-404A
R-048A R-507A
  HCFC R-22 R-407C
R-410A
Lubricants
  MO AB POE
POE
AB/MO*
POE/MO*

Table 2-2 lists comparative data for different refrigerants. *AB or POE must be at least 50% of the system lubricant.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
2-7
Again note that each refrigerant has its own Refrigera-
tion Effect. The Density of each refrigerant is different
as is the Enthalpy of each refrigerant different. Note that
the service blends have a higher Refrigeration Effect
than their CFC counter parts. It is for this reason that
many systems using the service blends do not need as
much refrigerant in circulation as they did with the CFCs
that were removed.
Each chemical company can provide the information
for the refrigerants they manufacture. The form of the
information may be in print per the examples shown at
the end of this section in Figures 2-4, 2-5 and 2-6 or
may be on a computer disc.
Refrigerants and Lubricants
Table 2-3 is a cross reference of the various refrigerants
as one goes from the Conventional Refrigerants, to the
Service Blends, to the Non Ozone Depleting Refriger-
ants. It also lists the types of lubricants recommended
for use with each category. A description of each refrig-
erant and its application follows.
Because the mineral oil (MO) used for so many years in
air conditioning and refrigeration systems has miscibility
issues with the service blends and HFC refrigerants, the
proper lubricant approved by Emerson Climate Tech-
nologies, Inc. must be used with each type of refriger-
ant. (Refer to Application Engineering Bulletin 17-1248,
Refrigerant Oils.) Later in this section the refrigerant-oil
relationship is discussed.
REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerant 12
Refrigerant 12 is a pure fluid and is categorized as a
ChloroFluoroCarbon (CFC). It has been widely used in
household and commercial refrigeration and air con-
ditioning. At temperatures below its boiling point it is a
clear, almost colorless liquid. It is not toxic or irritating,
and is suitable for high, medium, and low temperature
applications. Refrigerant 12 has been determined to
cause the depletion of the upper atmosphere Ozone (O3)
layer when it reaches the upper atmosphere. It has been
assigned an Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) of 1. All
other refrigerants ODP is measured against R‑12. R‑12
primary ingredients are chlorine, fluorine, and carbon.
The chlorine has been determined to cause the ozone
depletion. New R‑12 cannot be produced or brought
into the United States after December 31, 1995. The
result should cause the use of this refrigerant to diminish
quickly after that date.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
2-8
REFRIGERANT R‑401A/B
Refrigerants R‑401A and R‑401B are zeotropic HCFC
blends. They are the service replacements for R‑12
These refrigerants are a blend of R‑22, R‑124 and
R‑152a. The difference between the two is the percent-
age of each refrigerant in the blend. (R‑401A, 53%
R‑22, 13% R‑152a, 34% R‑124) (R‑401B, 61% R‑22,
11% R‑152a, 28% R‑124) R‑401A is the high and me-
dium temperature service replacement for R‑12 and
R‑401B is the low temperature service replacement.
Because these refrigerants are not as miscible with
mineral oil in the vapor state, Emerson Climate Tech-
nologies, Inc. recommends an approved Alkyl Benzene
(AB) lubricant be used with R‑401A/B. The AB lubricant
must be at least 50% of the lubricant in the system.
The Ozone Depletion Factor of R‑401 A/B is 0.030
and 0.035 respectively. The glide is 9.5°F and 8.8°F
respectively. The Enthalpy of these blends is ap-
proximately 25% greater than R‑12, and as such, the
system charge may be as much as 15% less than the
R‑12 charge. The systems pressure will be higher than
the R‑12 pressures and the discharge temperature will
be lower. Even though the system may require less
refrigerant than the original refrigerant charge, systems
using a TEV must be recharged to insure a full column
of liquid at the TEV.
REFRIGERANT R‑409A
Like refrigerants R‑401A/B, refrigerant R‑409A is a zeo-
tropic HCFC blend. It is considered to be a medium/low
temperature Service Replacement refrigerant for R‑12.
It is a blend of R‑22, R‑124 and R‑142b. The glide for
R‑409A is 14°F. Because it is less miscible in mineral
oil, an approved AB lubricant must be used. The AB
lubricant must be at least 50% or more of the lubricant
in the system. The pressures and temperatures in the
system will be different than when using R‑12.
REFRIGERANT 134a
Refrigerant R‑134a is a pure fluid and is categorized
as an HydroFluoroCarbon (HFC). It is the medium and
high temperature replacement for R‑12. Like R‑12, at
temperatures below its boiling point, it is a clear color-
less liquid. Its basic chemical components are Hydro-
gen, Fluorine, and Carbon. With the chlorine element
removed, its Ozone depletion factor is 0. Unlike R‑12,
R‑134a is not recommended for use in systems where
the saturated suction temperature is below -10°F. The
saturated suction pressure of R‑134a compared to R‑12
is similar. The discharge pressure will be higher there-
fore the compressors compression ratio will be greater.
Compressor displacements for R‑134a will be similar to
those for R‑12. Unlike R‑12, it is not miscible in mineral
oil. R‑134a requires the lubricant in the compressor/sys-
tem be an approved Polyol Ester (POE). R‑134a is a
single element compound. (Refer to Emerson Climate
Technologies, Inc. Application Engineering Bulletins for
the listing of approved lubricants.)
REFRIGERANT 22
Refrigerant 22 in most of its physical characteristics is
similar to R‑12. However, it has much higher saturation
pressures than R‑12 for equivalent temperatures. It has
a much greater latent heat of evaporation, and a lower
specific volume. For a given volume of saturated refrig-
erant vapor, R‑22 has greater refrigerating capacity. This
allows the use of smaller compressor displacements,
resulting in smaller compressors for performance com-
parable with R‑12. Where size and economy are critical
factors, such as package air conditioning units, R‑22 is
widely used. R‑22 is categorized as an HCFC. Its com-
ponents are hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, and carbon.
Because it contains chlorine, it has an Ozone Depletion
Factor of .05 and it will ultimately be phased out under
the rules of the Clean Air Act of 1990 Amended.
Because of its characteristics at low evaporating tem-
peratures and it’s high compression ratios, the tempera-
ture of the compressed R‑22 vapor becomes so high
it can cause damage to the compressor. In the past,
Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. recommended
R‑22 in single stage systems for high and medium tem-
perature applications only. It can however be used in
low temperature single stage systems only when using
Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. patented Demand
Cooling® system or some method of de-superheating
before the refrigerant is compressed. It can also be
used in low temperature and ultra-low applications in
multi-stage systems where the vapor temperature can
be adequately controlled. R‑22 is a single element
compound.
REFRIGERANT 502
Refrigerant 502 is an azeotropic mixture of R‑22 and
R‑115. Its azeotropic rating point is at +66°F. In most
physical characteristics, R‑502 is similar to R‑12 and
R‑22. While its latent heat of evaporation is not as high
as either R‑12 or R‑22, its vapor is much heavier, or to
describe it differently, its specific volume is much less.
For a given compressor displacement, its refrigerat-
ing capacity is comparable to that of R‑22, and at low
temperatures is a little greater. As with R‑22, a com-
pressor with a smaller displacement may be used for
performance equivalent to R‑12. Because of its excellent
low temperature characteristics, R‑502 has been well
suited for low temperature refrigeration applications. It
2-9
has been the refrigerant of choice for all single stage
applications where the evaporating temperature is 0°F
or below. It has also been very satisfactory for use in two
stage systems for ultra low temperature applications.
It gained popularity for use in the medium temperature
range.
Like refrigerant R 12, R‑502 is considered to be a CFC.
The R‑115 used to make the azeotropic blend is a CFC.
It is this component that makes R‑502 a CFC. Like
R‑12, its production and import into the United States
is banned after December 31, 1995. Its Ozone Deple-
tion Factor is 0.3.
REFRIGERANT R‑402A
Like refrigerants R‑401A/B, R‑402A is a Zeotropic HCFC
blend. It is considered to be a Service Replacement
refrigerant for R‑502. It is a blend of R‑22, R‑125, and
R‑290. Its enthalpy is similar to R‑502 therefore the
system charge will be the same. The glide for R‑402A
is 2.8°F. AB lubricant is recommended for use with this
refrigerant and must be at least 50% or more of the
lubricant in the system. The system pressures will be
higher than with R‑502, however the discharge tem-
perature will be lower.
REFRIGERANT R‑408A
Refrigerant R‑408A is a zeotropic Service Replace-
ment HCFC blend alternative for R‑502A. It is a blend
of R‑22, R‑125 and R‑143A. Its enthalpy is similar to
R‑502 therefore the systems charge will be the same.
The glide for R‑408A is 1.0°F. Because it is less miscible
in mineral oil, it is recommended that an AB lubricant be
used. The AB lubricant must be at least 50% or more
of the lubricant in the system. The systems pressures
and temperatures will be different.
REFRIGERANT 404A
Refrigerant R‑404A is a zeotropic blend of three refrig-
erants and is one of two refrigerants considered to be
the HFC replacement for R‑502. The three refrigerants
are R‑125, R‑143a, and R‑134a. R‑404A has an Ozone
Depletion Factor of 0. Like R‑502, it is an excellent re-
frigerant for low and medium temperature applications. It
has performance characteristics similar to R‑502 except
that it is not miscible with mineral oil. Like R‑134a, an ap-
proved POE lubricants must be used with R‑404A. The
system must have less than 5% residual mineral oil.
The saturated suction pressures will be similar to R‑502.
The discharge pressures will however be higher than
R‑502. The compressors discharge temperature will
be lower when using R‑404A as compared to R‑502.
Because R‑404A is a zeotrope, the three refrigerants
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
that make up it composition do not boil at the same
temperature at a specific pressure. Its glide is 0.8°F.
REFRIGERANT 507
Refrigerant R‑507 is another HFC replacement for
R‑502. Like R‑404A, it has an Ozone Depletion Factor
of 0. This refrigerant is an azeotropic blend made up
of R‑125 and R‑143a. At its azeotropic rating point it is
a true azeotrope. Like R‑404A, R‑507 is not miscible
in mineral oil and an approved POE lubricant must be
used when the system is using R‑507.
R‑507 saturated suction pressures will be similar to
R‑502, however its discharge pressures will be higher
than R‑502. The discharge temperature will be a little
lower than R‑502.
REFRIGERANT SATURATION TEMPERATURE
At normal room temperatures, the above refrigerants
can exist only as a vapor unless they are pressurized.
Their boiling points at atmospheric pressure are below
0°F (See Table 2-1). Therefore, refrigerants are always
stored and transported in special pressure resistant
drums. As long as both liquid and vapor are present
in a closed system, and there is no external pressure
influence, the refrigerant will evaporate or condense as
a function of the surrounding temperature. Evaporation
or condensation will continue until the saturation pres-
sure and temperature corresponding to the surrounding
temperature is reached. When this occurs, heat transfer
will no longer take place. A decrease in the surrounding
temperature will allow heat to flow out of the refrigerant.
This will cause the refrigerant to condense and lower the
pressure. An increase in the surrounding temperature
will cause heat to flow into the refrigerant. This will cause
the refrigerant to evaporate, and raise the pressure.
Understanding this principle, and by knowing the
surrounding temperature, the refrigerants saturation
pressure is known. Conversely, knowing the refriger-
ants saturation pressure, the refrigerants temperature
is known.
REFRIGERANT EVAPORATION
Presume the refrigerant is enclosed in a refrigeration
system and it’s temperature is equalized with the sur-
rounding temperature. If the pressure in the refrigera-
tion system is lowered, the saturation temperature (the
boiling point) will be lowered. The temperature of the
liquid refrigerant is now above its boiling point. It will
immediately start to boil absorbing heat. In the process,
the temperature of the remaining liquid will be reduced.
Vapor (flash gas) will occur as the change of state
takes place. Heat will now flow into the refrigeration
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
2-10
system from outside of the refrigerant system. This oc-
curs because the refrigerants temperature decreased.
Boiling will continue until the surrounding temperature
is reduced to the saturation temperature of the refriger-
ant, or until the pressure in the system again rises to
the equivalent saturation pressure of the surrounding
temperature. If a means, a compressor, is provided to re-
move the refrigerant vapor so that the system pressure
will not increase, and at the same time liquid refrigerant
is fed into the system, continuous refrigeration will take
place. This is the process that occurs in a refrigeration
or air conditioning system evaporator.
REFRIGERANT CONDENSATION
Presume the refrigerant is enclosed in a refrigeration
system and its temperature is equalized with the sur-
rounding temperature. If hot refrigerant vapor is pumped
into the system, the pressure in the refrigeration system
will be increased and its saturation temperature, boiling
point, will be raised.
Heat will be transferred from the incoming hot vapor
to the refrigerant liquid and the walls of the system.
The temperature of the refrigerant vapor will fall to its
condensing, saturation temperature, and condensa-
tion will begin. Heat from the refrigerants latent heat of
condensation flows from the system to the surrounding
temperature until the pressure in the system is lowered
to the equivalent of the saturation pressure of the sur-
rounding temperature. If a means, the compressor, is
provided to maintain a supply of hot, high pressure re-
frigerant vapor, while at the same time liquid refrigerant
is drawn off, continuous condensation will take place.
This is the process taking place in a refrigeration and
air conditioning system condenser.
REFRIGERANT-OIL RELATIONSHIPS
In reciprocating and scroll compressors, refrigerant and
lubricant mix continuously. Refrigerant gases are soluble
in the lubricant at most temperatures and pressures. The
liquid refrigerant and the lubricant can be completely
miscible, existing as a single phase mixture. Separa-
tion of the lubricant and liquid refrigerant into separate
layers, two phases, can occur. This generally occurs
over a specific range of temperature and composition.
This separation occurs at low temperatures, during
off-cycles. It occurs in the compressor sump and other
places such as accumulators, receivers and oil separa-
tors. In the two phase state, the denser liquid refrigerant
is underneath the less dense lubricant. This separation
does not necessarily affect the lubricating ability of the
lubricant but it may create problems in properly supply-
ing lubricant to the working parts. Those compressors
with oil pumps have their pickup low in the crankcase.
This will not allow the less dense lubricant to be picked
up when the mixture is in the two phase state. Accumu-
lators, receivers and oil separators also pick up liquid
low in the component. The location and size of the oil
pick up hole is critical. It is imperative that the lubricant
return to the compressor is not delayed. The industry
has had a successful experience with R‑12, R‑22 and
R‑502 refrigerants and mineral oils. The experience
with POEs and HFCs has not been as extensive but
has been very successful.
The new chlorine-free HFC refrigerants are more polar
than the current CFC/HCFC refrigerants. The result is
that mineral oils are not miscible with the HFC refriger-
ants. Polyol Ester (POE) lubricants are more polar than
the mineral oils. This polarity of the POE and HFCs
make the two miscible and as such, POE is the lubricant
to be used with HFC refrigerants. POE lubricants are
synthetic, formed by mixing a specific organic acid with
a specific alcohol and subjecting them to a reaction. The
result is a POE base material and water. The water is
driven off and an additive package is mixed with the
POE to arrive at a unique approved lubricant. Emerson
Climate Technologies, Inc. has approved specific POE
lubricants after extensive laboratory and field testing.
POE lubricants are hygroscopic and want to re-absorb
water. If care is not taken to keep moisture out of the
system, a chemical reaction can occur and produce
some weak organic acids. The recommended maximum
moisture content in POE is 50 Parts Per Million (PPM).
There should be concern when the moisture content is
in the 50 to 100 PPM range. Should the moisture content
rise above 100 PPM, action must be taken to remove
the moisture. It is important that the engineer and the
service technician understand the need for “clean and
dry” hermetically sealed air-conditioning and refrigera-
tion systems. Proper evacuation techniques and the use
of approved filter-driers with adequate moisture removal
capacity is crucial to avoid system problems.
HCFC Service Blend refrigerants are a blend of HCFC
R‑22 and other refrigerants. The other refrigerants are
of different types and can be an HFC. This blending is
done to achieve a service refrigerant that reacts similarly
with respect to temperature, pressure and enthalpy as
the CFC refrigerant being removed. These blends are
not as miscible/soluble in mineral oil as is the CFC.
Alkyl Benzene (AB) lubricant is a synthetic hydrocar-
bon. Its composition is more polar than mineral oil. This
polar property makes the HCFC service blends more
soluble/miscible in the AB lubricant. Like POE, specific
AB and Alkyl Benzene Mineral Oil (ABMO) blends have
been approved by Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
after extensive laboratory and field testing.
2-11
Since oil must pass through the compressor cylinders
to provide lubrication, a small amount of lubricant is
always in circulation with the refrigerant. Lubricant and
refrigerant vapor do not mix readily. The lubricant can
be properly circulated through the system only if vapor
velocities are high enough to carry the lubricant along.
If velocities are not sufficiently high, lubricant will tend to
lie on the bottom of refrigeration tubing, decreasing heat
transfer and possibly causing a shortage of lubricant in
the compressor. As evaporating temperatures are low-
ered, this problem increases. For these reasons, proper
design of piping is essential for satisfactory lubricant
return. (See Section 18, AE-104)
One of the basic characteristics of a refrigerant and
lubricant mixture in a sealed system is the fact that
refrigerant is attracted to the lubricant. The refrigerant
will vaporize and migrate through the system to the com-
pressor crankcase even though no pressure difference
exists. On reaching the crankcase the refrigerant will
condense into the lubricant. This migration will continue
until the lubricant is saturated with liquid refrigerant.
Further migration will cause the liquid refrigerant to
settle beneath the lubricant.
Excess refrigerant in the compressor crankcase can
result in violent foaming and boiling action, driving all
the lubricant from the crankcase causing lubrication
problems. It can also cause slugging of the compres-
sor at start up. Provisions must be made to prevent
the accumulation of excess liquid refrigerant in the
compressor.
Proper piping and system design for the refrigerants
and lubricants is critical for the lubricant return. The
new HFC refrigerants are relatively more soluble in POE
lubricants than CFC/HCFC refrigerants and mineral oil.
It is important that the engineer and the service techni-
cian understand that mineral oil can not be used with
the HFC refrigerants and only POE lubricants approved
by Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. are to be used
in Copeland® brand compressors.
Refer to Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. Application
Engineering Bulletins for a listing of approved lubricants
and refrigerants
REFRIGERANT TABLES
To accurately determine the operating performance of a
refrigeration system, precise and accurate information
is required. This includes various properties of refriger-
ants at any temperature and pressure to be considered.
Refrigerant manufacturers have calculated and com-
piled this data in the form of tables of thermodynamic
properties. These tables are made available to design
and application engineers and others who have a need
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
for this information.
Table 2-4 is an excerpt from an R‑134a saturation table.
It lists the five major saturation properties of R‑134a,
both liquid and vapor, at various temperatures. Pres-
sure, volume, and density have been discussed previ-
ously. Table 2-5 is an excerpt from an R‑22 saturation
table.
Enthalpy is a term used in thermodynamics to describe
the heat content of a substance. In refrigeration practice,
enthalpy is expressed in terms of BTU per pound. An
arbitrary base of saturated liquid at -40°F. has been
accepted as the standard zero value. In other words,
the enthalpy of any refrigerant is zero for liquid at -
40°F. Liquid refrigerant at temperatures below -40°F. is
considered to have a negative enthalpy. Refrigerant at
all temperatures above -40°F. has a positive enthalpy
value.
The difference in enthalpy values at different parts of
the system are commonly used to determine the perfor-
mance of a refrigeration unit. When the heat content per
pound of the refrigerant entering and leaving a cooling
coil is determined, the cooling ability of that coil can be
calculated provided the refrigerant flow rate is known.
Entropy can best be described as a mathematical
ratio used in thermodynamics. It is used in solving
complex refrigeration engineering problems. It is not
easily defined or explained. It is seldom used in com-
mercial refrigeration applications and a discussion of it
is beyond the scope of this manual. For our purpose,
the compression process within the compressor is an
Isentropic process.
Figure 2-6 is an excerpt from an R‑404A superheat
table. Superheat tables list saturation evaporating
temperature and pressure in increments of 1 psi, and
tabulate changes in specific volume, enthalpy, and
entropy for various increases in temperature of the
refrigerant vapor or superheat. Since superheat tables
are quite lengthy and are available separately in bound
volumes, complete superheat tables have not been
included in this manual.
SATURATION PROPERTIES
Temperature/Pressure tables are specific to a refriger-
ant. The temperature and pressure columns of these
tables are most usable to a service technician/engineer.
These tables are cumbersome for the average service
person because they generally are multiple pages per
refrigerant. Table 2-7 is an example of the basic pres-
sures and saturated temperatures for refrigerant R‑507
taken from the basic tables. This consolidates the data
into one single table.
POCKET TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE CHARTS
Small pocket sized folders listing the saturation tem-
peratures and pressures of common refrigerants are
readily available from expansion valve and refrigerant
manufacturers. Table 2-8 is a typical example of a
pocket sized chart for refrigerants approved for use in
a Copeland® brand compressor.
A saturation chart for ready reference is an invaluable
tool for the refrigeration and air conditioning technician
or for anyone checking the performance of a refrigera-
tion or air conditioning system. Suction and discharge
pressures can be readily measured by means of
gauges. From these pressures, the saturated evaporat-
ing and condensing temperatures can be determined.
Knowing the saturated temperatures makes it easy for
the technician to determine the amount of superheat
or sub-cooling.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
2-12
 Table 2-4
R-134a
Saturation Properties – Temperature Table
VOLUME DENSITY ENTHALPY ENTROPY
PRESSURE
TEMP. lb/ft3 lb/ft3 Btu/lb Btu/(lb)(°R) TEMP.
°F LIQUID VAPOR LIQUID VAPOR LIQUID LATENT VAPOR LIQUID VAPOR °F
psia
Vf Vg 1/Vf 1/Vg hf hfg hg Sf Sg

90 119.138 0.0136 0.3999 73.54 2.5009 41.6 73.6 115.2 0.0855 0.2194 90
91 121.024 0.0136 0.3935 73.40 2.5416 41.9 73.4 115.3 0.0861 0.2194 91
92 122.930 0.0137 0.3872 73.26 2.5829 42.3 73.1 115.4 0.0868 0.2193 92
93 124.858 0.0137 0.3810 73.12 2.6247 42.6 72.9 115.5 0.0874 0.2193 93
94 126.809 0.0137 0.3749 72.98 2.6672 43.0 72.7 115.7 0.0880 0.2193 94
95 128.782 0.0137 0.3690 72.84 2.7102 43.4 72.4 115.8 0.0886 0.2192 95
96 130.778 0.0138 0.3631 72.70 2.7539 43.7 72.2 115.9 0.0893 0.2192 96
97 132.798 0.0138 0.3574 72.56 2.7981 44.1 71.9 116.0 0.0899 0.2191 97
98 134.840 0.0138 0.3517 72.42 2.8430 44.4 71.7 116.1 0.0905 0.2191 98
99 136.906 0.0138 0.3462 72.27 2.8885 44.8 71.4 116.2 0.0912 0.2190 99
100 138.996 0.0139 0.3408 72.13 2.9347 45.1 71.2 116.3 0.0918 0.2190 100
101 141.109 0.0139 0.3354 71.99 2.9815 45.5 70.9 116.4 0.0924 0.2190 101
102 143.247 0.0139 0.3302 71.84 3.0289 45.8 70.7 116.5 0.0930 0.2189 102
103 145.408 0.0139 0.3250 71.70 3.0771 46.2 70.4 116.6 0.0937 0.2189 103
104 147.594 0.0140 0.3199 71.55 3.1259 46.6 70.2 116.7 0.0943 0.2188 104
105 149.804 0.0140 0.3149 71.40 3.1754 46.9 69.9 116.9 0.0949 0.2188 105
106 152.039 0.0140 0.3100 71.25 3.2256 47.3 69.7 117.0 0.0955 0.2187 106
107 154.298 0.0141 0.3052 71.11 3.2765 47.6 69.4 117.1 0.0962 0.2187 107
108 156.583 0.0141 0.3005 70.96 3.3282 48.0 69.2 117.2 0.0968 0.2186 108
109 158.893 0.0141 0.2958 70.81 3.3806 48.4 68.9 117.3 0.0974 0.2186 109
110 161.227 0.0142 0.2912 70.66 3.4337 48.7 68.6 117.4 0.0981 0.2185 110
111 163.588 0.0142 0.2867 70.51 3.4876 49.1 68.4 117.5 0.0987 0.2185 111
112 165.974 0.0142 0.2823 70.35 3.5423 49.5 68.1 117.6 0.0993 0.2185 112
113 168.393 0.0142 0.2780 70.20 3.5977 49.8 67.8 117.7 0.0999 0.2184 113
114 170.833 0.0143 0.2737 70.05 3.6539 50.2 67.6 117.8 0.1006 0.2184 114
115 173.298 0.0143 0.2695 69.89 3.7110 50.5 67.3 117.9 0.1012 0.2183 115
116 175.790 0.0143 0.2653 69.74 3.7689 50.9 67.0 117.9 0.1018 0.2183 116
117 178.297 0.0144 0.2613 69.58 3.8276 51.3 66.8 118.0 0.1024 0.2182 117
118 180.846 0.0144 0.2573 69.42 3.8872 51.7 66.5 118.1 0.1031 0.2182 118
119 183.421 0.0144 0.2533 69.26 3.9476 52.0 66.2 118.2 0.1037 0.2181 119
120 186.023 0.0145 0.2494 69.10 4.0089 52.4 65.9 118.3 0.1043 0.2181 120
121 188.652 0.0145 0.2456 68.94 4.0712 52.8 65.6 118.4 0.1050 0.2180 121
122 191.308 0.0145 0.2419 68.78 4.1343 53.1 65.4 118.5 0.1056 0.2180 122
123 193.992 0.0146 0.2382 68.62 4.1984 53.5 65.1 118.6 0.1062 0.2179 123
124 196.703 0.0146 0.2346 68.46 4.2634 53.9 64.8 118.7 0.1068 0.2178 124
125 199.443 0.0146 0.2310 68.29 4.3294 54.3 64.5 118.8 0.1075 0.2178 125
126 202.211 0.0147 0.2275 68.13 4.3964 54.6 64.2 118.8 0.1081 0.2177 126
127 205.008 0.0147 0.2240 67.96 4.4644 55.0 63.9 118.9 0.1087 0.2177 127
128 207.834 0.0147 0.2206 67.80 4.5334 55.4 63.6 119.0 0.1094 0.2176 128
129 210.688 0.0148 0.2172 67.63 4.6034 55.8 63.3 119.1 0.1100 0.2176 129
130 213.572 0.0148 0.2139 67.46 4.6745 56.2 63.0 119.2 0.1106 0.2175 130
131 216.485 0.0149 0.2107 67.29 4.7467 56.5 62.7 119.2 0.1113 0.2174 131
132 219.429 0.0149 0.2075 67.12 4.8200 56.9 62.4 119.3 0.1119 0.2174 132
133 222.402 0.0149 0.2043 66.95 4.8945 57.3 62.1 119.4 0.1125 0.2173 133
134 225.405 0.0150 0.2012 66.77 4.9700 57.7 61.8 119.5 0.1132 0.2173 134
135 228.438 0.0150 0.1981 66.60 5.0468 58.1 61.5 119.6 0.1138 0.2172 135
136 231.502 0.0151 0.1951 66.42 5.1248 58.5 61.2 119.6 0.1144 0.2171 136
137 234.597 0.0151 0.1922 66.24 5.2040 58.8 60.8 119.7 0.1151 0.2171 137
138 237.723 0.0151 0.1892 66.06 5.2844 59.2 60.5 119.8 0.1157 0.2170 138
139 240.880 0.0152 0.1864 65.88 5.3661 59.6 60.2 119.8 0.1163 0.2169 139
140 244.068 0.0152 0.1835 65.70 5.4491 60.0 59.9 119.9 0.1170 0.2168 140
141 247.288 0.0153 0.1807 65.52 5.5335 60.4 59.6 120.0 0.1176 0.2168 141
142 250.540 0.0153 0.1780 65.34 5.6192 60.8 59.2 120.0 0.1183 0.2167 142
143 253.824 0.0153 0.1752 65.15 5.7064 61.2 58.9 120.1 0.1189 0.2166 143
144 257.140 0.0154 0.1726 64.96 5.7949 61.6 58.6 120.1 0.1195 0.2165 144
145 260.489 0.0154 0.1699 64.78 5.8849 62.0 58.2 120.2 0.1202 0.2165 145
146 263.871 0.0155 0.1673 64.59 5.9765 62.4 57.9 120.3 0.1208 0.2164 146
147 267.270 0.0155 0.1648 64.39 6.0695 62.8 57.5 120.3 0.1215 0.2163 147
148 270.721 0.0156 0.1622 64.20 6.1642 63.2 57.2 120.4 0.1221 0.2162 148
149 274.204 0.0156 0.1597 64.01 6.2604 63.6 56.8 120.4 0.1228 0.2161 149
Reprinted with permission from E.I. DuPont

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
2-13
 Table 2-5
"FREON" 22
Saturation Properties – Temperature Table
VOLUME DENSITY ENTHALPY ENTROPY
PRESSURE
TEMP. cu ft/lb lb/cu ft Btu/lb Btu/(lb)(°R) TEMP.
°F LIQUID VAPOR LIQUID VAPOR LIQUID LATENT VAPOR LIQUID VAPOR °F
psia psig
Vf Vg 1/Vf 1/Vg hf hfg hg Sf Sg

10 47.464 32.768 0.012088 1.1290 82.724 0.88571 13.104 92.338 105.442 0.02932 0.22592 10
11 48.423 33.727 0.012105 1.1077 82.612 0.90275 13.376 92.162 105.538 0.02990 0.22570 11
12 49.396 34.700 0.012121 1.0869 82.501 0.92005 13.648 91.986 105.633 0.03047 0.22548 12
13 50.384 35.688 0.012138 1.0665 82.389 0.93761 13.920 91.808 105.728 0.03104 0.22527 13
14 51.387 36.691 0.012154 1.0466 82.276 0.95544 14.193 91.630 105.823 0.03161 0.22505 14
15 52.405 37.709 0.012171 1.0272 82.164 0.97352 14.466 91.451 105.917 0.03218 0.22484 15
16 53.438 38.742 0.012188 1.0082 82.051 0.99188 14.739 91.272 106.011 0.03275 0.22463 16
17 54.487 39.791 0.012204 0.98961 81.938 1.0105 15.013 91.091 106.105 0.03332 0.22442 17
18 55.551 40.855 0.012221 0.97144 81.825 1.0294 15.288 90.910 106.198 0.03389 0.22421 18
19 56.631 41.935 0.012238 0.95368 81.711 1.0486 15.562 90.728 106.290 0.03446 0.22400 19
20 57.727 43.031 0.012255 0.93631 81.597 1.0680 15.837 90.545 106.383 0.03503 0.22379 20
21 58.839 44.143 0.012273 0.91932 81.483 1.0878 16.113 90.362 106.475 0.03560 0.22358 21
22 59.967 45.271 0.012290 0.90270 81.368 1.1078 16.389 90.178 106.566 0.03617 0.22338 22
23 61.111 46.415 0.012307 0.88645 81.253 1.1281 16.665 89.993 106.657 0.03674 0.22318 23
24 62.272 47.576 0.012325 0.87055 81.138 1.1487 16.942 89.807 106.748 0.03730 0.22297 24
25 63.450 48.754 0.012342 0.85500 81.023 1.1696 17.219 89.620 106.839 0.03787 0.22277 25
26 64.644 49.948 0.012360 0.83978 80.907 1.1908 17.496 89.433 106.928 0.03844 0.22257 26
27 65.855 51.159 0.012378 0.82488 80.791 1.2123 17.774 89.244 107.018 0.03900 0.22237 27
28 67.083 52.387 0.012395 0.81031 80.675 1.2341 18.052 89.055 107.107 0.03958 0.22217 28
29 68.328 53.632 0.012413 0.79604 80.558 1.2562 18.330 88.865 107.196 0.04013 0.22198 29
30 69.591 54.895 0.012431 0.78208 80.441 1.2786 18.609 88.674 107.284 0.04070 0.22178 30
31 70.871 56.175 0.012450 0.76842 80.324 1.3014 18.889 88.483 107.372 0.04126 0.22158 31
32 72.169 57.473 0.012468 0.75503 80.207 1.3244 19.169 88.290 107.459 0.04182 0.22139 32
33 73.485 58.789 0.012486 0.74194 80.089 1.3478 19.449 88.097 107.546 0.04239 0.22119 33
34 74.818 60.122 0.012505 0.72911 79.971 1.3715 19.729 87.903 107.632 0.04295 0.22100 34
35 76.170 61.474 0.012523 0.71655 79.852 1.3956 20.010 87.708 107.719 0.04351 0.22081 35
36 77.540 62.844 0.012542 0.70425 79.733 1.4199 20.292 87.512 107.804 0.04407 0.22062 36
37 78.929 64.233 0.012561 0.69221 79.614 1.4447 20.574 87.316 107.889 0.04464 0.22043 37
38 80.336 65.640 0.012579 0.68041 79.495 1.4697 20.856 87.118 107.974 0.04520 0.22024 38
39 81.761 67.065 0.012598 0.66885 79.375 1.4951 21.138 86.920 108.058 0.04576 0.22005 39
40 83.206 68.510 0.012618 0.65753 79.255 1.5208 21.422 86.720 108.142 0.04632 0.21986 40
41 84.670 69.974 0.012637 0.64643 79.134 1.5469 21.705 86.520 108.225 0.04688 0.21968 41
42 86.153 71.457 0.012656 0.63557 79.013 1.5734 21.989 86.319 108.308 0.04744 0.21949 42
43 87.655 72.959 0.012676 0.62492 78.892 1.6002 22.273 86.117 108.390 0.04800 0.21931 43
44 89.177 74.481 0.012695 0.61448 78.770 1.6274 22.558 85.914 108.472 0.04855 0.21912 44
45 90.719 76.023 0.012715 0.60425 78.648 1.6549 22.843 85.710 108.553 0.04911 0.21894 45
46 92.280 77.584 0.012735 0.59422 78.526 1.6829 23.129 85.506 108.634 0.04967 0.21876 46
47 93.861 79.165 0.012755 0.58440 78.403 1.7112 23.415 85.300 108.715 0.05023 0.21858 47
48 95.463 80.767 0.012775 0.57476 78.280 1.7398 23.701 85.094 108.795 0.05079 0.21839 48
49 97.085 82.389 0.012795 0.56532 78.157 1.7689 23.988 84.886 108.874 0.05134 0.21821 49
50 98.727 84.031 0.012815 0.55606 78.033 1.7984 24.275 84.678 108.953 0.05190 0.21803 50
51 100.39 85.69 0.012836 0.54698 77.909 1.8282 24.563 84.468 109.031 0.05245 0.21785 51
52 102.07 87.38 0.012856 0.53808 77.784 1.8585 24.851 84.258 109.109 0.05301 0.21768 52
53 103.78 89.08 0.012877 0.52934 77.659 1.8891 25.139 84.047 109.186 0.05357 0.21750 53
54 105.50 90.81 0.012898 0.52078 77.534 1.9202 25.429 83.834 109.263 0.05412 0.21732 54
55 107.25 92.56 0.012919 0.51238 77.408 1.9517 25.718 83.621 109.339 0.05468 0.21714 55
56 109.02 94.32 0.012940 0.50414 77.282 1.9836 26.008 83.407 109.415 0.05523 0.21697 56
57 110.81 96.11 0.012961 0.49606 77.155 2.0159 26.298 83.191 109.490 0.05579 0.21679 57
58 112.62 97.93 0.012982 0.48813 77.028 2.0486 26.589 82.975 109.564 0.05634 0.21662 58
59 114.46 99.76 0.013004 0.48035 76.900 2.0818 26.880 82.758 109.638 0.05689 0.21644 59
60 116.31 101.62 0.013025 0.47272 76.773 2.1154 27.172 82.540 109.712 0.05745 0.21627 60
61 118.19 103.49 0.013047 0.46523 76.644 2.1495 27.464 82.320 109.785 0.05800 0.21610 61
62 120.09 105.39 0.013069 0.45788 76.515 2.1840 27.757 82.100 109.857 0.05855 0.21592 62
63 122.01 107.32 0.013091 0.45066 76.386 2.2190 28.050 81.878 109.929 0.05910 0.21575 63
64 123.96 109.26 0.013114 0.44358 76.257 2.2544 28.344 81.656 110.000 0.05966 0.21558 64
Reprinted with permission from E.I. DuPont

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
2-14
 Table 2-6
R-404A
SUVA® HP62 Superheated Vapor­­ – Constant Pressure Tables
V = Volume in ft3/lb     H = Enthalpy in Btu/lb     S = Entropy in Btu/(lb)(°R)     (Saturation properties in parentheses)
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, psia
16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00
TEMP. (-47.11ºF) (-44.78ºF) (-42.57ºF) (-40.44ºF) TEMP.
°F V H S V H S V H S V H S °F
(2.7271) (84.2) (0.2045) (2.5763) (84.5) (0.2042) (2.4416) (84.9) (0.2039) (2.3206) (85.2) (0.2036)
-40 2.7793 85.5 0.2076 2.6094 85.4 0.2063 2.4584 85.3 0.2050 2.3233 85.3 0.2038 -40
-30 2.8524 87.3 0.2119 2.6786 87.2 0.2106 2.5240 87.2 0.2093 2.3857 87.1 0.2081 -30
-20 2.9253 89.1 0.2161 2.7474 89.1 0.2148 2.5893 89.0 0.2136 2.4478 89.0 0.2124 -20
-10 2.9979 91.0 0.2203 2.8160 90.9 0.2190 2.6543 90.9 0.2178 2.5096 90.9 0.2166 -10
0 3.0703 92.9 0.2245 2.8843 92.8 0.2232 2.7191 92.8 0.2220 2.5712 92.8 0.2208 0
10 3.1425 94.8 0.2285 2.9525 94.8 0.2273 2.7837 94.7 0.2261 2.6326 94.7 0.2250 10
20 3.2145 95.8 0.2327 3.0205 96.7 0.2315 2.8481 96.7 0.2302 2.6938 96.6 0.2291 20
30 3.2864 98.7 0.2368 3.0883 98.7 0.2355 2.9123 98.6 0.2343 2.7548 98.6 0.2331 30
40 3.3581 100.7 0.2408 3.1560 100.7 0.2396 2.9764 100.6 0.2383 2.8157 100.6 0.2372 40
50 3.4296 102.7 0.2448 3.2235 102.7 0.2436 3.0403 102.7 0.2423 2.8764 102.6 0.2412 50
60 3.5010 104.8 0.2488 3.2909 104.8 0.2475 3.1041 104.7 0.2463 2.9370 104.7 0.2452 60
70 3.5723 106.9 0.2528 3.3582 106.8 0.2515 3.1678 106.8 0.2503 2.9975 106.7 0.2491 70
80 3.6435 109.0 0.2567 3.4253 108.9 0.2554 3.2313 108.9 0.2542 3.0578 108.8 0.2530 80
90 3.7146 111.1 0.2606 3.4923 111.0 0.2593 3.2948 111.0 0.2581 3.1180 111.0 0.2569 90
100 3.7855 113.2 0.2644 3.5593 113.2 0.2631 3.3581 113.1 0.2619 3.1782 113.1 0.2608 100
110 3.8564 115.4 0.2682 3.6261 115.3 0.2670 3.4214 115.3 0.2658 3.2382 115.3 0.2646 110
120 3.9272 117.6 0.2721 3.6928 117.5 0.2708 3.4845 117.5 0.2696 3.2981 117.5 0.2684 120
130 3.9978 119.8 0.2758 3.7595 119.7 0.2746 3.5476 119.7 0.2734 3.3580 119.7 0.2722 130
140 4.0685 122.0 0.2796 3.8260 122.0 0.2783 3.6105 121.9 0.2771 3.4177 121.9 0.2760 140
150 4.1390 124.3 0.2833 3.8925 124.2 0.2821 3.6734 124.2 0.2809 3.4774 124.2 0.2797 150
160 4.2094 126.5 0.2870 3.9589 126.5 0.2858 3.7363 126.5 0.2846 3.5370 126.4 0.2834 160
170 4.2798 128.8 0.2907 4.0253 128.8 0.2894 3.7990 128.8 0.2883 3.5966 128.8 0.2871 170
180 4.3502 131.2 0.2944 4.0916 131.1 0.2931 3.8617 131.1 0.2919 3.6561 131.1 0.2908 180
190 4.4204 133.5 0.2980 4.1578 133.5 0.2967 3.9244 133.5 0.2956 3.7155 133.4 0.2944 190
200 4.4906 135.9 0.3016 4.2240 135.8 0.3004 3.9869 135.8 0.2992 3.7748 135.8 0.2980 200
210 4.5608 138.3 0.3052 4.2901 138.2 0.3040 4.0495 138.2 0.3028 3.8342 138.2 0.3016 210
220 4.6309 140.7 0.3088 4.3561 140.6 0.3075 4.1119 140.6 0.3063 3.8934 140.6 0.3052 220
230 4.7009 143.1 0.3123 4.4221 143.1 0.3111 4.1743 143.1 0.3099 3.9526 143.0 0.3088 230
240 4.7709 145.6 0.3159 4.4881 145.5 0.3146 4.2367 145.5 0.3134 4.0118 145.5 0.3123 240
250 4.8409 148.0 0.3194 4.5540 148.0 0.3181 4.2990 148.0 0.3169 4.0709 148.0 0.3158 250
260 4.9108 150.5 0.3229 4.6199 150.5 0.3216 4.3613 150.5 0.3204 4.1299 150.5 0.3193 260
20.00 21.00 22.00 23.00
TEMP. (-38.40ºF) (-36.44ºF) (-34.55ºF) (-32.73ºF) TEMP.
°F V H S V H S V H S V H S °F
(2.2112) (85.5) (0.2034) (2.1119) (85.8) (0.2032) (2.0213) (86.1) (0.2029) (1.9383) (86.4) (0.2027)
-30 2.2612 87.1 0.2070 2.1485 87.0 0.2059 2.0461 87.0 0.2049 1.9525 86.9 0.2039 -30
-20 2.3204 88.9 0.2113 2.2051 88.9 0.2102 2.1003 88.8 0.2092 2.0046 88.8 0.2082 -20
-10 2.3793 90.8 0.2155 2.2615 90.8 0.2145 2.1543 90.7 0.2134 2.0565 90.7 0.2125 -10
0 2.4380 92.7 0.2197 2.3176 92.7 0.2186 2.2081 92.6 0.2176 2.1081 92.6 0.2167 0
10 2.4966 94.6 0.2239 2.3735 94.6 0.2228 2.2616 94.5 0.2218 2.1594 94.5 0.2208 10
20 2.5549 96.6 0.2280 2.4292 96.5 0.2269 2.3150 96.5 0.2259 2.2106 96.5 0.2249 20
30 2.6130 98.6 0.2320 2.4848 98.5 0.2310 2.3681 98.5 0.2300 2.2617 98.4 0.2290 30
40 2.6710 100.6 0.2361 2.5401 100.5 0.2350 2.4212 100.5 0.2340 2.3125 100.4 0.2331 40
50 2.7289 102.6 0.2401 2.5954 102.5 0.2391 2.4740 102.5 0.2381 2.3632 102.5 0.2371 50
60 2.7866 104.6 0.2441 2.6505 104.6 0.2430 2.5267 104.6 0.2420 2.4138 104.5 0.2411 60
70 2.8442 106.7 0.2480 2.7054 106.7 0.2470 2.5793 106.6 0.2460 2.4642 106.6 0.2450 70
80 2.9016 108.8 0.2520 2.7603 108.8 0.2509 2.6318 108.7 0.2499 2.5145 108.7 0.2490 80
90 2.9590 110.9 0.2558 2.8150 110.9 0.2548 2.6842 110.9 0.2538 2.5647 110.8 0.2529 90
100 3.0162 113.1 0.2597 2.8696 113.0 0.2587 2.7364 113.0 0.2577 2.6148 113.0 0.2567 100
110 3.0733 115.2 0.2635 2.9242 115.2 0.2625 2.7886 115.2 0.2615 2.6647 115.1 0.2606 110
120 3.1304 117.4 0.2674 2.9786 117.4 0.2663 2.8406 117.4 0.2653 2.7146 117.3 0.2644 120
130 3.1873 119.6 0.2711 3.0329 119.6 0.2701 2.8926 119.6 0.2691 2.7644 119.5 0.2682 130
140 3.2442 121.9 0.2749 3.0872 121.8 0.2739 2.9445 121.8 0.2729 2.8141 121.8 0.2720 140
150 3.3010 124.1 0.2786 3.1414 124.1 0.2776 2.9963 124.1 0.2766 2.8638 124.0 0.2757 150
160 3.3577 126.4 0.2824 3.1955 126.4 0.2813 3.0480 126.4 0.2804 2.9133 126.3 0.2794 160
170 3.4144 128.7 0.2860 3.2495 128.7 0.2850 3.0997 128.7 0.2840 2.9628 128.6 0.2831 170
180 3.4710 131.1 0.2897 3.3035 131.0 0.2887 3.1513 131.0 0.2877 3.0123 131.0 0.2868 180
190 3.5275 133.4 0.2934 3.3574 133.4 0.2923 3.2028 133.3 0.2914 3.0616 133.3 0.2904 190
200 3.5840 135.8 0.2970 3.4113 135.7 0.2960 3.2543 135.7 0.2950 3.1109 135.7 0.2940 200
210 3.6404 138.2 0.3006 3.4651 138.1 0.2996 3.3057 138.1 0.2986 3.1602 138.1 0.2976 210
220 3.6967 140.6 0.3041 3.5188 140.5 0.3031 3.3571 140.5 0.3022 3.2094 140.5 0.3012 220
230 3.7531 143.0 0.3077 3.5725 143.0 0.3067 3.4084 143.0 0.3057 3.2585 142.9 0.3048 230
240 3.8093 145.5 0.3112 3.6262 145.4 0.3102 3.4596 145.4 0.3092 3.3076 145.4 0.3083 240
250 3.8655 147.9 0.3147 3.6798 147.9 0.3137 3.5109 147.9 0.3128 3.3567 147.9 0.3118 250
260 3.9217 150.4 0.3182 3.7333 150.4 0.3172 3.5620 150.4 0.3163 3.4057 150.4 0.3153 260
270 3.9779 152.9 0.3217 3.7868 152.9 0.3207 3.6132 152.9 0.3197 3.4546 152.9 0.3188 270
Reprinted with permission from E.I. DuPont
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
2-15
 R-507
Pressure/Temperature Chart

Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor

Pressure Temperature Pressure Temperature Pressure Temperature Pressure Temperature
PSIG °F PSIG °F PSIG °F PSIG °F

0 -52.1 45 9 90 40.1 235 97.5

1 -49.7 46 9.9 91 40.7 240 99
2 -47.3 47 10.7 92 41.2 245 100.4
3 -46 48 11.6 93 41.8 250 101.8
4 -43 49 12.3 94 42.4 255 103.2

5 -41 50 13.1 95 42.9 260 104.6
6 -39 51 14 96 43.4 265 105.9
7 -37 52 14.8 97 44 270 107.2
8 -35.3 53 15.6 98 44.5 275 108.6
9 -33.5 54 16.4 99 45.1 280 109.8

10 -31.8 55 17.2 100 45.6 285 111.1

11 -30.2 56 17.9 101 46.1 290 112.4
12 -28.6 57 18.7 102 46.7 295 113.6
13 -27 58 19.4 103 47.2 300 114.8
14 -25.5 59 20.2 104 47.7 305 116

15 -24 60 20.9 105 48.2 310 117.2

16 -22.6 61 21.6 106 48.7 315 118.4
17 -21.2 62 22.3 107 49.2 320 119.6
18 -19.8 63 23.1 108 49.7 325 120.7
19 -18.4 64 23.8 109 50.2 330 121.8

20 -17.1 65 24.5 110 50.7 335 123

21 -15.8 66 25.2 115 53.2 340 124.1
22 -14.6 67 25.8 120 55.6 345 125.2
23 -13.4 68 26.5 125 57.9 350 126.3
24 -12.2 69 27.2 130 60.1 355 127.3

25 -11 70 27.9 135 62.3 360 128.4

26 -9.8 71 28.5 140 64.4 365 129.4
27 -8.7 72 29.2 145 66.5 370 130.5
28 -7.5 73 29.8 150 68.6 375 131.5
29 -6.4 74 30.5 155 70.6 380 132.5

30 -5.4 75 31.5 160 72.5 385 133.5
31 -4.3 76 31.7 165 74.4 390 134.5
32 -3.3 77 32.4 170 76.3 395 135.5
33 -2.2 78 33 175 78.1 400 136.4
34 -1.2 79 33.6 180 79.9

35 -0.2 80 34.2 185 81.7

36 0.8 81 34.8
37 1.7 82 35.4
38 2.7 83 36
39 3.6 84 36.6
40 4.6 85 37.2
41 5.5 86 37.8
42 6.4 87 38.4
43 7.3 88 39
44 8.2 89 39.5
Figure 2-7
190 83.4
195 85.1
200 86.7
205 88.3
210 89.9
215 91.5
220 93.1
225 94.6
230 96.1

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
2-16
Typical Pocket Pressure/Temperature Chart
Table 2-8

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
2-17
 Section 3
THE REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Continuous refrigeration can be accomplished by sev-
eral different processes. In the great majority of applica-
tions, and almost exclusively in the smaller horsepower
range, the vapor compression system is used for the
refrigeration process. However, absorption systems are
being successfully used in many applications. In larger
equipment, centrifugal systems are used which basically
is an adaptation of the compression cycle.
Copeland® brand compressors, as their name implies,
are designed for use with the compression cycle. This
section of this manual will cover only that form of re-
frigeration.
SIMPLE COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
There are two pressures existing in a compression
system, the evaporating or low pressure, and the con-
densing or high pressure.
The refrigerant acts as a transportation medium to move
heat absorbed in the evaporator to the condenser where
Thermostatic Expansion Valve
Evaporator
Compressor
TYPICAL COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Figure 3-1
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
3-1
it is rejected. The heat rejected may be given off to the
ambient air, or in a water cooled system, to the cooling
water. A change of state from liquid to vapor and back
to liquid allows the refrigerant to absorb and reject large
quantities of heat efficiently and repeatedly.
The basic cycle operates as follows:
High pressure liquid refrigerant is fed from the receiver
or condenser through the liquid line, and through the
filter-drier to the metering device. It is at this point that
the high pressure side of the system is separated from
the low pressure side. Various types of control devices
may be used, but for purposes of this illustration, only
the thermostatic expansion valve (TEV) will be con-
sidered.
The TEV controls the quantity of liquid refrigerant be-
ing fed into the evaporator. The TEV’s internal orifice
causes the pressure of the refrigerant to the evaporat-
ing or low side pressure to be reduced. This reduction
of the refrigerant pressure, therefore its boiling point,
Filter Dryer Receiver
Condenser
causes it to boil or vaporize, absorbing heat until the
refrigerant is at the saturation temperature correspond-
ing to its pressure. As the low temperature refrigerant
passes through the evaporator coil, heat flows through
the walls of the evaporator tubing into the refrigerant.
The boiling action continues until the refrigerant is
completely vaporized.
The TEV regulates the quantity of refrigerant, (lb/min)
through the evaporator to maintain a preset tempera-
ture difference or superheat between the evaporating
refrigerant and the vapor leaving the evaporator. As the
temperature of the gas leaving the evaporator varies,
the expansion valve power element bulb senses this
temperature, and acts to modulate the feed of refriger-
ant through the expansion valve.
The superheated refrigerant vapor leaving the evapora-
tor travels through the suction line to the compressor
inlet. The compressor takes the low pressure vapor and
compresses it, increasing it’s pressure and temperature.
The hot, high pressure vapor is forced out of the com-
pressor discharge valve(s), and into the condenser.
As the high pressure high temperature vapor passes
through the condenser, it is cooled by an external means.
In air cooled systems, a fan, and fin-type condenser
surface is normally used. In water cooled systems, a
refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger is employed. As the
temperature of the refrigerant vapor is lowered to the
saturation temperature corresponding to the high pres-
sure in the condenser, the vapor condenses into a liquid
and flows back to the receiver or directly to the TEV to
repeat the cycle. The refrigerating process is continuous
as long as the compressor is operating.
HEAT OF COMPRESSION
Heat of compression is defined as the heat added to the
refrigerant vapor as a result of the work energy used in
the compression process. When the refrigerant vapor
is compressed in a compressors cylinder, its pressure
is increased and the volume is decreased. The change
in pressure and volume tend to maintain equilibrium
in the perfect gas law equation, so this change alone
would not greatly affect the temperature of the refriger-
ant vapor. In order to compress the refrigerant vapor,
work or energy is required. Following the first law of
thermodynamics, this energy cannot be destroyed, and
all of the mechanical energy necessary to compress the
vapor is transformed into heat energy. With the excep-
tion of a small fraction of the total heat given off to the
compressor body, all of this heat energy is transferred
to the refrigerant vapor. This causes a sharp increase
in the temperature of the compressed gas, therefore,
in a reciprocating compressor, the discharge valves are
3-2
always subjected to the highest temperature existing
in the refrigerating system. In the Copeland Compli-
ant Scroll®, the discharge port or dynamic discharge
valve will be subjected to the highest temperature in
the system.
The heat which must be discharged by the condenser,
termed the heat of rejection, is the total of the heat
absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator, the heat
of compression, and any heat added to the system due
to motor inefficiency. Any heat absorbed in the suction
and/or discharge lines must also be rejected by the
condenser. For hermetic and accessible hermetic mo-
tor-compressors, the heat which must be rejected in
addition to the refrigeration load can be approximated
by the heat equivalent of the electrical power input to
the compressor expressed in BTU/hr. (Motor watts X
3.1416 = BTU/hr. of heat to be rejected)
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF THE
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual
volume of refrigerant vapor pumped by the compressor
to the volume displaced by the compressor pistons.
The volumetric efficiency of a piston compressor will
vary over a wide range, depending on the compressor
design and the compression ratio.
The compression ratio of a compressor is the ratio of
the absolute discharge pressure (psia) to the absolute
suction pressure (psia). (Discharge Pressure Absolute
÷ Suction Pressure Absolute)
Several design factors can influence compressor effi-
ciency including the clearance volume above the piston,
the clearance between the piston and the cylinder wall,
valve spring tension, valve leakage and the volume of
the valve plate discharge ports. Reed compressors have
from one to three discharge ports per cylinder to allow
the compressors refrigerant to exit the cylinder/piston
area with a minimum pressure drop. These discharge
ports however hold high pressure vapor in them that
cannot be sent out to the system. (See Figure 3-2) To
improve the volumetric efficiency of low temperature
compressors, the number and size of the discharge
ports are reduced. (Figure 3-3) Because the volume
of refrigerant is less in a low temperature compressor,
this can be done with little effect on internal pressure
drop but with positive results in increased volumetric
efficiency and compressor capacity. Compressor effi-
ciency, because of design, is fairly constant for a given
compressor. Volumetric efficiency will vary inversely
with the compression ratio.
Two factors cause a loss of volumetric efficiency with an
increase in compression ratio. As the vapor is subjected
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
to greater compression, the residual vapor remaining
in the cylinder clearance space and in the valve plate
discharge ports becomes more dense. Since it does
not leave the cylinder on the discharge stroke, it re-ex-
pands on the suction stroke, preventing the intake of a
full cylinder of vapor from the suction line. The higher
the pressure exerted on the residual vapor, the more
dense it becomes, and the greater volume it occupies
on re-expansion.
Discus® compressors have less clearance volume
and almost no trapped high pressure refrigerant in the
discharge ports. The Discus® discharge valve seats at
the bottom of the valve plate basically eliminating the
trapped high pressure vapor in the valve plate. This
reduction in trapped high pressure refrigerant reduces
the amount of re-expansion and increases the com-
pressors capacity and efficiency (See Figure 3-4). The
Figure 3-2
Figure 3-4
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
3-3
Discus® compressor is more volumetric efficient than
the same displacement reed compressor and as such
circulates more pounds of refrigerant therefore delivers
more BTUs of refrigeration.
The second factor is the high temperature of the cylinder
walls resulting from the heat of compression. As the
compression ratio increases, the heat of compression
increases, and the cylinders and head of the compressor
become very hot. Suction vapor entering the cylinder
on the intake stroke is heated by the cylinder walls, and
expands, resulting in a reduced weight of vapor entering
the compressor.
Typical volumetric efficiency curves are shown in Figure
3-5. Air Conditioning and refrigeration compressors
are designed with a minimum of clearance volume.
As previously stated, clearance volume is a loss in ac-
tual capacity versus theoretical capacity. The Discus®
High Temperature Low Temperature
Valve Plate Valve Plate
Figure 3-3
Typical low
temperature
Discus® compressor
TYPICAL COMPRESSOR VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY CURVES
Figure 3-5
compressor because of its reduced clearance volume
is more volumetric efficient than an equivalent displace-
ment, horse power, reed compressor
While the volumetric efficiency of each stage of a two
stage compressor would resemble the typical single
stage curves, the overall volumetric efficiency is rela-
tively constant over a wide compression ratio range.
Since the use of a liquid subcooler with the two stage
compressor can increase the capacity so dramatically.
a dotted curve has been added for comparison.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF SCROLL
COMPRESSORS
The volumetric efficiency of the Copeland Compliant
Scroll® is 100%. When the first pocket of the Scroll
closes and captures a volume of refrigerant, all of it
will be swept along in the compression process and
discharged out of the Scroll members to the system.
Unlike the piston compressor, there is no clearance
area, clearance volume, to create losses.
EFFECT OF CHANGE IN SUCTION PRESSURE
Other factors remaining equal, as the suction pres-
sure is reduced, the specific volume(ft3/#) of the vapor
returning to the compressor increases. Density (#/ft3)
and specific volume are inversely proportional, there-
fore the refrigerant density decreases. Since a given
compressor's pumping capacity (CFH) is fixed by its
speed and displacement, the reduction in density of the
suction vapor decreases the weight (#/hr.) of the refriger-
ant pumped, resulting in a reduction in the compressors
capacity (BTU/hr). The loss of capacity with a reduction
in suction pressure is extremely rapid. Since the energy
input required by the compressor to perform its work
does not decrease at the same rate, the BTU/watt ratio
decreases rapidly with a drop in suction pressure. This
reflects in the performance of the compressors per unit
of electrical energy consumed, the Energy Efficiency
Ratio (EER).
In addition to the specific volume of the refrigerant be-
ing reduced when the suction pressure is reduced, the
compression ratio is increased. As stated before, as
the compression ratio is increased, the compressors
discharge temperature will also be increased. For best
capacity performance, operating economy and lowered
discharge temperature, it is most important that refrig-
eration and air-conditioning systems operate at the
highest suction pressure possible for the application.
EFFECT OF CHANGE IN DISCHARGE PRESSURE
An increase in the condensing pressure, commonly
termed the discharge pressure or head pressure, results
3-4
in an increase in the compression ratio. This results in
a consequent loss of volumetric efficiency except for
the Scroll compressor. While the loss of capacity is not
as great as that caused by an equivalent decrease in
suction pressure, it still is severe.
For operating economy and maximum capacity, the
discharge pressure should be kept as low as practical
but should not be lower than the equivalent of 70°F
saturated discharge pressure.
EFFECT OF SUBCOOLING LIQUID REFRIGERANT
WITH WATER OR AIR
When the hot high pressure liquid refrigerant is fed
into the evaporator through the TXV, the refrigerants
temperature must first be reduced to the evaporating
temperature in the evaporator before it can start absorb-
ing heat. This is accomplished by almost instantaneous
boiling or “flashing” of a portion of the liquid into vapor.
The latent heat of vaporization involved in the change of
state absorbs heat from the remaining liquid refrigerant
lowering its temperature.
The resulting flash gas will produce little to no further
cooling. In effect the refrigerating capacity of the re-
frigerant has been reduced by the heat absorbed in
lowering the liquid temperature. If a portion of this heat
could be extracted from the liquid prior to its entry into
the evaporator, the effective capacity of the system will
be increased. This happens because not as much liquid
will flash off to cool the remaining liquid to its desired
temperature.
This can be accomplished by subcooling the liquid re-
frigerant after condensing by means of water or air. If
condensing temperatures are relatively high, capacity
increases of 5% to 15% are easily obtainable. Since
no power is required other than that involved in moving
the cooling medium, subcooling the liquid can result in
substantial savings in operating cost.
EFFECT OF SUBCOOLING LIQUID REFRIGERANT
BY SUPERHEATING THE VAPOR
A suction gas to liquid refrigerant heat exchanger is
frequently used for the following reasons:
1. To subcool the liquid refrigerant sufficiently to offset
any pressure drop that might occur in the liquid line;
to compensate for any heat picked up in the liquid
line preventing the formation of flash gas in the liquid
line.
2. To provide a source of heat to evaporate any liquid
refrigerant which might have flooded through the
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 evaporator, thus preventing the return of liquid re- EFFECT OF PRESSURE DROP IN LIQUID LINE
frigerant to the crankcase.
If the pressure of the liquid refrigerant falls below its
As pointed out in the previous section, subcooling the saturation temperature, a portion of the liquid will flash
liquid refrigerant increases the refrigerating capacity into vapor. This will cool the liquid refrigerant to a new
per pound of the refrigerant circulated. In a perfectly saturation temperature. This will occur in a liquid line if
insulated system with negligible heat transfer into the the pressure drops significantly because of friction or be-
suction line outside the refrigerated space, a liquid to cause of vertical lift. If flashing occurs, the feed through
suction heat exchanger theoretically will increase sys- the expansion valve will be erratic and inadequate for
tem capacity slightly since the heat transferred from the the evaporator demand.
liquid refrigerant to the refrigerant vapor is greater than
the capacity reduction at the compressor resulting from Subcooling of the liquid refrigerant after condensing
the increase in specific volume of the vapor. by an amount sufficient to offset the pressure drop will
insure a solid column of liquid refrigerant at the inlet
EFFECT OF SUPERHEATING THE VAPOR to the expansion valve. At 120°F saturated condens-
LEAVING THE EVAPORATOR ing temperature, 10°F of liquid subcooling will protect
against flash gas forming in the liquid line for pressure
It is essential that the temperature of the vapor return- drops up to those shown in Table 3-1. These are the
ing to the compressor be superheated to avoid carrying maximum allowable that can be tolerated to prevent
liquid refrigerant back to the compressor. It is gener- flashing of the refrigerant in the liquid line.
ally recommended that the minimum superheat value
be 20°F when the system is at low load. If this heat is Table 3-1
added to the vapor inside the refrigerated space, the Liquid Line Pressure Drop
heat absorbed increases the refrigeration capacity, while Press Press Press
the increase in specific volume of the gas decreases the Refrig. Drop Refrig. Drop Refrig. Drop
compressor capacity. These two factors tend to offset (psig) (psig) (psig)
one another, with a negligible effect on capacity.
R-12 21.3 R-22 34.5 R-502 33.9
Heat entering the refrigerant through the suction line R-401A 25.9 R- 38.5 R-402A 41.1
from the ambient air outside the refrigerated space 407C
results in a net loss of system capacity. These losses
may be as high as 10% to 15%. Insulation of the suction R-401B 27.2 R-410A 57.7 R-408A 28.5
line is a worthwhile investment, and may be necessary R-134a 24.8 R-404A 39.4
to prevent the return gas temperature from rising too R-409A 25.4 R-507 41.3
high. This will also prevent the compressors discharge
temperature from rising too high. All of the refrigerants listed in Table 3-1 are slightly
heavier than water. A head of two feet of liquid refriger-
EFFECT OF PRESSURE DROP IN THE ant is approximately equivalent to 1 psi. Therefore if a
DISCHARGE LINE AND CONDENSER condenser or receiver in the basement of a building 20
feet tall is to supply liquid refrigerant to an evaporator
Pressure drop due to friction as the refrigerant vapor
on the roof, a pressure drop of approximately 10 psi
flows through the discharge line and condenser reduces
for the vertical head will occur. This must be provided
compressor capacity. This results in higher compressor
for in system design. (Refer to Section 1 - Pressure &
discharge pressure and lower volumetric efficiency.
Fluid Head.)
Since the condensing temperature is not greatly af-
fected, pressure drops of less than 5 psig have very EFFECT OF PRESSURE DROP IN THE
little effect on system capacity.
EVAPORATOR
However, compressor power consumption will increase
Pressure drop occurring in the evaporator due to fric-
because of the higher compressor discharge pressure.
tional resistance to flow results in the leaving evaporator
For best operating economy, excessively high pres-
pressure being less than the pressure of the refrigerant
sure drops in the discharge line should be avoided. A
at the entrance of the evaporator. For a given load and
pressure drop in the discharge line between five and
coil, the required average refrigerant temperature is
ten psig. should be considered normal. Pressure drops
fixed. The greater the pressure drop, the greater the
over ten psig. should be avoided.
difference between the average evaporator refrigerant
pressure and the leaving evaporator refrigerant pres-
sure.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
3-5
As the suction pressure leaving the evaporator is de- tions, the decreasing efficiency and excessively high
creased, the specific volume of the gas returning to the discharge temperatures become increasingly critical.
compressor increases, and the weight of the refriger- The lowest recommended evaporating temperature
ant pumped by the compressor decreases. Therefore for compressors operating on the simple single stage
pressure drop in the evaporator causes a decrease in compression cycle, is -40°F.
system capacity, and it is important that the evaporator
be sized so that abnormally high pressure drops do In order to increase operating efficiency at low tem-
not occur. peratures the compression can be done in two steps
or stages. For internally compound two stage operation
EFFECT OF PRESSURE DROP IN SUCTION LINE with equal compression ratios, the compression ratio
of each stage will be equal to the square root of the
The effect of pressure loss in the suction line is similar total compression ratio (approximately 1/4 of the total
to pressure drop in the evaporator. Since pressure drop compression ratio for the normal two-stage operating
in the suction line does not result in a corresponding range.) Since each stage of compression then is at
decrease in the refrigerant evaporating temperature in a much lower compression ratio, the compressor ef-
the evaporator. Pressure drop in the suction line can be ficiency is greatly increased. The temperature of the
extremely detrimental to system capacity. Suction lines refrigerant vapor leaving the first stage and entering the
must be sized to prevent excessive pressure losses. second stage may be high due to the heat of compres-
sion. This can result in overheating the second stage
Table 3-2 shows the capacity loss for a typical 7-1/2 cylinders and valves. To prevent compressor damage,
HP compressor as the result of suction line pressure saturated refrigerant must be injected between stages
drop. The table lists the losses for both R‑12 and R‑507 to properly cool the compressor.
refrigerants at a specific saturated suction tempera-
ture. The loss in capacity for an R‑12 compressor for a A two-stage compressor is designed so that suction gas
change of 3 psig., 1 psig. to 4 psig., is 20%. The loss is drawn directly into the low stage cylinders and then
in the R‑507 compressor for the same additional pres- discharged into the high stage cylinder or cylinders. On
sure drop is 12%. Copelametic® two-stage compressors the ratio of low
stage to high stage displacement is 2 to 1. The greater
Table 3-2 volume of the low stage cylinders is necessary because
Suction Line Pressure Drop of the difference in specific volume of the gas at the low
R‑12 and interstage pressures.
Suction Line Figures 3-6 and 3-7 illustrate typical two-stage com-
Evap. Pressure BTU/hr.
Pressure pressors as applied to low temperature systems.
Temp. at Comp. Capacity
Drop Two-stage refrigeration is effective down to evaporator
-10°F 1 psi 3.5 psig 27,490 temperatures of -80°F. Below that level, efficiency drops
off rapidly.
-10°F 2 psi 2.5 psig 25,950
-10°F 3 psi 1.5 psig 24,410 For additional application and service information on
internally compound compressors, refer to Application
-10°F 4 psi 0.5 psig 22,100
Engineering Bulletin AE 19-1132.
R‑507
EXTERNALLY COMPOUND SYSTEMS
Suction Line
Evap. Pressure BTU/hr.
Pressure Two stage compression can be accomplished with
Temp. at Comp. Capacity
Drop the use of two compressors. The discharge of the first
-10°F 1 psi 24 psig 40,400 compressor becomes the suction of the second com-
pressor. (See Figure 3-8) Like the internally compound
-10°F 2 psi 23 psig 39,400 compressor, ideally the first compressor will have twice
-10°F 3 psi 22 psig 37,400 the displacement of the second. However, in the exter-
-10°F 4 psi 21 psig 35,500 nally compound system, it is not critical.
In the externally compound system, the ideal interstage
INTERNALLY COMPOUND TWO-STAGE SYSTEMS pressure absolute, can be calculated. It is the square
As the compression ratio increases, the volumetric ef- root of the absolute suction pressure times the absolute
ficiency of the compressor decreases and the heat of discharge pressure.
compression increases. For low temperature applica-

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
3-6
The externally compound system can have compres-
sors in parallel in either or both stages of the system.
Compressors can have unloaders. Parallel compres-
sors in both stages can be turned on and off to meet
the demands of the low temperature and interstage
pressures.

System With 6-Cylinder Compressor (Without Liquid Sub-Cooler)

Figure 3-6

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
3-7
System With 6-Cylinder Compressor (With Sub-Cooler)
Figure 3-7

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
3-8
 Evaporator

Condenser-Receiver
Assembly

Externally Compound System

Figure 3-8

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
3-9
Low High
Stage Stage
Comp.
Comp.
Low High High
Stage Stage Stage
Cond . Evap . Cond .

Low
Stage
Evap .

Cascade System
Figure 3-9

CASCADE SYSTEMS ants in the separate systems. Refrigerants with

In order to operate satisfactorily at even lower evap-
orating temperatures, and to increase the flexibility
of system design, multiple stage refrigeration can
also be accomplished by using separate systems
with the evaporator of one serving as the condenser
of the second by means of a heat exchanger. (See
Figure 3-9) This type of design is termed a cascade
system, and allows the use of different refriger-
characteristics and pressures suitable for ultra-low
temperature refrigeration can be used in the low
stage system. Cascade systems in multiples of two,
three, or even more separate stages make possible
refrigeration at almost any desired evaporating
temperature. Cascade systems composed of both
single and two-stage compressors can be used
very effectively.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
3-10
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Form No. AE 101 R2 (10/06)
Emerson®, Emerson. Consider It Solved™, Emerson Climate Technologies™ and 1675 W. Campbell Rd.
the Emerson Climate Technologies™ logo are the trademarks and service marks of
Emerson Electric Co. and are used with the permission of Emerson Electric Co. Sidney, OH 45365
Discus®, Copeland Compliant Scroll®, Copelametic®, Copeland®, and the
Copeland® brand products logo are the trademarks and service marks of Emerson EmersonClimate.com
Climate Technologies, Inc.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
Printed in the USA. © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Refrigeration Manual

Part 2 - Refrigeration System Components

 This is the second of a series of publications comprising the Emerson Climate Technologies,
Inc. Refrigeration Manual, and follows Part 1, “Fundamentals of Refrigeration.”

The information included on refrigeration components is general in nature and is intended

only to give a brief description of their operation. Detailed information as to specific products
is available from manufacturers of components and accessories.

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Part II
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Section 4.  COMPRESSORS
Reciprocating Compressors.............................. 4-1
Open Type Compressors................................... 4-2
Accessible-Hermetic Motor-Compressors......... 4-2
Welded Hermetic Motor-Compressors.............. 4-2
Compressor Speed........................................... 4-2
Basic Compressor Operation............................ 4-4
Suction and Discharge Valves........................... 4-4
Compressor Displacement................................ 4-4
Clearance Volume............................................. 4-4
Lubrication......................................................... 4-5
Dry Air Holding Charge...................................... 4-6
Compressor Cooling.......................................... 4-6
Compressor Capacity........................................ 4-6
Two Stage Compressors................................... 4-6
Compressors with Unloaders .......................... 4-7
Tandem Compressors....................................... 4-7
Section 5.  CONDENSERS
Air Cooled Condensers..................................... 5-1
Water Cooled Condensers................................ 5-2
Evaporative Condensers................................... 5-4
Condenser Capacity.......................................... 5-5
Condensing Temperature.................................. 5-5
Non-Condensable Gases.................................. 5-5
Condensing Temperature Difference................. 5-6
Section 6.  EVAPORATORS
Types of Evaporators........................................ 6-1
Blower Coil Construction................................... 6-1
Pressure Drop and Other Factors
in Evaporator Design.................................. 6-2
Evaporator Capacity.......................................... 6-2
Temperature Difference and
Dehumidification......................................... 6-2
Defrosting of Blower Coils................................. 6-3
Section 7.  CONTROL DEVICES, REFRIGERANT
Thermostatic Expansion Valves........................ 7- 1
Other Types of Expansion Valves...................... 7- 2
Distributors........................................................ 7- 2
Capillary Tubes.................................................. 7- 2
Float Valves....................................................... 7- 8
Solenoid Valves................................................. 7- 8
Crankcase Pressure Regulating Valves............ 7- 9
Evaporator Pressure Regulating Valve.............. 7- 9
Hot Gas Bypass Valves..................................... 7- 9
Reversing Valves............................................... 7-10
Check Valves..................................................... 7-10
Manual Shut-Off Valves..................................... 7-11
Compressor Service Valves.............................. 7-11
Schrader Type Valve......................................... 7-11
Pressure Relief Valves...................................... 7-12
Fusible Plugs..................................................... 7-12
Water Regulating Valves................................... 7-12
Section 8.  CONTROL DEVICES, ELECTRICAL
Control Differential............................................. 8-1
Line Voltage and Low Voltage Controls............. 8-1
Low Pressure and High Pressure Controls....... 8-1
Condenser Fan Cycling Control........................ 8-2
Thermostats...................................................... 8-2
Oil Pressure Safety Control............................... 8-2
Time Clocks....................................................... 8-2
Relays............................................................... 8-3
Time Delay Relay.............................................. 8-3
Transformers..................................................... 8-3
1
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Section 9.  MOTORS
Motor Temperature............................................ 9-1
Open Type Motors and Belt Drives.................... 9-1
Hermetic Motors................................................ 9-2
Nameplate Amperage........................................ 9-2
Voltage and Frequency..................................... 9-3
Three Phase Motors.......................................... 9-3
Single Phase Motors......................................... 9-3
Split Phase Motors............................................ 9-3
Capacitor Start-Induction Run Motors
(CSIR)........................................................ 9-4
Capacitor Start-Capacitor Run Motors
(CSR)......................................................... 9-4
Permanent Split Capacitor Motors (PSC).......... 9-5
Dual Voltage Motors.......................................... 9-5
Two Phase Motors............................................. 9-6
Section 10.  STARTING EQUIPMENT AND MOTOR
PROTECTORS
Contactors and Starters.................................... 10-1
Capacitors......................................................... 10-1
Start Capacitors................................................. 10-2
Run Capacitors.................................................. 10-2
Reduced Voltage Starting.................................. 10-3
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Motor Protection................................................ 10-8
Internal Inherent Line Break Protector.............. 10-8
External Inherent Protector............................... 10-9
Internal Thermostats.......................................... 10-9
External Thermostats........................................ 10-9
Current Sensitive Protectors............................. 10-9
Thermotector..................................................... 10-9
Solid State Protectors........................................ 10-9
Fuses and Circuit Breakers............................... 10-9
Effect of Unbalanced Voltage and Current
on Three Phase Motor Protection.............. 10-10
Section 11.  ACCESSORIES
Receivers.......................................................... 11-1
Heat Exchangers............................................... 11-1
Suction Accumulators........................................ 11-1
Oil Separators................................................... 11-2
Dehydrators....................................................... 11-2
Suction Line Filters............................................ 11-2
Vibration Eliminators.......................................... 11-2
Strainers............................................................ 11-3
Sight Glass and Moisture Indicators.................. 11-3
Discharge Mufflers............................................ 11-3
Crankcase Heaters............................................ 11-3
Refrigeration Gauges........................................ 11-4
 Section 4
COMPRESSORS
The compressor has two functions in the compression
refrigeration cycle. First it removes the refrigerant vapor
from the evaporator and reduces the pressure in the
evaporator to a point where the desired evaporating
temperature can be maintained. Second, the compressor
raises the pressure of the refrigerant vapor to a level
high enough so that the saturation temperature is higher
than the temperature of the cooling medium available
for condensing the refrigerant vapor.
There are three basic types of compressors; reciprocating,
rotary, and centrifugal. Centrifugal compressors are
widely used in large central air conditioning systems,
and rotary compressors are used in the domestic
refrigerator field, but the overwhelming majority of
compressors used in the smaller horsepower sizes
for commercial, domestic, and industrial applications
are reciprocating, and this manual will cover only
reciprocating compressors.
4-1
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
The design of the reciprocating compressor is somewhat
similar to a modern automotive engine, with a piston
driven from a crankshaft making alternate suction
and compression strokes in a cylinder equipped with
suction and discharge valves. Since the reciprocating
compressor is a positive displacement pump, it is suitable
for small displacement volumes, and is quite efficient at
high condensing pressures and high compression ratios.
Other advantages are its adaptability to a number of
different refrigerants, the fact that liquid refrigerant may
be easily run through connecting piping because of the
high pressure created by the compressor, its durability,
basic simplicity of design, and relatively low cost.
An exploded view of a typical Copelametic® accessible-
hermetic motor-compressor is shown in Figure 10.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
OPEN TYPE COMPRESSORS
Early models of refrigeration compressors were of the
so-called open type, with the pistons and cylinders sealed
within a crankcase, and a crankshaft extending through
the body for an external power source. A shaft seal
around the crankshaft prevented the loss of refrigerant
and oil from the body.
Although at one time open type compressors were widely
used, they have many inherent disadvantages such as
greater weight, higher cost, larger size, vulnerability to
seal failures, difficult shaft alignment, excessive noise,
and short life of belts or direct drive components. As
a result, the open type compressor has been largely
replaced with the accessible-hermetic and hermetic
type motor-compressor in most applications, and the
use of open type compressors continues to decline
except for specialized applications such as automobile
air conditioning.
ACCESSIBLE-HERMETIC MOTOR-
COMPRESSORS
The accessible-hermetic motor-compressor design was
pioneered by Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. and
is widely used in the popular Copelametic® models.
The compressor is driven by an electric motor mounted
directly on the compressor crankshaft, with both the motor
and the compressor working parts hermetically sealed
within a common enclosure. The troublesome shaft seal
is eliminated, motors can be sized specifically for the
load to be handled, and the resulting design is compact,
economical, efficient, and basically maintenance free.
Removable heads, stator covers, bottom plates, and
housing covers allow access for easy field repairs in
the event of compressor damage.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
WELDED HERMETIC MOTOR-COMPRESSORS
In an effort to further decrease size and cost, the welded
hermetic motor-compressor has been developed, and
is widely used in small horsepower unitary equipment.
As in the case of the accessible-hermetic motor-
compressor an electric motor is mounted directly on the
compressor crankshaft, but the body is a formed metal
shell hermetically sealed by welding. No internal field
repairs can be performed on this type of compressor
since the only means of access is by cutting open the
compressor shell.
COMPRESSOR SPEED
Early models of compressors were designed for relatively
slow speed operation, well below 1,000 RPM. In order
to utilize standard 4 pole electric motors, accessible-
hermetic and hermetic motor-compressors introduced
operation at 1,750 RPM (1,450 RPM on 50 cycle). The
increasing demand for lighter weight and more compact
air conditioning equipment has been instrumental in the
development of hermetic motor-compressors equipped
with 2 pole motors operating at 3,500 RPM (2,900 RPM
on 50 cycle).
Specialized applications such as aircraft, automotive, or
military air conditioning equipment utilize even higher
speed compressors, but for the normal commercial
and domestic application, the existing 60 cycle electric
power supply will generally limit compressor speeds to
the presently available 1,750 and 3,500 RPM.
Higher compressor speeds introduce lubrication and
life problems, and these factors as well as cost, size
and weight must be considered in compressor design
and application.
(continued on p. 4-4)
4-2
 CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COPELAMETIC® MOTOR-COMPRESSOR

4-3 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
BASIC COMPRESSOR OPERATION
A cross-sectional view of a typical Copelametic® motor-
compressor is shown in Figure 13. Following is a brief
description of its operation.
As the piston moves downward on the suction stroke,
pressure is reduced in the cylinder. When the pressure
falls below that in the compressor suction line, the
pressure differential causes the suction valves to
open and forces the refrigerant vapor to flow into the
cylinder.
As the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke and
starts upward on the compression stroke, pressure is
developed in the cylinder, forcing the suction valves
closed. The pressure in the cylinder continues to rise
as the piston moves upward, compressing the vapor
trapped in the cylinder. When the pressure in the
cylinder exceeds the pressure existing in the compressor
discharge line, the discharge valves are forced open,
and the compressed gas flows into the discharge line
and on into the condenser.
When the piston starts downward, the reduction in
pressure allows the discharge valves to close because
of the higher pressure in the condenser and discharge
line, and the cycle is repeated.
For every revolution of the crankshaft, there is both a
suction and compression stroke of each piston, so in
1,750 RPM motor-compressors there are 1,750 complete
compression and suction cycles in each cylinder each
minute, and in 3,500 RPM motor-compressors, 3,500
complete cycles each minute.
SUCTION AND DISCHARGE VALVES
Since the parts of the compressor most apt to require
service are the suction and discharge valves, on
Copelametic® compressors these valves are mounted
on a valve plate which can be removed for easy service
or replacement. A typical valve plate is shown in Figure
10, part number 11.
Most reciprocating compressor valves are of the reed
type, and must seat properly to avoid leakage. The least
bit of foreign material or corrosion under the valve will
cause leakage and the utmost care must be used in
protecting the compressor against contamination.
COMPRESSOR DISPLACEMENT
The displacement of a reciprocating compressor is the
volume displaced by the pistons. Emerson Climate
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Technologies, Inc. publishes the displacement of a
compressor in terms of cubic feet per hour, but some
manufacturers rate their compressors in terms of
cubic inch displacement per revolution, or in cubic feet
per minute. For comparative purposes, compressor
displacement may be calculated by the following
formulas:
Displacement
CFM = π x D² x L x RPM x N
4 x 1728
CFH = π x D² x L x RPM x N x 60
4 x 1728
Cu. In./Rev. = π x D² x L x N
4
Conversion Factors
1750 RPM 3500 RPM
CFH = 60 x CFM 60 x CFM
CFH = 60.78 x 121.5 x
Cu. In./Rev. Cu. In./Rev.
CFM = 1.013 x 2.025 x
Cu. In./Rev. Cu. In./Rev.
Cu. In./Rev. = .01645 x CFH .00823 x CFH
CFM = Cubic feet per minute
CFH = Cubic feet per hour
Cu. In./Rev. = Cubic inch displacement per
revolution
π = 3.1416
D= Cylinder bore, inches
L= Length of stroke, inches
N= Number of cylinders
RPM = Revolutions per minute
1728 = Cubic inches per cubic foot
πD² = Area of a circle
4
CLEARANCE VOLUME
As mentioned previously, the volumetric efficiency of
a compressor will vary with compressor design. If the
valves seat properly, the most important factor affecting
compressor efficiency is clearance volume.
At the completion of the compression stroke, there still
remains some clearance space which is essential if
the piston is not to hit the valve plate. There is also a
great deal more space in the discharge valve ports in
the valve plate, since the discharge valves are on top of
the valve plate. This residual space which is unswept by
the piston at the end of the stroke is termed clearance
volume, and remains filled with hot, compressed gas
at the end of the compression stroke.
4-4
When the piston starts down on the suction stroke, the
residual high pressure gas expands and its pressure
is reduced. No vapor from the suction line can enter
the cylinder until the pressure in the cylinder has been
reduced below the suction line pressure. Thus, the first
part of the suction stroke is actually lost from a capacity
standpoint, and as the compression ratio increases, a
greater percentage of the suction stroke is occupied by
the residual gas.
With high suction pressures, the compression ratio is
low and clearance volume is not critical from a capacity
standpoint. Additional clearance volume is also helpful
in reducing the compressor noise level. Since lower
gas velocities through the discharge ports reduce both
wear and operating power requirements, on Copeland®
brand air conditioning compressors, valve plates are
designed with greater clearance volume by increasing
the diameter of the discharge ports.
On low temperature applications, it is often necessary
to reduce the clearance volume to obtain the desired
capacity. Low temperature valve plates having smaller
discharge port sizes to reduce the clearance volume are
used on low temperature Copelametic® compressors.
LUBRICATION
An adequate supply of oil must be maintained in the
crankcase at all times to insure continuous lubrication.
The normal oil level should be maintained at or slightly
above the center of the sight class.
On all Copelametic® compressors 5 H.P. and larger in
size, and on 3 H.P. “NR” models, compressor lubrication
is provided by means of a positive displacement oil
pump. The pump is mounted on the bearing housing,
and is driven from a slot in the crankshaft into which the
flat end of the oil pump drive shaft is fitted.
Oil is forced through a hole in the crankshaft to the
compressor bearings and connecting rods. A spring
loaded ball check valve serves as a pressure relief
device, allowing oil to bypass directly to the compressor
crankcase if the oil pressure rises above its setting.
Since the oil pump intake is connected directly to the
compressor crankcase, the oil pump inlet pressure
will always be crankcase pressure, and the oil pump
outlet pressure will be the sum of crankcase pressure
plus oil pump pressure. Therefore, the net oil pump
pressure is always the pump outlet pressure minus the
crankcase pressure. When the compressor is operating
with the suction pressure in a vacuum, the crankcase
pressure is negative and must be added to the pump
outlet pressure to determine the net oil pump pressure.
4-5
A typical compound gauge is calibrated in inches of
mercury for vacuum readings, and 2 inches of mercury
are approximately equal to 1 psi.
For example:
Pump Net Oil
Crankcase Outlet Pump
Pressure Pressure Pressure
50 psig 90 psig 40 psi
8” vacuum 36 psig 40 psi
(equivalent to a reading of minus 4 psig)
In normal operation, the net oil pressure will vary
depending on the size of the compressor, the temperature
and viscosity of the oil, and the amount of clearance in
the compressor bearings. Net oil pressures of 30 to 40 psi
are normal, but adequate lubrication will be maintained
at pressures down to 10 psi. The bypass valve is set
at the factory to prevent the net pump pressure from
exceeding 60 psi.
The oil pump may be operated in either direction, the
reversing action being accomplished by a friction plate
which shifts the inlet and outlet ports. After prolonged
operation in one direction, wear, corrosion, varnish
formation, or burrs may develop on the reversing plate,
and this can prevent the pump from reversing. Therefore,
on installations where compressors have been in
service for some time, care must be taken to maintain
the original phasing of the motor if for any reason the
electrical connections are disturbed.
The presence of liquid refrigerant in the crankcase can
materially affect the operation of the oil pump. Violent
foaming on start up can result in the loss of oil from
the crankcase, and a resulting loss of oil pressure until
oil returns to the crankcase. If liquid refrigerant or a
refrigerant rich mixture of oil and refrigerant is drawn
into the oil pump, the resulting flash gas may result
in large variations and possibly a loss of oil pressure.
Crankcase pressure may vary from suction pressure
since liquid refrigerant in the crankcase can pressurize
the crankcase for short intervals, and the oil pressure
safety switch low pressure connection should
always be connected to the crankcase.
During a rapid pull-down of the refrigerant evaporating
temperature, the amount of refrigerant in solution in the
crankcase oil will be reduced, and may cause flash gas at
the oil pump. During this period the oil pump must pump
both the flash gas and oil, and as a result the oil pressure
may decrease temporarily. This will merely cause the oil
pump to bypass less oil, and so long as the oil pressure
remains above 9 psi, adequate lubrication
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
will be maintained. As soon as a stabilized condition is compressors have been developed for increased
reached, and liquid refrigerant is no longer reaching the efficiency when evaporating temperatures are in the
pump, the oil pressure will return to normal. -30° F. to -80° F. range.

DRY AIR HOLDING CHARGE
All Copeland® brand compressors are thoroughly
dehydrated at the factory, and are shipped with a dry air
holding charge. The pressure inside a factory processed
compressor is a guarantee that the compressor is leak
tight, and the interior is absolutely dry. When installed,
the compressor must be evacuated to remove the air
from the system.
Two stage compressors are divided internally into low
(or first) and high (or second) stages. On Copelametic®
two stage compressors now in production, the ratio of
low stage to high stage displacement is 2 to 1. The three
cylinder models have two cylinders on the low stage and
one on the high, while the six cylinder models have four
cylinders on the low and two on the high.

COMPRESSOR COOLING

Air cooled compressors require an adequate flow

of cooling air over the compressor body to prevent
the compressor from overheating. The air flow from
the fan must be discharged directly on the motor-
compressor. Air drawn through a compartment in which
the compressor is located usually will not cool the
compressor adequately.

Water cooled compressors are provided with a water

jacket or wrapped with a copper water coil, and water
must be circulated through the cooling circuit when the
compressor is in operation.

Refrigerant cooled motor-compressors are designed

so that suction gas flows around and through the
motor for cooling. At evaporating temperatures below
0° F. additional motor cooling by means of air flow is
necessary since the decreasing density of the refrigerant
gas reduces its cooling ability.

COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
Capacity data is available from the manufacturer on
each model of compressor for the refrigerants with which
the compressor can be used. This data may be in the
form of curves or in tabular form, and lists the BTU/hr.
capacity at various saturated suction and discharge
temperatures.
It is difficult to estimate compressor capacities accurately
on the basis of displacement and compression ratio
because of design differences between different models,
but occasionally these factors can be valuable in
estimating the comparative performance of compressors
on the same application.
TWO STAGE COMPRESSORS
Because of the high compression ratios encountered
in ultra-low temperature applications, two stage
The suction gas enters the low stage cylinders directly
from the suction line, and is discharged into the interstage
manifold at interstage pressure. Since the interstage
discharge vapor has a relatively high temperature,
liquid refrigerant must be metered into the interstage
manifold by the desuperheating expansion valve to
provide adequate motor cooling and prevent excessive
temperatures during second stage compression. The
discharge of the low stage enters the motor chamber
and crankcase, so the crankcase is at interstage
pressure.
Desuperheated refrigerant vapor at interstage pressure
enters the suction ports of the high stage cylinders, and
is then discharged to the condenser at the condensing
pressure.
See Figures 6 and 7 on pages 3-6 and 3-7 of Part I
for typical two stage systems.

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 4-6
COMPRESSORS WITH UNLOADERS
In order to provide a means of changing compressor
capacity under fluctuating load conditions, larger
compressors are frequently equipped with unloaders.
Unloaders on reciprocating compressors are of two
general types. In the first, suction valves on one or more
cylinders are held open by some mechanical means in
response to a pressure control device. With the suction
valves open, refrigerant vapor is forced back into the
suction chamber during the compression stroke, and
the cylinder performs no pumping action.
A second means of unloading is to bypass a portion of
the discharge gas into the compressor suction chamber.
Care must be taken to avoid excessive discharge
temperatures when this is done.
Copelametic® compressors with unloaders have a
bypass valve so arranged that discharge gas from an
unloaded cylinder is returned to the suction chamber.
During the unloaded operation, the unloaded cylinder
is sealed from the discharge pressure created by the
loaded cylinders. Since both suction and discharge
pressures on the unloaded cylinder are approximately
the same, the piston and cylinder do no work other
than pumping vapor through the bypass circuit, and
the problem of cylinder overheating while unloaded is
practically eliminated. Because of the decreased volume
of suction vapor returning to the compressor from the
system and available for motor cooling, the operating
range of unloaded compressors must be restricted,
and operation beyond established limits can cause
compressor overheating.
4-7
TANDEM COMPRESSORS
It is often desirable to interconnect two compressors on a
single refrigeration system as a means of varying capacity
according to the system requirement. This immediately
introduces lubrication problems, for unless the pressures
in the two crankcases are equalized, the oil will leave
the crankcase having the highest pressure.
In order to solve the troublesome problems of oil
equalization and vibration of connecting oil lines while
obtaining the advantage of interconnected compressors,
the tandem compressor was developed.
Basically this consists of two individual compressors
with an interconnecting housing replacing the individual
stator covers. Since each compressor may be operated
individually, the tandem provides simple, foolproof
capacity reduction with maximum power savings, and
greatly simplifies system control.
The tandem offers a much greater factor of safety than
a single compressor, and allows staggered starting to
reduce inrush current requirements. In the event of
failure of one of the compressors, emergency operation
of the remaining compressor may be continued until
replacement of the inoperative motor-compressor. In
order to provide maximum protection for the system in
the event of the failure of one compressor, a suction line
filter should always be provided in the suction line of
a tandem compressor, and an adequately sized liquid
line filter-drier should be provided in the liquid line.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 Section 5
CONDENSERS
The condenser is basically a heat exchanger where the
heat absorbed by the refrigerant during the evaporating
process is given off to the condensing medium. As
mentioned previously, the heat given off by the condenser
is always greater than the heat absorbed during the
evaporating process because of the heat of compression.
As heat is given off by the high temperature high
pressure vapor, its temperature falls to the saturation
point and the vapor condenses to a liquid, hence the
name condenser.
AIR COOLED CONDENSERS
The most commonly used condenser is of tube and
external fin construction, which dissipates heat to
the ambient air. Except for very small domestic units,
which depend on gravity air circulation, heat transfer is
efficiently accomplished by forcing large quantities of
air through a compact condenser assembly. A typical
refrigeration condensing unit equipped with an air cooled
condenser is shown in Figure 16.
Air cooled condensers are easy to install, inexpensive
to maintain, require no water, and there is no danger of
freezing in cold weather. However, an adequate supply
of fresh air is necessary, and the fan may create noise
problems in large installations. In very hot regions, the
relatively high temperature of the ambient air may result
in high condensing pressures, but if the condenser
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
surface is amply sized, air cooled condensers can be
used satisfactorily in all climatic regions. They have been
used very successfully for many years in hot and dry
areas where water is scarce. Because of the increasing
scarcity of water in densely populated areas, the use
of air cooled condensers will undoubtedly increase in
the future.
When space permits, condensers may be made with a
single row of tubing, but in order to achieve compact size,
condensers are normally constructed with a relatively
small face area and several rows of tubing in depth. As
the air is forced through the condenser, it absorbs heat
and the air temperature rises. Therefore, the efficiency
of each succeeding row in the coil decreases, although
coils up to eight rows in depth are frequently used.
Draw-through fans, which pull the air through the
condenser, result in a more uniform air flow through
the condenser than the blow-through type. Since even
air distribution will increase the condenser efficiency,
draw-through type fans are normally preferred.
Most air cooled refrigeration systems which are
operated in low ambient temperatures are susceptible
to damage due to abnormally low head pressure, unless
adequate means of maintaining normal head pressure
are provided. This is true, especially with refrigerated
truck units parked outdoors or in unheated garages, roof
mounted refrigeration or air conditioning systems, or any
system exposed to low outside ambient temperatures.
The capacity of refrigerant control devices (expansion
valves, capillary tubes, etc.) is dependent upon the
pressure difference across the device. Since they are
selected for the desired capacity with normal operating
pressures, abnormally low head pressure reducing
the pressure difference across the expansion valve or
capillary tube, may result in insufficient refrigerant flow.
This can cause erratic refrigerant feed to the evaporator,
and may result in frosting of the evaporator coil on air
conditioning applications. The lower refrigerant velocity,
and possibly lower evaporator pressure, permits oil to
settle out and trap in the evaporator, sometimes causing
shortage of oil in the compressor crankcase.
Several proprietary systems are available employing
the principle of partially flooding the condenser with
liquid refrigerant to reduce condensing capacity. Some
of these systems result in very stable condensing
pressures, but usually they require a large increase
in the refrigerant charge which may cause problems
in system performance. Controlling the condenser air
5-1
flow by means of louvers is also an effective means of
condensing pressure control. Cycling the condenser fan
is a simple but less effective means of control.
WATER COOLED CONDENSERS
When adequate low cost condensing water is available,
water cooled condensers are often desirable because
of the lower condensing pressures and better head
pressure control is possible. Water, particularly from
underground sources, is frequently much colder than
daytime air temperatures. If evaporative cooling towers
are used, the condensing water can be cooled to a point
closely approaching the ambient wet bulb temperature.
This allows the continuous recirculation of condensing
water and reduces water consumption to a minimum.
Because of water’s excellent heat transfer characteristics,
water cooled condensers can be quite compact. Several
different types of construction are used including shell
and coil, shell and tube, and tube within a tube styles.
Normally the cooling water is run through tubing or coils
within a sealed shell into which the hot gas is discharged
from the compressor. As the refrigerant condenses it
can be fed out the refrigerant liquid line, thus making
the use of a separate receiver unnecessary. A water
cooled condensing unit equipped with a shell and tube
condenser is shown in Figure 17.
5-2
A pressure or temperature sensitive modulating water
control valve can be used to maintain condensing
pressures within the desired range by increasing or
decreasing the rate of water flow as necessary.
Cooling water circuits in compressors with water jackets
and in water cooled condensers may be either series
or parallel as required by the particular application. The
use of parallel circuits results in a lower pressure drop
through the circuit, and may be necessary when the
temperature of the cooling water is such that the water
temperature rise must be held to a minimum.
Occasionally condensers may be damaged by excessive
water velocities or cavitation on the water side of
the condenser tubes. In order to prevent operating
difficulties, care should be taken to follow the installation
recommendations as outlined below:
1. Water velocities through the condenser should not
exceed 7 feet per second. Higher velocities can result
in “impingement corrosion”. This is a condition in which
progressive erosion of the tube can occur due to the high
water velocity washing away the inner oxidized surface
of the tube at points where excessive turbulence may
occur. This can originate with a minute imperfection on
the tube inner surface, but it becomes progressively
worse as the pitting increases.
(continued on p. 5-4)
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Figure No.18 illustrates the type of circuiting normally used on all standard condensing units using city water supply. All water
cooled condensing units are shipped from the factory with the connections as shown above, and water connections must be
modified in the field if parallel circuits are desired.

Figure No.19 illustrates a condenser with parallel circuits connected to a motor-compressor with a straight-through circuit. This
type of circuiting is frequently used when the condensing water is cooled by a water tower . The straight-through compressor
circuit would be used when connecting a motor-compressor wrapped with an external water coil.

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 5-3
Figure No.20 shows parallel circuits in both water cooled condenser and the motor-compressor water jacket. Each water jacket
circuit is connected in series with one circuit of the split condenser. This type of water circuiting is used when a minimum of
water pressure drop is required.
In order to maintain water velocities at an acceptable
level, parallel circuiting of the condenser may be
necessary when high water flow is required.
2. If a water circulating pump is used, install so that the
condenser is fed from the discharge side of the pump. If
the pump were on the discharge side of the condenser,
the condenser would have a slight vacuum in the water
system, and therefore the water would be much nearer
its boiling point. A combination of a localized hot spot in
the condenser together with a localized velocity increase
that might reduce pressures even lower, could result in
triggering a cavitation condition.
Cavitation is basically a condition where a fluctuating
combination of pressure and temperature can cause
instantaneous boiling or flashing of water into vapor, with
the subsequent collapse of the bubbles as the conditions
vary. This can result in very rapid erosion and destruction
of the water tube. Maintaining a positive pressure in the
condenser will prevent this condition.
3. If the condenser is installed more than 5 feet higher
than the outlet drain point of the condenser, a vacuum
breaker or open vent line should be provided to prevent
the discharge line from creating a partial vacuum
condition in the condenser water system. An unvented
5-4
discharge connection with a high vertical drop could
result in cavitation in a manner similar to a pump on
the outlet of the condenser.
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS
Evaporative condensers are frequently used where
lower condensing temperatures are desired than are
obtainable with air cooled condensers, and where the
available water supply may not be adequate for heavy
water usage. The hot refrigerant vapor is piped through
a spray chamber where it is cooled by evaporation of the
water coming in contact with the refrigerant tubing.
Water which is exposed to air flow in a spray chamber
will evaporate rapidly. Latent heat required for the
evaporating process is obtained by a reduction in sensible
heat and, therefore, a reduction in the temperature of
the water remaining. An evaporative spray chamber
can reduce the water temperature to a point closely
approaching the wet bulb temperature of the air.
Wet bulb temperature is a term used in air conditioning to
describe the lowest temperature that can be obtained by
the evaporating process. The term wet bulb temperature
is derived from the fact that a common mercury bulb
thermometer exposed to the ambient air
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
indicates the dry bulb or ambient temperature, while if a
wick wetted with water is placed around the mercury bulb
and the thermometer is exposed to rapid air movement,
the temperature indicated by the thermometer will be the
wet bulb temperature. The difference between the dry
bulb and wet bulb readings is determined by the rate of
evaporation from the wet surface of the wick, and this
in turn is proportional to the moisture content or vapor
pressure of the air. The wet bulb temperature is always
lower than the dry bulb temperature, and for a given dry
bulb, the less the moisture content of the air, the lower
the wet bulb temperature will be.
Since the cooling is accomplished by evaporation of the
water, water consumption is only a fraction of that used
in conventional water cooled applications in which the
water once used is discharged to a drain. Evaporative
condensing is therefore widely used in hot, arid regions
of the world.
Corrosion, scale formation, and the danger of freezing
are problems that must be solved with both evaporative
and water cooled condensers. With both cooling towers
and evaporative condensers, a bleed to a drain must be
provided to prevent the concentration of contaminants
in the cooling water.
CONDENSER CAPACITY
The heat transfer capacity of a condenser depends
upon several factors:
1. Surface area of the condenser .
2. Temperature difference between the cooling medium
and the refrigerant gas.
3. Velocity of the refrigerant gas in the condenser tubes.
Within the normal commercial operating range, the
greater the velocity, the better the heat transfer factor,
and the greater the capacity.
4. Rate of flow of the cooling medium over or through
the condenser. Heat transfer increases with velocity
for both air and water, and in the case of air, it also
increases with density.
5. Material of which the condenser is made. Since heat
transfer differs with different materials, more efficient
metals will increase the capacity.
6. Cleanliness of the heat transfer surface. Dirt, scale,
or corrosion can reduce the heat transfer rate.
For a given condenser, the physical characteristics
are fixed, and the primary variable is the temperature
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
difference between the refrigerant gas and the
condensing medium.
CONDENSING TEMPERATURE
The condensing temperature is the temperature at which
the refrigerant gas is condensing from a vapor to a liquid.
This should not be confused with the temperature of
the cooling medium, since the condensing temperature
must always be higher in order for heat transfer to take
place.
In order to condense the refrigerant vapor flowing into
the condenser, heat must flow from the condenser at the
same rate at which heat is introduced by the refrigerant
gas entering the condenser. As mentioned previously,
the only way in which the capacity of the condenser
can be increased under a given set of conditions is by
an increase in the temperature difference through the
condenser walls.
Since a reciprocating compressor is a positive
displacement machine, the pressure in the condenser
will continue to increase until such time as the
temperature difference between the cooling medium and
the refrigerant condensing temperature is sufficiently
great to transfer the necessary amount of heat. With
a large condenser, this temperature difference may be
very small. With a small condenser or in the event air
or water flow to the condenser has been blocked, the
necessary temperature difference may be very large.
This can result in dangerously high pressures, and it is
essential that the condenser is operating properly any
time a refrigeration unit is in operation.
The condensing temperature and therefore the
condensing pressure is determined by the capacity
of the condenser, the temperature of the cooling
medium, and the heat content of the refrigerant gas
being discharged from the compressor, which in turn is
determined by the volume, density and temperature of
the gas discharged.
NON-CONDENSABLE GASES
Air is primarily composed of nitrogen and oxygen, and
both elements remain in gaseous form at all temperatures
and pressures encountered in commercial refrigeration
and air conditioning systems. Therefore, although these
gases can be liquefied under extremely high pressures
and extremely low temperatures, they may be considered
as non-condensable in a refrigeration system.
Scientists have discovered that one of the basic laws of
nature is the fact that in a combination of gases, each
gas exerts its own pressure independently of others,
5-5
and the total pressure existing in a system is the total
of all the gaseous pressures present. A second basic
characteristic of a gas is that if the space in which it is
enclosed remains constant, so that it cannot expand,
its pressure will vary directly with the temperature.
Therefore, if air is sealed in a system with refrigerant,
the nitrogen and oxygen will each add their pressure
to the system pressure, and this will increase as the
temperature rises.
Since the air is non-condensable, it will usually trap
in the top of the condenser and the receiver. During
operation the compressor discharge pressure will be a
combination of the refrigerant condensing pressure plus
the pressure exerted by the nitrogen and oxygen. The
amount of pressure above normal condensing pressure
that may result will depend on the amount of trapped air,
but it can easily reach 40 to 50 psig or more. Any time a
system is running with abnormally high head pressure,
air in the system is a prime suspect .
5-6
CONDENSING TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
A condenser is normally selected for a system by sizing it
to handle the compressor load at a desired temperature
difference between the condensing temperature and
the expected temperature of the cooling medium.
Most air cooled condensers are selected to operate on
temperature differences (commonly called TD) of 20°
F. to 30° F. at design conditions, but higher and lower
TDs are sometimes used on specialized applications.
Standard production air cooled condensing units are
often designed with one condenser for a wide range
of applications. In order to cover as wide a range as
possible, the TD at high suction pressures may be from
30° F. to 40° F., while at low evaporating temperatures
the TD often is no more than 4° F. to 10° F. The design
condensing temperature on water cooled units is normally
determined by the temperature of the water supply and
the water flow rate available, and may vary from 90° F.
to 120° F.
Since the condenser capacity must be greater than the
evaporator capacity by the heat of compression and the
motor efficiency loss, the condenser manufacturer may
rate condensers in terms of evaporator capacity, or may
recommend a factor to allow for the heat of compression
in selecting the proper condenser size.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 Section 6
EVAPORATORS

The evaporator is that part of the low pressure side of
the refrigeration system in which the liquid refrigerant
boils or evaporates, absorbing heat as it changes into a
vapor. It accomplishes the actual purpose of the system,
refrigeration.
TYPES OF EVAPORATORS
In other types of systems, secondary refrigerants such
as chilled water or brine may be used for the actual
space or product refrigeration while the evaporator is the
water or brine chiller. A complete packaged water chiller,
designed to furnish chilled water for air conditioning or
other cooling applications is shown in Figure 22.

Evaporators are made in many different shapes and

styles to fill specific needs. The most common style
is the blower coil or forced convection evaporator in
which the refrigerant evaporates inside of finned tubes,
extracting heat from air blown through the coil by a fan.
However, specific applications may use bare coils with
no fins, gravity coils with natural convection air flow,
flat plate surface, or other specialized types of heat
transfer surface.

Direct expansion evaporators are those in which the

refrigerant is fed directly into the cooling coil through a
metering device such as an expansion valve or capillary
tube, absorbing the heat directly through the walls of
the evaporator from the medium to be cooled. Figure
21 shows a direct expansion coil of one manufacturer
prior to assembly in a blower unit.

BLOWER COIL CONSTRUCTION

A typical blower coil is made up of a direct expansion

coil, mounted in a metal housing complete with a fan for
forced air circulation. The coil is normally constructed
of copper tubing supported in metal tube sheets, with
aluminum fins on the tubing to increase heat transfer
efficiency.

If the evaporator is quite small, there may be only one

continuous circuit in the coil, but as the size increases,
the increasing pressure drop through the longer circuit
makes it necessary to divide the evaporator into several
individual circuits emptying into a common header. The
various circuits are usually fed through a distributor which
equalizes the feed in each circuit in order to maintain
high evaporator efficiency.

The spacing of fins on the refrigerant tubing will vary

depending on the application. Low temperature coils may
have as few as two fins per inch, while air conditioning
coils may have up to twelve per inch or more. In general

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 6-1
if the evaporator temperature is to be below 32° F. so
that frost will accumulate, fin spacings of 4 per inch or
less are commonly used, although closer fin spacings
are sometimes used if efficient defrost systems are
available. In air conditioning applications, icing of the
coil is seldom a problem, and the limit on fin spacing
may be dictated by the coil’s resistance to air flow.
Since the heat transfer efficiency of the coil increases
with an increase in the mass flow of air passing through
it, high velocities are desirable. However at face velocities
greater than 500 to 600 FPM, water collecting on the coil
from condensation will be blown off into the air stream,
and except for specialized applications, these velocities
are seldom exceeded.
PRESSURE DROP AND OTHER FACTORS IN
EVAPORATOR DESIGN
As mentioned previously, pressure drop occurring in the
evaporator results in a loss of system capacity due to
the lower pressure at the outlet of the evaporator coil.
With a reduction in suction pressure, the specific volume
of the gas returning to the compressor increases, and
the weight of the refrigerant pumped by the compressor
decreases.
However there are other factors which must also be
considered in evaporator design. If the evaporator tubing
is too large, refrigerant gas velocities may become so
low that oil will accumulate in the tubing and will not be
returned to the compressor. The only means of assuring
satisfactory oil circulation is by maintaining adequate gas
velocities. The heat transfer ability of the tubing may also
be greatly decreased if velocities are not sufficient to
scrub the interior tubing wall, and keep it clear of an oil
film. The goals of low pressure drop and high velocities
are directly opposed, so the final evaporator design must
be a compromise.
Pressure drops through the evaporator of approximately
1 to 2 psi are acceptable on most medium and high
temperature applications, and 1/2 to 1 psi are common
in low temperature evaporators.
EVAPORATOR CAPACITY
The factors affecting evaporator capacity are quite similar
to those affecting condenser capacity.
1. Surface area or size of the evaporator .
2. Temperature difference between the evaporating
refrigerant and the medium being cooled.
3. Velocity of gas in the evaporator tubes. In the normal
6-2
commercial range, the higher the velocity the greater
the heat transfer rate.
4. The velocity and rate of flow over the evaporator
surface of the medium being cooled.
5. Material used in evaporator construction.
6. The bond between the fins and tubing is quite
important. Without a tight bond, heat transfer will be
greatly decreased.
7. Accumulation of frost on evaporator fins. Operation
at temperatures below freezing with blower coils will
cause the formation of ice and frost on the tubes
and fins. This can both reduce the air flow over the
evaporator and reduce the heat transfer rate.
8. Type of medium to be cooled. Heat flows almost five
times more effectively from a liquid to the evaporator
than from air .
9. Dewpoint of the entering air. If the evaporator
temperature is below the dewpoint of the entering
air, latent as well as sensible cooling will occur.
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AND
DEHUMIDIFICATION
Since for a given installation, the physical characteristics
are fixed, the primary variable as in the case of the
condenser, is the temperature difference between the
evaporating refrigerant and the medium being cooled,
commonly called the TD. For a blower coil, the colder
the refrigerant with respect to the temperature of the air
entering the evaporator, the greater will be the capacity
of the coil.
Temperature differences of 5° F. to 20° F. are commonly
used. Usually for best economy, the TD should be kept
as low as possible, since operation of the compressor
will be more efficient at higher suction pressures.
The amount of moisture condensed out of the air is
in direct relation to the temperature of the coil, and a
coil operating with too great a differential between the
evaporating temperature and the entering air temperature
will tend to produce a low humidity condition in the
refrigerated space. In the storage of leafy vegetables,
meats, fruits, and other similar perishable items, low
humidity will result in excessive dehydration and damage
to the product. For perishable commodities requiring a
very high relative humidity (approximately 90%) a TD
from 8° F. to 12° F. is recommended, and for relative
humidities slightly lower (approximately 80%) a TD from
12° F. to 16° F. is normally adequate.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
DEFROSTING OF BLOWER COILS
Ice and frost will accumulate continuously on coils
operating below freezing temperatures, and air flow
through the coil will be eventually blocked unless the
frost is removed. To allow continuous operation on
refrigeration applications where frost accumulation can
occur, periodic defrost cycles are necessary.
If the air returning to the evaporator is well above 32°
F., defrosting can be accomplished by allowing the
fan to continue operation while the compressor is shut
down, either for a preset time period or until the coil
temperature rises a few degrees above 32° F., the
melting temperature of the frost.
For low temperature applications, some source of heat
must be supplied to melt the ice. Electric defrost systems
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
utilize electric heater coils or rods in the evaporator.
Proprietary systems using water for defrosting are
available. Hot gas defrosting is widely used, with the
discharge gas from the compressor bypassing the
condenser and discharging directly into the evaporator
inlet. In hot gas defrost systems, the heat of compression
or some source of stored heat provides defrost heat,
and adequate protective devices such as re-evaporators
or suction accumulators must be provided if necessary
to prevent liquid refrigerant from returning to the
compressor. Other systems may utilize reverse cycle
defrosting, in which the flow of refrigerant is reversed
to convert the evaporator temporarily into a condenser
until the defrost period is complete.
To prevent refreezing of the melted condensate in the
evaporator drain pan, a drain pan heater is required on
low temperature systems.
6-3
 Section 7
CONTROL DEVICES, REFRIGERANT

In modern refrigeration practice, a wide variety of

refrigerant control devices are used to obtain efficient
economic operation. Small systems with manual control
or simple “on-off” automatic control may require only one
or two controls, but large systems with more elaborate
automatic control may have a multitude of controls,
the proper operation of each being essential to the
satisfactory performance of the system.

In order to adjust a control for efficient performance,

or recognize the effect of a malfunction, it is essential
that the function, operation, and application of each
refrigeration control be completely understood.

THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES

The most commonly used device for controlling the flow

of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator is the thermostatic
expansion valve. An orifice in the valve meters the flow
into the evaporator, the rate of flow being modulated
as required by a needle type plunger and seat, which
varies the orifice opening.

The needle is controlled by a diaphragm subject to three

forces. The evaporator pressure is exerted beneath the
diaphragm tending to close the valve. The force of a
superheat spring is also exerted beneath the diaphragm
in the closing direction. Opposing these two forces is
the pressure exerted by the charge in the thermal bulb,
which is attached to the suction line at the outlet of the
evaporator.
It is most convenient to visualize the action of the
thermostatic expansion valve by considering the
thermal bulb charge to be the same refrigerant as that
being used in the system. With the unit in operation,
the refrigerant in the evaporator is evaporating at its
saturation temperature and pressure. So long as the
thermal bulb is exposed to a higher temperature it
will exert a higher pressure than the refrigerant in the
evaporator, and therefore the net effect of these two
pressures is to open the valve. The superheat spring
pressure is a fixed pressure causing the valve to close
whenever the net difference between the bulb pressure
and the evaporator pressure is less than the superheat
spring setting.
As the temperature of the refrigerant gas leaving the
evaporator rises (an increase in superheat) the pressure
exerted by the thermal bulb at the outlet of the coil
increases, and the expansion valve flow increases; as
the temperature of the leaving gas decreases (a decrease
in superheat) the pressure exerted by the thermal bulb
decreases, and the expansion valve closes slightly and
the flow decreases.
With an evaporator and an expansion valve correctly
sized for the load, the expansion valve feed will be quite
stable at the desired superheat setting. An oversized
expansion valve or an oversized evaporator can cause
erratic feeding of the evaporator, which may result in
large fluctuations in compressor suction pressure, and
possible liquid return to the compressor.
Because of the pressure drop due to refrigerant flow
through the evaporator, the evaporating pressure at the
outlet of the evaporator coil will be lower than that at the
expansion valve. If this pressure drop is of any magnitude,
a higher superheat will be required to bring the forces
acting on the valve diaphragm into equilibrium, and
the evaporator will be partially starved. To compensate
for pressure drop through the evaporator, an external
equalizer connection is often used on the expansion
valve. This introduces the evaporator outlet pressure
under the valve diaphragm, rather than the evaporator
inlet pressure, and the valve operation is then free from
any influence due to evaporator pressure drop. Valves
with external equalizer connections are recommended
whenever the pressure drop through the evaporator

7-1 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
is above 2 1/2 psi for high temperature applications,
1 1/2 psi in the medium temperature range, and 1/2
psi in the low temperature range. Valves with external
equalizers must be employed when a pressure drop
type of distributor is used.
Pressure limiting expansion valves are often used to limit
the power requirement of the compressor. The valve is
constructed in such a manner that it limits the suction
pressure to a given maximum value, and restricts the
refrigerant feed if the suction pressure rises above that
point.
Gas charged pressure limiting valves have a limited
charge, and at temperatures of the thermal bulb
equivalent to its maximum operating pressure, all of the
liquid charge has vaporized, and any further increase
in temperature can only superheat the gas, but cannot
exert additional pressure. Any increase in evaporator
pressure will then act as a closing force on the expansion
valve. The disadvantage of the gas charged valve is the
possibility of the limited charge condensing in the head
of the expansion valve, if the head is colder than the
thermal bulb, causing the valve to lose control of the
liquid feed. With gas charged valves, the thermal bulb
must always be colder than the head of the valve, and
the gas charged valve normally is used only on high
temperature applications such as air conditioning.
Mechanical limiting valves are available, usually with
a spring loaded double diaphragm type construction.
If the evaporator reaches a preset pressure, the
diaphragm collapses, and the valve feed is restricted
until the pressure decreases sufficiently for the spring
tension to restore the diaphragm to its normal operating
position.
In order to achieve closer control for varying applications,
expansion valves are available with different types
of charge in the thermal bulb, each having different
operating characteristics. The superheat spring is also
normally equipped with an external adjusting screw so
that it can be set for the desired superheat on a given
application. Before adjusting any expansion valve, the
exact characteristics of the valve should be thoroughly
understood. The manufacturer’s catalog data must be
consulted for detailed information on a given valve.
OTHER TYPES OF EXPANSION VALVES
The automatic expansion valve is really better described
as a constant pressure expansion valve, since it
modulates its feed to maintain a constant preset pressure
in the evaporator. The automatic expansion valve was
widely used at one time, but because of its tendency
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
to starve the evaporator on heavy loads, and flood the
evaporator on light loads, it has been largely replaced by
the thermostatic expansion valve and capillary tubes.
Hand expansion valves are sometimes used when an
operator is available and manual liquid refrigerant feed
is acceptable. A needle valve is adjusted as required to
maintain the desired flow.
DISTRIBUTORS
When the refrigeration load is such that large evaporators
are required, multiple refrigerant circuits are necessary
to avoid excessive pressure drop through the evaporator.
To insure uniform feed from the expansion valve to each
of the various circuits, a refrigerant distributor is normally
used. A typical distributor mounted on a direct expansion
coil is shown in Figure 21, page 6-1.
As liquid refrigerant is fed through the expansion valve,
a portion of the liquid flashes into vapor in order to
reduce the liquid temperature to evaporator temperature.
This combination of liquid and flash gas is fed into
the distributor from the expansion valve, and is then
distributed evenly through small feeder tubes, the number
depending on the construction of the distributor and the
number of circuits required to provide proper refrigerant
velocity in the evaporator .
Without the distributor, the flow would separate into
separate gas and liquid layers, resulting in the starving
of some evaporator circuits. To avoid variations in circuit
feed, extreme care must be taken to insure that tubing
lengths are equal, so equal resistance is offered by
each circuit.
There are two different approaches in the design of a
distributor. A high-pressure drop distributor depends
on the turbulence created by an orifice to achieve
good distribution. A low-pressure drop distributor
depends on a contour flow pattern with high velocity in
the distributor throat to give proper distribution of the
refrigerant flow. Both types of distributor give satisfactory
performance when properly applied in accordance with
the manufacturer’s instructions.
CAPILLARY TUBES
On small unitary equipment such as package air
conditioners, domestic refrigeration equipment, and
self-contained commercial refrigeration cases, capillary
tubes are widely used for liquid refrigerant control. A
capillary tube is a length of tubing of small diameter with
the internal diameter held to extremely close tolerances.
It is used as a fixed orifice to perform the same function
(continued on p. 7-8)
7-2
CAPILLARY TUBE SELECTION R-22
HIGH TEMPERATURE

45° F. evaporating temperature (Preliminary Selection Only)

Final Selection Should Be Determined by Unit Test

**Length to balance unit at 45° F. evaporating,

130° F. condensing, 10° F.
Sub-cooling.

7-3 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 CAPILLARY TUBE SELECTION R-22
MEDIUM TEMPERATURE
25°F, to 10°F. Evaporating Temperature (Preliminary Selection Only)
Selection Should Be Determined by Unit Test
**Length to balance unit with 115°F. condensing, °F. sub-cooling in
condenser, Heat Exchanger to give 15°F. sub-cooling.

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 7-4
CAPILLARY TUBE SELECTION R-12
MEDIUM TEMPERATURE
25°F, to 10°F. Evaporating Temperature (Preliminary Selection Only)
Final Selection Should Be Determined by Unit Test
**Length to balance unit with 115°F. condensing, 5°F.
sub-cooling in condenser, Heat Exchanger to give 15°F.
sub-cooling.

7-5 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 CAPILLARY TUBE SELECTION R-22
LOW TEMPERATURE
15°F. to 25°F. Evaporating Temperature
(Preliminary Selection Only)
Final Selection Should Be Determined by Unit Test
*Length to balance unit at 110°F. condensing and 20°F.
Liquid sub-cooling (15°F. in condenser, 15°F in heat
exchanger)

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 7-6
CAPILLARY TUBE SELECTION R-502
LOW TEMPERATURE
15°F. to 25°F. Evaporating Temperature
(Preliminary Selection Only)
Final Selection Should Be Determined by Unit Test
*Length to balance unit at 110°F. condensing and 20°F.
Liquid sub-cooling (15°F. in condenser, 15°F in heat
exchanger)

7-7 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
as the expansion valve, to separate the high and low
pressure sides of the system, and meter the proper feed
of liquid refrigerant.
Since there are no moving parts, it is simple and trouble
free if kept free of foreign material. A capillary tube is of
very small diameter, and absolute freedom from foreign
matter and moisture is essential, making a factory sealed
unit a practical necessity.
Since the orifice is fixed, the rate of feed is relatively
inflexible. Under conditions of constant load, and constant
discharge and suction pressures, the capillary tube
performs very satisfactorily. However, changes in the
evaporator load or fluctuations in head pressure can
result in under or over feeding of the evaporator.
to maintain a given liquid level. Such applications are
quite specialized and the manufacturer’s instructions
should be followed closely. Unless some means is
provided for positive oil return, oil may accumulate in a
float chamber causing lubrication difficulties.
Commercial or domestic applications using either high
side or low side float chambers for liquid feed have
been largely replaced by capillary tube and expansion
valve control.
SOLENOID VALVES
A solenoid valve is an electrically controlled refrigerant
flow control valve. It is not a modulating valve, and is
either open or closed.

A major advantage of the capillary tube in some systems
is the fact that refrigerant continues to flow into the
evaporator after the compressor stops operation, thus
equalizing pressures on the high and low sides of
the system. This allows the use of low starting torque
motors.
The refrigerant charge is critical in capillary tube
systems since normally there is no receiver to store
excess refrigerant. Too much refrigerant will cause
high discharge pressures and motor overloading, and
possible liquid floodback to the compressor during the
off cycle; too little will allow vapor to enter the capillary
tube causing a loss in system capacity.
The valve consists of a body, a plunger with an iron
core which seats in the valve orifice, and an electrical
solenoid coil. A normally closed solenoid valve is closed
when the coil is deenergized and the plunger is seated.
When the solenoid coil is energized, the magnetic effect
of the coil lifts the plunger and opens the valve. Normally
open valves with a reverse type action are made, but
are rarely used.
Solenoid valves are commonly used in refrigerant
liquid and hot gas lines to stop refrigerant flow when
not desired, or to isolate individual evaporators when

Due to its basic simplicity, the elimination of the need for

a receiver, and the low starting torque requirement, a
capillary tube system is the least expensive of all liquid
control systems.

Sizing of a capillary tube is difficult to calculate accurately,

and can best be determined by actual test on the system.
Once determined, the proper size capillary tube can
be applied to identical systems, so it is well adapted to
production units. Figures 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28 give
tentative selection data for capillary tubes.

FLOAT VALVES

On some specialized applications, it may be desirable

to operate with completely flooded systems, that is, with
the evaporator completely filled with liquid refrigerant. A
typical application might be an industrial process cooling
installation where a brine or liquid is piped through a chiller
shell in which the refrigerant level is to be maintained.
Special liquid level controls are available from expansion
valve manufacturers. These normally are mounted in a
secondary float chamber and modulate flow as necessary

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 7-8
multiple evaporators are used. On large installations, similarly to the crankcase pressure regulator, except that
large numbers of solenoid valves may be necessary for it is responsive to inlet pressure. It should be located in
satisfactory automatic control. the suction line at the evaporator outlet.

CRANKCASE PRESSURE REGULATING VALVES

This type of valve, commonly called a CPR valve or

a holdback valve, limits the suction pressure at the
compressor below a preset limit to prevent overloading
of the compressor motor. The valve setting is determined
by a pressure spring, and the valve modulates from
fully open to fully closed in response to outlet pressure,
closing on a rise in outlet pressure.

The crankcase pressure regulating valve should be

located in the suction line between the evaporator and
the compressor. Since the power requirement of the
compressor declines with a fall in suction pressure, the
CPR valve is normally used to prevent motor overloading
on low temperature units during pulldown or defrost
cycles. Use of the valve permits the application of a

An EPR valve modulates from fully open to fully closed,

closing on a fall in inlet pressure, and its sole function is
to prevent the evaporator pressure from falling below a
predetermined value for which the regulator has been
set.

HOT GAS BYPASS VALVES

Hot gas bypass valves are used where it is desirable

to modulate the compressor capacity and at the same
time prevent the suction pressure from falling to
objectionable low levels. These valves operate in the

larger displacement compressor without overloading a

given size motor, but pressure drop through the valve
may result in an unacceptable loss of system capacity
unless the valve is adequately sized.

EVAPORATOR PRESSURE REGULATING VALVE

On systems with multiple evaporators operating at

different temperatures, or on systems where the
evaporating temperature cannot be allowed to fall below
a given temperature, an evaporator pressure regulator
valve is frequently used to control the evaporating
temperature. This valve, often called an EPR valve, acts

7-9 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
same fashion as crankcase pressure regulators since
they are responsive to outlet pressure, modulate from
fully open to fully closed, and open in response to a
decrease in downstream pressure. The construction
must be suitable to withstand the high temperature
discharge gas from the compressor.

Hot gas valves are set to maintain a desired minimum

pressure by spring tension, and may be either direct
or pilot operated. They are normally equipped with an
external equalizer connection, which operates in the
same fashion as an external equalizer on an expansion
valve to compensate for pressure drops in the lines. The
external equalizer should be attached to the suction line
at the point where it is desired to control the suction
pressure.

REVERSING VALVES

In recent years, usage of the “heat pump” principle to

enable an air conditioning unit to supply both cooling and
heating has become increasingly popular. Basically this
involves switching the functions of the evaporator and
condenser by a change in refrigerant flow as desired, so
that the indoor coil becomes the evaporator for cooling
purposes, and the condenser for heating usage. The
outdoor coil in turn is a condenser during the cooling
cycle, and an evaporator during the heating cycle.

To conveniently reverse the system operation, four-way

reversing valves have been developed. By means of
a slide action actuated by a solenoid, the connections
from the compressor suction and discharge ports to the
evaporator and condenser can be reversed at will.

Three-way valves are being increasingly used for hot

gas defrosting. This valve enables the flow of hot gas
from the compressor discharge valve to be shunted from
the condenser to the evaporator for defrosting purposes,
and then conveniently returned to the condenser when
normal cooling is resumed.

CHECK VALVES

It is often desirable to prevent refrigerant from reversing

its direction of flow during an off cycle, or during a
change in the operating cycle. A simple spring loaded
valve such as shown in Figure 34 allows flow in one
direction only, and closes if pressures are such that
reverse flow could occur. Check valves may be used
in either liquid or gas lines, and are frequently used to
prevent backflow of liquid refrigerant or hot gas in low
ambient condenser controls, and in reverse cycle heat
pumps. Check valves used in refrigeration systems
should be spring loaded to prevent noise and chattering

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 7-10
which may be caused by pulsations in refrigerant flow
originating in the compressor.

MANUAL SHUT-OFF VALVES

Manual shut-off valves are often used so that portions

of the refrigeration system can be isolated for service or
repairs. Special valves designed for refrigeration usage
are required to avoid leakage.

COMPRESSOR SERVICE VALVES

Compressor suction and discharge service valves are

shut-off valves with a manual operated stem. Most
service valves are equipped with a gauge port so that
the refrigerant operating pressure may be observed.

When the valve is back-seated (the stem turned all the

way out) the gauge port is closed and the valve is open.
If the valve is front-seated (the stem turned all the way
in) the gauge port is open to the compressor and the
line connection is closed. In order to read the pressure
while the compressor is in operation, the valve should
be back-seated, and then turned in one or two turns
in order to slightly open the connection to the gauge
port. The compressor is always open to either the line
or the gauge port, or both if the valve is neither front
nor back-seated.

SCHRADER TYPE VALVE

The Schrader type valve is a recent development

for convenient checking of system pressures where
it is not economical, convenient, or possible to use
the compressor service valves with gauge ports. The
Schrader type valve is similar in appearance and
principle to the air valve used on automobile or bicycle
tires, and must have a cap for the fitting to insure leak-
proof operation.

7-11 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
This type of valve enables checking of the system
pressure, or charging refrigerant without disturbing
the unit operation. An adaptor is necessary for the
standard serviceman’s gauge or hose connection to fit
the Schrader type valve.

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES

Safety relief valves are required by many local

construction codes. Various types of relief valves are
available, and the system requirement may be dictated by
the local code requirement. Normally code requirements
specify that the ultimate strength of the high side parts
shall be a minimum of 5 times the discharge or rupture
pressure of the relief valve, and that all condensing units
with pressure vessels exceeding 3 cubic feet interval
volume shall be protected by a pressure relief device.
Discharge may be to the atmosphere, or it may be a Rupture disc type relief devices have a thin disc which is
discharge from the high pressure side of the system to designed to rupture at a given relief pressure, discharging
the low pressure side. the refrigerant to the atmosphere.

A typical reseating type valve is shown in Figure 38. FUSIBLE PLUGS

The valve opens at a preset pressure, and refrigerant
is discharged until the pressure falls to the reseating
point.
Some Copeland® brand compressors have reseating
type pressure relief valves installed internally in the
discharge chamber which allow excessive pressures
to discharge to the suction chamber. A typical internal
type valve is shown in Figure 39.
A fusible plug is a safety device with a metal insert
having a specified melting point. The allowable melting
point is defined by code, but normally it is the saturation
temperature of the refrigerant at a pressure no greater
than 40% of the ultimate bursting pressure of the
refrigerant containing vessel, or the critical temperature
of the refrigerant, whichever is lower .
Fusible plugs are limited to units with pressure vessels
not exceeding 3 cubic feet internal gross volume. They
are used as a safety device in the event of fire, are
responsive to temperature only and will not protect
against excessively high pressures.

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 7-12
WATER REGULATING VALVES

On water cooled condensers, a modulating water

regulating valve is normally used to economize on
water usage and to control condensing pressures
within reasonable limits. Water valves may be either
pressure or temperature actuated and act to throttle
flow as necessary.

7-13 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Section 8
CONTROL DEVICES, ELECTRICAL

Both electrical and pneumatic controls are widely used
for air conditioning and refrigeration system control.
Pneumatic controls are primarily used on large central
systems, while electric controls are used on applications
of all sizes. Since electric controls are used almost
exclusively in the commercial refrigeration field, this
manual will cover only electric controls.
CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL
The basic function of most electrical control devices is
to make or break an electric circuit which in turn controls
a contactor, a solenoid coil, or some other functioning
part of the system. Controls are available which may
make or break a circuit on either a rise or fall in pressure
or temperature. The type of action required depends
on the function of the control and the medium being
controlled.
voltage to the control circuit voltage, usually 24 volts.
LOW PRESSURE AND HIGH PRESSURE
CONTROLS
A low pressure control is actuated by the refrigerant
suction pressure, and normally is used to cycle the
compressor for capacity control purposes, or as a low
limit control. The low pressure control often is used as
the only control on small systems which can tolerate
some fluctuations in the temperature to be maintained.
The standard low pressure control makes on a rise in
pressure, and breaks on a fall in pressure.

The point at which a control closes a contact and makes

a circuit is called the cut-in point. The point at which the
control opens the switch and breaks the circuit is called
the cut-out point. The difference between the cut-in and
cut-out points is known as the differential.

A very small differential maintains close control but

can cause short cycling of the compressor. A large
differential will give a longer running cycle, but may
result in fluctuations in the pressure or temperature
being controlled, so the final operating differential must
be a compromise.

The differential may be either fixed or adjustable,

depending on the construction of the control. Adjustment
of controls varies depending on the type and the
manufacturer. On some controls, both the cut-in and
cut-out points may be set at the desired points. On many
pressure controls, the differential can be adjusted, and
this in turn may affect either the cut-in or the cut-out
point.
LINE VOLTAGE AND LOW VOLTAGE CONTROLS
Line voltage controls are designed to operate on the
same voltage as that supplied to the compressor. Both
110 and 220 volt controls are quite commonly used,
and 440 volt controls are available but are seldom
used due to the danger from high voltage at the wiring
connections.
Local codes often require low voltage controls, and a
control circuit transformer may be used to reduce line
A high pressure control senses the compressor
discharge pressure, and is normally used to stop the
compressor in case of excessively high pressures.
Since the allowable pressure limit varies with different
refrigerants, the proper high pressure control for the
refrigerant in the system must be used. A high pressure
control makes on a fall in pressure and breaks on a
rise in pressure. Either manual reset or automatic reset
controls are available, the choice depending on the
desired system operation.
Dual pressure controls are comprised of a low pressure
and a high pressure control mounted in a single housing
with a single switch operated by either control.

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 8-1
CONDENSER FAN CYCLING CONTROL
In order to maintain air cooled condensing pressures
at a satisfactory level during low ambient conditions,
a condenser fan pressure control is frequently used.
The control acts to break the circuit to the condenser
fan on a drop in condensing pressure and makes the
circuit on a rise in condensing pressure. Since this is
the reverse of the action on a normal high pressure
control, this is often described as a reverse acting high
pressure control.
THERMOSTATS
A thermostat acts to make or break a circuit in response
to a change in temperature. There are numerous types
of thermostats ranging from a simple bimetallic switch to
multiple switch controls operating from remote sensing
bulbs. Thermostats may have a fixed control point or
may have variable adjustments.
Normally a cooling thermostat will make on a rise in
temperature and break on a fall in temperature, while
a heating thermostat will make on a fall in temperature
and break on a rise.
OIL PRESSURE SAFETY CONTROL
Special pressure controls have been developed to
protect the compressor against loss of oil pressure. The
8-2
control is actuated by the difference in pressure between
the outlet oil pressure of the oil pump and crankcase
pressure. Since the inlet pressure of the oil pump is
always crankcase pressure, the net difference in the
two pressures is the net lubrication oil pressure.
Oil pressure safety controls are available with both
adjustable and non-adjustable control settings, but the
non-adjustable type is preferred to avoid difficulties
arising from improper field adjustment.
If the oil pressure falls below safe limits, the control
breaks to stop the compressor. As an added refinement,
a time delay circuit is incorporated to delay the action
of the control for a period up to 2 minutes to allow the
compressor to establish oil pressure on start-up without
nuisance tripping.
TIME CLOCKS
Frequently it is desirable to stop the compressor
operation for a period of time to allow defrosting. In order
to insure that this is done regularly at convenient times,
a time clock can be used to either make or break wiring
circuits at preset time intervals. Clocks are available for
both 24 hour and 7 day cycles, and the defrost interval
and time of initiation and termination can be adjusted
as desired.
Various types of defrost control circuits are commonly
used, such as time initiated, time terminated; time
initiated, temperature terminated; or time initiated,
pressure terminated. Normally on circuits with pressure or
temperature termination, an overriding time termination is
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
provided in the event the defrost cycle for some reason
is abnormally prolonged.
RELAYS
A relay consists of a set of contacts together with a
magnetic coil mechanism which controls the contact
position. The contacts may be normally open or normally
closed when not energized, and a given relay may have
from 1 to 5 or more sets of contacts. When the coil is
energized, the contacts reverse their action and make
or break various circuits as desired.
A relay may be used to control a large amperage load by
means of a pilot circuit, to allow interlocking of controls
on separate circuits, or for any application where remote
control is required.
Most relays are of the potential type, and are actuated
when the coil is energized with the proper voltage.
Current relays are actuated by a sufficient current
flowing through the relay coil, and are normally used
when it is desirable to make or break a circuit when a
large change in current flow occurs. These are used in
single phase motor starting circuits, and occasionally
in safety circuits.
An impedance relay is similar to a normal potential relay
except that the coil is wound so as to create a high
resistance to current passage. When wired in parallel
with a normal relay, the high impedance (resistance)
of the relay will shunt the current to the normal circuit
and the impedance coil will be inoperative. If the normal
circuit is opened and the current must pass through the
impedance relay, the relay coil will be energized and the
impedance relay will operate. The voltage drop across the
relay coil is so large that other magnetic coils in series
with the impedance coil will not operate because of the
resulting low voltage. Impedance relays are frequently
used for safety lock-out circuits in the event of a motor
protector trip.
TIME DELAY RELAY
Some relays are constructed with a time delay action
so that the relay must be energized for a predetermined
length of time before the magnetic coil can actuate the
contacts. The time delay is normally non-adjustable, but
relays are available with varying periods of delay.
This type of relay may be required for part winding start
motors; in circuits to prevent short cycling, or for other
specialized applications.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is an electrical device for transferring
electrical energy from one circuit to another at a
different voltage by means of electromagnetic induction.
Transformers are frequently used in control circuits to
step voltage down from line voltage to a lower control
circuit voltage. There are no moving parts and the action
of the transformer is determined by its coil windings.
The transformer output is limited by its size, but
transformers are available for almost any output desired
from a tiny alarm bell circuit to the giant transformers
used on high voltage power transmission lines.
The selection of control circuit transformers can vitally
affect the performance and life of many electrical
components in a refrigeration or air conditioning
system.
An inadequate transformer supplying abnormally low
voltage to the control circuit will result in improper
operation of contactors and/or motor starters due to
chattering or sticking contacts, burned holding coils,
or failure of contacts to properly close. Since any of
these conditions can cause eventual system failure and
possible damage to the compressor, control transformers
must be properly sized.
Even though a proper size transformer has been
selected, care must be taken to avoid excessive voltage
drop in a low voltage control circuit. When using a 24
volt system with a remote thermostat, wire of sufficient
current carrying capacity must be installed between the
transformer and the thermostat .
According to NEMA standards, a solenoid or contactor
must operate satisfactorily at a minimum of 85% of rated
voltage. Allowing for a line voltage fluctuation of plus or
minus 10% which can occur on electric utility systems,
the voltage drop of the transformer and connecting wiring
must be limited to 5% to insure a minimum of 85% of
rated voltage at the magnetic device.
A transformer works on the magnetic induction principle,
has no moving parts, and normally will have a long and
trouble free life. However, overloading of a transformer
results in excessive temperatures which will cause rapid
deterioration of the insulation and eventual failure of the
transformer coils.
A control circuit transformer will not overheat, nor will its
secondary output voltage drop below 95% of its rated
voltage if:
8-3
1. The continuous VA (volt-amperes) capacity of the
transformer is equal to or greater than any continuous
VA load that can occur in the system.
2. The inrush VA capacity of the transformer is equal to
or greater than the maximum VA load that can occur
for any combination of sealed and/or inrush load.
(A sealed load is the terminology used to describe
a component load drawn through closed or sealed
contacts, after the inrush current has returned to
normal operating conditions.)
Selection Procedure
1. To select the proper transformer, the following
information is necessary:
a. A list of all components in the control circuit.
b. The sealed VA and watts for each.
c. The inrush VA and inrush watts for each.
Note: The VA and watts of magnetic devices will vary
with each manufacturer, so it is necessary to obtain
exact information on the components to be used.
Since not all of the inrush data is included in catalogs,
it will be necessary to contact representatives of
component manufacturers for information when
designing control circuits.
2. The continuous VA requirement is determined by
combining the sealed VA of all components in the
circuit which can be energized at one time.
3. The inrush VA capacity of a transformer is determined
by two factors — the VA inrush and the inrush
load power factor. Each transformer manufacturer
publishes rating charts showing the inrush capacity
of each size transformer in terms of the per cent of
rated load at varying secondary output voltages and
varying power factors. Since output voltages lower
than 95% are not acceptable, the only variable to
be determined is the power factor.
The maximum VA inrush is found by combining the
inrush VA that can occur with the maximum sealed
VA that can occur simultaneously. To determine the
inrush load power factor, divide the maximum inrush
watts by the maximum inrush VA.
Examples Of Transformer Selection
Figure 44 is typical of one manufacturer’s curves showing
the inrush capacity of three different transformers at
8-4
95% of rated output voltage for varying power factors.
To illustrate the selection procedure, assume a control
transformer is to be selected from Figure 44 for the
following control circuit:
Example No.1
Sealed Sealed Inrush Inrush
VA Watts VA Watts
1 - 60 amp contactor 25 7 165 124
1 - oil pressure
safety switch 25 25 25 25
1 -10 amp fan starter 8 5 58 12
Assume the compressor is cycling on the contactor,
and the oil pressure safety switch heater element is
energized whenever the compressor oil pressure is
below 15 psig. The fan starter is used to energize a fan
circuit at the same time the compressor is energized.
Therefore, the contactor and the fan starter would be a
continuous load, and the inrush load would be the inrush
VA of the contactor and the fan starter, plus the heater
load of the oil pressure safety switch.
A. Continuous VA requirement
Contactor 25 VA
Fan Starter 8 VA
Total 33 VA
Any transformer with a rating of 33 VA or more would
handle the continuous load, so the 60 VA transformer
is satisfactory.
B. Inrush VA Requirement
VA Watts
Contactor 165 124
Fan Starter 58 12
Oil Pressure
Safety Switch 25 25
Total 248VA 161 Watts
161 Watts
Power factor equals 248 VA or .65
Although the continuous VA requirement could be met
with the 60 VA transformer shown on Figure 44 it would
require the 140 VA transformer to satisfy the inrush VA
requirement, and the larger size must be used.
Example No.2
Assume the same conditions as in Example No.1 except
that the compressor has two 60 amp contactors for
across the line operation.
(continued on p. 8-6)
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 8-5
A. Continuous VA requirement These examples clearly indicate that the continuous
2 Contactors 50 VA VA requirement of the control circuit may be greatly
Fan Starter 8 VA exceeded by the inrush VA requirement, and both factors
Total 58 VA must be considered in selecting transformers.

The 60 VA transformer in Figure 44 is adequate for the
continuous load.
B. Inrush VA requirement
VA Watts
2 Contactors 330 VA 248 Watts
Fan Starter 58 VA 12 Watts
Oil Pressure
Safety Switch 25 VA 25 Watts
Total 413 VA 285 Watts
285 Watts
Power factor equals 413 VA or .69
Referring to Figure 44 the 140 VA transformer does not
have enough capacity for the inrush VA requirement,
and the 200 VA transformer must be used.
Transformer manufacturers use a standard 20% power
factor in their catalog literature for determining the
maximum inrush VA rating of a transformer. Since the
inrush power factor of contactor coils may be much
higher than 20%, and since the resistive load of the oil
pressure safety switch will increase the overall power
factor, a typical compressor control circuit may have an
inrush power factor greatly in excess of 20%.
The allowable inrush VA load on a transformer decreases
with an increase in the power factor (see Figure 44) and
the use of an incorrect power factor may result in an
undersized transformer. To properly size a transformer,
the power factor must be calculated for the components
to be used.

8-6 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Section 9
MOTORS
Electric motors are used as the power source on the great
majority of refrigeration compressors, and practically all
are now alternating current (A. C.) motors. The following
discussion is limited to those motors of interest for driving
refrigeration compressors.
Nearly all motors used for refrigeration applications are
induction motors, the name coming from the fact that the
current in the moving part of the motor is induced, the
moving component having no connection to the source
of current. The stationary part of an induction motor is
called the stator, and the moving part the rotor. The stator
windings are connected to the power source, while the
rotor is mounted on the motor shaft, the rotation of the
rotor providing the motor driving power source.
MOTOR TEMPERATURE
The first law of thermodynamics stated that energy cannot
be either created or destroyed, but may be converted
from one form into another. The motor receives electrical
energy from the power source, but because of friction
and efficiency losses, only a part of this input energy can
be turned into mechanical output energy. The balance
of the input energy is converted to heat energy, and
unless this heat is dissipated, the temperature within the
motor windings will rise until the insulation is destroyed.
If a motor is kept free from contamination and physical
damage, heat is practically the only enemy that can
damage the windings.
The amount of heat produced in the motor depends
both on the load and on motor efficiency. As the load
is increased, the electrical energy input to the motor
increases. The percentage of the power input converted
to heat in the motor depends on motor efficiency,
decreasing with an increase in efficiency, and increasing
as efficiency decreases.
The temperature level, which a motor can tolerate,
depends largely on the type of motor insulation and the
basic motor design, but the actual motor life is determined
by the operating conditions to which it is subjected during
use. If operated in a proper environment, at loads within
its design capabilities, a well designed motor should
have an indefinite life. Continuous overloading of a motor
resulting in consistently high operating temperatures will
materially shorten its life.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
OPEN TYPE MOTORS AND BELT DRIVES
Open type motors may be used for compressor drive with
either a belt drive or a direct drive arrangement, but with
the continued development of hermetic and accessible-
hermetic motor-compressor design, the use of open
type motors has declined rapidly. Open type motors for
compressor drives should be selected conservatively
since open type motors do not have the generous
overloading safety factor found in most motors used in
hermetic and accessible hermetic compressors.
V-belts are made in several different industry
classifications, which have been standardized for
interchangeability. For refrigeration use, fractional
horsepower industrial belts and conventional industrial
belts are the two types commonly used. The fractional
horsepower belts are more flexible and are well adapted
to small radius drives in the smaller horsepower
range.
The conventional industrial belts have a higher
horsepower rating for heavier loads. Fractional
horsepower “4L” and conventional “A” belts have a
comparable cross section and may be used on the
same size pulley, while fractional horsepower “5L” and
conventional “B” belts are similarly interchangeable.
For belt driven compressors, the compressor speed is
determined by the size of the motor pulley, since the
compressor pulley (flywheel) is normally fixed. The
relative speeds of the motor and compressor are in
direct relation to the diameter of the motor pulley and
the compressor flywheel, but for accurate calculation,
the pitch diameter of the pulley must be used rather
than the outside pulley diameter (O. D.). The pitch
diameter makes allowance for the fact that the V-belt
rides partially inside the pulley O. D. For drives using “A”
and “4L” section belts, the pitch diameter may be taken
as pulley O. D. less 1/4”, and for “B” and “5L” section
belt drives, pulley O. D. less 3/8”.
9-1
The desired pulley size or the resulting compressor speed may then be calculated from the following relation:

(Motor Speed, RPM) x (Pitch Diameter, Motor Pulley, In.)

Compressor Speed, RPM = (Pitch Diameter, Compressor Pulley, In.)

(Compressor Speed, RPM) x (Pitch Dia., Compressor Pulley, In.)

Pitch Diameter, Motor Pulley, In. = (Motor Speed, RPM)

For example, to find the motor pulley diameter required when a 1750 RPM motor is to be used to drive a compressor
having an 8” pitch diameter compressor pulley, when the desired compressor speed is 500 RPM, proceed as
follows:

500 RPM Com. Speed x 8” P. D., Comp. Pulley

P.D., Motor Pulley = 1750 RPM, Motor Speed

= 500 x 8
1750 = Approximately 2 1/4 inches P. D.
For an “A” belt drive
Motor Pulley O. D. = 2 1/4 inches P.D. + 1/4 inch = 2 1/2 inches O.D.

For a “B” belt drive

Motor Pulley O. D. = 2 1/4 inches P.D. + 3/8 inch = 2 5/8 inches O.D.

HERMETIC MOTORS Each Copeland® brand motor-compressor carries on

In hermetic and accessible-hermetic motor-compressors,
the motor is mounted directly on the compressor
crankshaft, and is hermetically sealed within the
compressor body. Aside from the economies inherent in
this type of construction, the greatest advantage is that
the motor can be cooled by a variety of means, such as
air, water, or refrigerant vapor. Sealing the motor in the
compressor body eliminates the troublesome problem
of sealing the crankshaft so that the power may be
transmitted without refrigerant leaks. By designing a
motor for the specific application, and controlling motor
temperature closely, a motor may be matched to a given
load with the result that the motor output can be utilized
at its maximum capability, while maintaining a generous
safety factor considerably above that available with
standard open type motors.
NAMEPLATE AMPERAGE
On open-type motors standard NEMA horsepower
ratings are used to identify a motor’s power output
capability. Because of industry practice, this nominal
horsepower classification has carried over into hermetic
motor identification, but it may be misleading when
applied to this type of motor. With controlled cooling and
motor protection sized for the exact load, a hermetic
motor may be operated much closer to its maximum
ability, so a given motor may be capable of much greater
power output as a hermetic motor than an equivalent
open motor. The amperage draw and watts of power
required are much better indicators of hermetic motor
operation.
its nameplate ratings for both locked rotor and full load
amperes. The designation full load amperage persists
because of long industry precedent, but in reality a
much better term is nameplate amperage. On all welded
compressors, on all new motors now being developed
for Copelametic® compressors, and on most of the
motors developed with inherent protection or internal
thermostats, nameplate amperage has been arbitrarily
established as 80% of the current drawn when the
motor protector trips. The 80% figure is derived from
standard industry practice of many years’ standing in
sizing motor protective devices at 125 % of the current
drawn at rated load conditions.
In order for the motor to meet Emerson Climate
Technologies, Inc. standards, the maximum allowable
current must be beyond the prescribed operating limits
of the compressor, and is determined during qualification
tests by operating the compressor at established
maximum load conditions and lowering the supply
voltage until the protector trip point is reached. Use
of the standard 80% factor enables the service and
installation engineer to safely size wiring, contactors,
or other external line protective devices at 125% of the
nameplate rating, since the motor-compressor protector
will not allow the amperage to exceed this figure.
In most instances, the motor-compressor is capable
of performing at nominal rating conditions at less than
rated nameplate amperage. A given motor frequently
is used in various compressor models for air-cooled,

9-2 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
suction-cooled, water-cooled, high temperature, medium
temperature, low temperature, R-12, R-22, or R-502
applications as required. Obviously on many applications
there will be a greater safety factor than on others.
This does not mean that every compressor may be
operated continuously at a load greatly in excess of its
nameplate rating without fear of failure. Motor amperage
is only one factor in determining a compressor’s operating
limitations. Discharge pressure and temperatures,
motor cooling, and torque requirements are equally
critical. Safe operating limits have been established
for each compressor, and are published on compressor
specification sheets.
VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY
Although electric energy distributed in the United States
is 60 cycle, distribution voltages are not standardized.
Single phase voltages may be 115, 208, 220, 230, or
240, and most utilities reserve the right to vary the
supply voltage plus or minus 10% from the nominal
rating. Three phase voltage may be 208, 220, 240, 440,
460, or 480, again plus or minus 10%. Unless motors
are specifically designed for the voltage range in which
they are operated, overheating may result.
Most motors may be operated at the voltage on the
motor nameplate, plus or minus 10% without danger
of overheating, but in order to allow more flexibility of
operation, extended voltage range motors are now being
developed where the usage warrants this action. For
example, a three phase motor nameplated 208/240 volts
is satisfactory for operation from 187 volts to 264 volts,
and a three phase motor nameplated 440/480 volts may
be operated from 396 volts to 528 volts.
In many parts of the world, the electrical power supply
is 50 cycle rather that 60 cycle. If both voltage and
frequency supplied to a motor vary at the same rate,
operation of a given motor at the lower frequency
condition within narrow limits is satisfactory in some
cases. For example, a 440 volt, 3 phase, 60 cycle motor
will operate satisfactorily on 380 volt, 3 phase, 50 cycle
power supply.
However, in some 50 cycle applications, the relationship
between voltage and frequency is such that standard
60 cycle motors cannot be used unless the motor
characteristics are suitable for 50 cycle operation, and
this can be determined only by test. On most single
phase 50 cycle applications, specially wound 50 cycle
motors are required.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
THREE PHASE MOTORS
Three phase motors are wound with 3 separate windings
or phases. Each of the windings is 120° out of phase with
the other windings, which results in a very high starting
torque motor requiring no supplemental mechanisms
or devices for starting. The direction of rotation of
the motor may be changed by reversing any two line
connections.
Because three phase motors can utilize smaller wire sizes
and therefore are smaller, they are used on almost all
applications larger than 5 HP, and if three phase power
is available, are frequently preferred for any load larger
than fractional horsepower applications.
SINGLE PHASE MOTORS
A single phase motor has but one running winding or
phase, and basically is not a self starting motor. Once
started, it will run as a pure induction motor. In order
to provide starting torque, a second winding called the
starting winding is provided, which normally has greater
resistance than the running winding. The different
variations of single phase motors are primarily due to
the different starting arrangements used.
If the start winding remains in the circuit during operation
it would be damaged by excessive heat. Therefore, the
starting winding is removed from the circuit as the motor
approaches rated speed by either a potential relay, a
current relay, or a centrifugal switch.
A current relay is normally open when de-energized,
and the coil is wound so that the contacts will close
when starting current is being drawn by the motor, but
will drop out when the current approaches normal full
load conditions. Therefore, the current relay is closed
only during the starting cycle.
A potential relay is normally closed when de-energized,
and the coil is designed to open the contacts only when
sufficient voltage is generated by the start winding. Since
the voltage or back-EMF generated by the start winding is
proportional to the motor speed, the relay will open only
when the motor has started and is approaching normal
running speed. The illustrations show the schematic
wiring with the motor in operation so the potential relay
is in the energized position.
SPLIT PHASE MOTORS
On a split phase motor, the running winding and start
winding are in parallel, and are spaced 90° apart. The
9-3
run winding is wound with relatively heavy wire, while
the start winding is wound with fine wire and has a much
greater resistance than the run winding. The combination
of greater resistance and physical displacement results
in the start winding being slightly out of phase with the
run winding, and thus produces sufficient magnetic force
to cause the rotor to rotate.

Figure 45 illustrates a split phase motor schematic

electrical diagram with a current relay to break the
start winding circuit when the compressor has reached
operating speed.

The starting torque of a split phase motor is low, the

starting current is high, and the efficiency is relatively

low. As a result, this type of motor is generally limited to
capillary tube systems in small fractional HP sizes.
CAPACITOR START - INDUCTION RUN MOTORS
(CSIR)
This motor is similar to the split phase motor in
construction except for the method used to obtain the
phase displacement necessary for starting. In the split
phase motor, the phase displacement is due to a higher
resistance in the start winding. In the capacitor start
motor, the necessary phase displacement is achieved
through the use of a capacitor connected in series with
the starting winding. A capacitor start-induction run
schematic electric diagram is shown in Figure 46.
The starting winding is removed from the circuit after the
motor is started by the potential relay or current relay
as before. This type motor has a high starting torque,
and therefore is suitable for applications where unequal
pressures may be encountered on start up. Because of
the low power factor of this type motor, its use is usually
limited to fractional horsepower applications.
CAPACITOR START - CAPACITOR RUN MOTORS
(CSR)
By connecting a running capacitor in parallel with the
starting capacitor (R to S terminals) as shown in
Figure 47 the motor is strengthened because the start
winding is loaded in phase with the main winding after
the start capacitor is disconnected, which permits the
starting winding to carry part of the running load. The
running capacitor strengthens the motor, improves
the power factor, reduces motor current, increases
the efficiency, and decreases the temperature of the
motor under design conditions. However, the motor
must be designed for operation with a run capacitor,
and a capacitor start-induction run motor usually is not
suitable for conversion to capacitor start-capacitor run
operation.
Normally current relays are not recommended for use
with capacitor start-capacitor run motors because of
the danger of the running capacitor discharging to the

9-4 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
start capacitor through the current relay when it closes.
The high voltage built up on the running capacitor
can cause the current relay contacts to arc, possibly
welding the contacts and causing compressor failure.
If a current relay is used with a capacitor start-capacitor
run motor, a resistor should be installed between the
running capacitor and start capacitor to prevent a high
current flow to the start capacitor on start-up. This
condition does not occur on systems equipped with
potential relays since the contacts are normally closed
at start-up, and the voltage build-up on both start and
run capacitors is similar.
The run capacitor is in the circuit continuously and is
designed for continuous operation whereas the start
capacitor is used only momentarily each time the motor
starts and is designed for intermittent duty.
Capacitor start-capacitor run motors have high efficiency,
high power factor, and high starting torque and are used
in single phase motors from fractional HP through 5
HP in size.
PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTORS (PSC)
For some applications not requiring high starting torque,
a motor with only a running capacitor is desirable.
Because of the elimination of the start capacitor and
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
relay, this type of motor is economical and efficient, but
has low starting torque. Its use is limited to systems on
which pressures are equalized prior to start up, and is
primarily used in air conditioning and small commercial
applications.
A permanent split capacitor motor schematic electrical
diagram is illustrated in figure 48. It is identical to the
capacitor start-capacitor run diagram without the starting
capacitor and relay. If increased starting torque is
required, a starting capacitor and relay assembly can
be added to this motor, making it identical to a capacitor
start-capacitor run motor in operation.
DUAL VOLTAGE MOTORS
Certain Copeland® brand three phase motors are wound
with two identical stator windings which are connected
in parallel on 208 or 220 volt operation, and in series
for 440/480 volt operation. Internal connections of this
type of motor are shown in Figure 49.
These models have two parallel windings with nine leads
which must be connected correctly for the voltage of
the power supply. If the windings are connected out of
phase, or if the jumper bars are not positioned correctly,
motor overheating and possible failure can occur.
9-5
TWO PHASE MOTORS

Two phase power is still used in a few isolated areas,

and specially wound two-phase motors are required for
use on this type of power supply. These motors have
two parallel windings, and are similar to three phase
motors in their operation. Capacitors and starting relays
are not required. The motor is started directly across
the line by means of a special 4 pole contactor . The
phase windings are connected in parallel from the two
phase three or four wire power supply.

9-6 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Section 10
STARTING EQUIPMENT AND MOTOR PROTECTORS
Since hermetic motors must operate under a wide range
of operating conditions, and vary in size from fractional
horsepower to 35 HP and larger, a wide variety of starting
equipment is used.
CONTACTORS AND STARTERS
A contactor is a load current carrying device, which makes
and breaks to start and stop the compressor motor. A
starter is merely a contactor with motor protective devices
mounted in a common enclosure.
On single phase motors up to 3 HP in size, the motor
current is often low enough to be handled by the contacts
in the low pressure control or thermostat, and no separate
contactor is required. As the motor size increases, the
amperage draw increases beyond the range of small
control apparatus, and the motor current must be handled
through the contacts of a starter or contactor, while the
control makes and breaks a pilot circuit which energizes
the coil of the contactor .
For motor-compressors whose power requirements
are such that contactors are required, it is essential
that the contactors used are adequately sized for the
attached load. The rating of the contactor for both full
load amperes and locked rotor amperes must be greater
than the nameplate rating of the motor-compressor plus
the nameplate rating of any fans or other accessories
also operated through the contactor .
NEMA general purpose type contactors are built for the
most severe industrial usage, and are designed for a
minimum life of 2,000,000 cycles. Because they must
be adaptable to any usage, general purpose contactors
have a large safety factor, and as a result are both
large and costly. For refrigeration and air conditioning
applications, a life of 250,000 cycles is entirely adequate,
so the physical construction can be lighter, and the cost
of the contactor correspondingly less.
To meet the specific needs of the refrigeration and air
conditioning industry, electrical equipment manufacturers
have developed definite purpose contactors. These
contactors are rated in amperes, and when selected
properly for the load, are smaller and more economical
than the general purpose contactor. Since compressor
contactors are frequently subjected to quick recycling,
the contacts must be large enough for satisfactory heat
dissipation in order to prevent contactor overheating.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Overheating of the contacts may cause sticking and
single phasing, and can cause a motor failure even
though the motor overload protectors trip and open the
control circuit.
In order to insure that definite purpose contactors
are properly applied to Copeland® brand motor-
compressors with pilot circuit protection, the contactor
must meet Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. minimum
performance requirements.
CAPACITORS
An electrical capacitor is a device which stores electrical
energy. They are used in electric motors primarily to
displace the phase of the current passing through the
start winding. While a detailed study of electrical theory
is beyond the scope of this manual, capacitors in a
motor circuit provide starting torque, improve running
characteristics and efficiency, and improve the power
factor.
The amount of electrical energy a capacitor will hold
depends on the voltage applied. If the voltage is
increased, the amount of electrical energy stored in the
capacitor is increased. The capacity of a capacitor is
expressed in microfarads (MFD) and is dependent on
the size and construction of the capacitor.
The voltage rating of a capacitor indicates the nominal
voltage at which it is designed to operate. Use of a
capacitor at voltages below its rating will do no harm. Run
capacitors must not be subjected to voltages exceeding
110% of the nominal rating, and start capacitors must not
be subjected to voltages exceeding 130% of the nominal
rating. The voltage to which a capacitor is subjected is not
line voltage, but is a much higher potential (often called
electromotive force or back EMF) which is generated
in the start winding. On a typical 230 volt motor, the
generated voltage may be as high as 450 volts, and
is determined by the start winding characteristics, the
compressor speed, and the applied voltage.
Capacitors, either start or run, can be connected either
in series or parallel to provide the desired characteristics
if the voltage and MFD are properly selected. When two
capacitors having the same MFD rating are connected
in series, the resulting total capacitance will be one half
the rated capacitance of a single capacitor. The formula
for determining capacitance (MFD) when capacitors are
connected in series is as follows:
10-1
 1 = 1 + 1
MFD total MFD1 MFD2

For example, if a 20 MFD and a 30 MFD capacitor are

connected in series, the resultant capacitance will be

1 1 1
MFDt = MFDl + MFD2

1 1 1
MFDt = 20 + 30

1 5 1
MFDt = 60 = 12

MFDt = 12 MFD

The voltage rating of similar capacitors connected

in series is equal to the sum of the voltage of the
two capacitors. However, since the voltage across
individual capacitors in series will vary with the rating
of the capacitor, for emergency field replacements it is
recommended that only capacitors of like voltage and
capacitance be connected in series to avoid the possibility
of damage due to voltage beyond the capacitor limits. The use of capacitors supplied by Emerson Climate
Technologies, Inc. is recommended, but in case of an
When capacitors are connected in parallel, their MFD emergency exchange, a 15,000 -18,000 ohm, two watt
rating is equal to the sum of the individual ratings. The resistor should be soldered across the terminals of each
voltage rating is equal to the smallest rating of the starting capacitor. Care should be taken to prevent their
individual capacitors. shorting to the case or other nearby metallic objects.

It is possible to use any combination of single, series, If sticking contacts are encountered on any starting relay
or parallel starting capacitors, with single or parallel the first item to check is the starting capacitor resistors.
running capacitors (running capacitors are seldom If damaged, or not provided, install new resistors, and
used in series). clean the relay contacts or replace the relay.

START CAPACITORS
Start capacitors are designed for intermittent service only,
and have a high MFD rating. Their construction is of the
electrolytic type in order to obtain the high capacity.
All standard Copeland® brand starting-capacitors are
supplied with bleed-resistors securely attached and
soldered to their terminals as shown in Fig. 51.
The use of capacitors without these resistors probably
will result in sticking relay contacts and/or erratic relay
operation – especially where short cycling is likely to
occur.
This is due to the starting capacitor discharging through
the relay contacts as they close, following a very short
running cycle. The resistor will permit the capacitor
charge to bleed down at a much faster rate, preventing
arcing and overheating of the relay contacts.
Suitable resistors can be obtained from any radio parts
wholesaler.
RUN CAPACITORS
Run capacitors are continuously in the operating circuit,
and are normally of the oil filled type. The run capacitor
capacitance rating is much lower than a start capacitor.
Because of the voltage generated in the motor start
winding, the run capacitor has a voltage across its
terminals greater than line voltage.
The starting winding of a motor can be damaged by a
shorted and grounded running capacitor. This damage
usually can be avoided by proper connection of the
running capacitor terminals.
The terminal connected to the outer foil (nearest the
can) is the one most likely to short to the can and be
grounded in the event of a capacitor breakdown. It is

10-2 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.

identified and marked by most manufacturers of running
capacitors. See Fig. 52.
From the supply line on a typical 115 or 230 volt circuit,
a 115 volt potential exists from the “R” terminal to
ground through a possible short in the capacitor. (See
wiring diagram Fig. 53.) However, from the “S” or start
terminal, a much higher potential, possibly as high as
400 volts, exists because of the EMF generated in the
start winding. Therefore, the possibility of capacitor
failure is much greater when the identified terminal is
connected to the “S” or start terminal.
THE IDENTIFIED TERMINAL SHOULD ALWAYS
BE CONNECTED TO THE SUPPLY LINE, OR “R”
TERMINAL, NEVER TO THE “S” TERMINAL. This
applies to PSC as well as capacitor-start, capacitor-run
motors.
If connected in this manner, a shorted and grounded
running-capacitor will result in a direct short to ground
from the “R” terminal and will blow line fuse No.1. The
motor protector will protect the main winding from
excessive temperature.
If, however, the shorted and grounded terminal is
connected to the start winding terminal “S”, current will
flow from the supply line through the main winding and
through the start winding to ground. Even though the
protector may trip, current will continue to flow through
the start winding to ground, resulting in a continuing
temperature rise and failure of the starting winding.
REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTING
Full voltage “across-the-line” starting is the least
expensive way to start a three-phase motor, and all
motors in Copeland® brand compressors are designed
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
for full voltage starting. However, due to power company
limitations on starting current, some means of reducing
the inrush starting current on larger horsepower motors
is occasionally necessary. This is particularly true in
other countries, and is necessary in some sections of
the United States and Canada. The principal reason
for these restrictions is to prevent light flicker, television
interference, and undesirable side-effects on other
equipment because of the momentary voltage dip.
The reduced voltage start allows the power company
voltage regulator to pick up the line voltage after part
of the load is imposed, and thus avoids the sharper
voltage dip that would occur if the whole load were
thrown across the line.
Some electrical utilities may limit the inrush current drawn
from their lines to a given amount for a specified period
of time. Others may limit the current drawn on start-up
to a given percent of locked rotor current.
Unloading the compressor can be helpful in reducing
the starting and pull-up torque requirement, and will
enable the motor to accelerate quickly. But regardless of
whether the compressor is loaded or unloaded, the motor
will still draw full starting amperage for a small fraction
of a second. Since the principal objection usually is to
the momentary inrush current drawn under locked rotor
conditions when starting, unloading the compressor will
not always solve the problem. In such cases some type
of starting arrangement is necessary that will reduce the
starting current requirement of the motor.
Starters to accomplish this are commonly known as
reduced voltage starters, although in two of the most
common methods the line voltage to the motor is not
actually reduced. Since manual starting is not feasible
for refrigeration compressors, the only type of starters
to be considered are magnetic.
There are five types of magnetic reduced voltage starters,
each of which has certain characteristics, which are
desirable for specific applications.
1. Part winding
2. Star-Delta
3. Autotransformer
4. Primary Resistor
5. Reduced voltage step starting accessory
As the starting current is decreased, the starting torque
also drops, and the selection of the starter to be used
may be limited by the compressor torque requirement.
The maximum torque available with reduced voltage
starting is 64% of full-voltage torque, which can be
obtained with an autotransformer starter, while part
winding starters deliver approximately 45% of full-
10-3
voltage torque, and star-delta starters only 33%. For
Copeland® brand motor-compressors without unloaders,
a starting torque of 45% of full-voltage torque or higher
is recommended. The use of an unloaded start is helpful
in critical applications, and for low torque starting such
as encountered in star-delta starters, an unloaded start
is essential if the compressor is to start under reduced
voltage conditions.
10-4
However, it is not necessary for the motor-compressor
to start and accelerate under the reduced voltage phase
of starting to accomplish the objective of reducing the
peak starting current. By energizing the motor a step
at a time, the power company requirements may be
satisfied, while at the same time by keeping the time
delay between steps in starting to a minimum, damage to
the compressor can be avoided. It is of course desirable
for the compressor motor to start and accelerate under
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
reduced voltage starting conditions to realize the major
benefits of this type of starting arrangement.
1. Part Winding Start
This is not a true reduced voltage start, but it accomplishes
the same job - limiting inrush current - by utilizing only
part of the motor windings. Since it uses both the start
and run contactors to carry the motor current during
operation, it costs less than the other types.
To utilize part winding start, the motor must have a dual
winding. Copeland® brand 208/220/440 volt, 3 phase
motors are wound with two identical stator windings
which are connected in parallel on 208 or 220 volt
operation. For part winding start, the first step utilizes
only one winding or 1/2 of the stator, and these motors
may be used whenever part winding start is required
on 208 or 220 volt power. Part winding start cannot be
used on these motors when used on 440 volts, since
the entire winding must be connected in series for 440
volt power .
Copelametic® model 4R and 6R compressors are
currently available with dual wound motors, and some
4R and 6R models are available with specially wound
motors for part winding start on 550 volts.
Basically all that is required for part winding start are
two contactors, each capable of carrying the winding’s
full load and locked rotor current requirement, with a
time delay between the contactors. When the starter
is energized, the first magnetic contactor closes and
puts half of the motor winding across the line. A preset
time delay relay is energized at the same time, and at
the completion of the timing cycle, the second magnetic
contactor closes and puts the second half of the motor
winding in parallel with the first.
The normal Copeland® brand compressor motor
protectors must be used. Where current sensing
protectors are required, they must be installed in at
least two phases of each contactor. Motors equipped
with a Thermotector need no other external protection.
To prevent tripping of the protectors during starting, the
time delay between the first and second contactor must
be well within the protector’s tolerance for locked rotor
conditions, and a time delay device having a time cycle
setting of one second ± 10% is required.
The exact current and torque characteristics of a motor
will vary with design. For Copeland® brand motor-
compressors starting on one winding, the motor will
draw approximately 65% of the normal across-the-line
starting current, and produce approximately 45% of the
normal starting torque. Under heavily loaded conditions,
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
it is possible that the motor may not start until the
second winding is energized, or if it does start, it may
not accelerate. An unloaded start may be desirable
under extreme conditions.
On part winding start applications, occasionally an
electrical starting noise or “growl” of short duration
may be noticed. This occurs when the first half winding
starts the motor, but is unable to accelerate it beyond
a few hundred rpm. As soon as the second winding is
energized, the motor instantly accelerates, and the noise
disappears. Since the time delay between windings is
no greater than one second, the noise duration is very
short.
The noise will vary with voltage, speed, pressure
differential, motor horsepower, and will vary slightly
from compressor to compressor. In addition, motors
supplied by different sources may have slight differences
in motor characteristics, and the resulting sound may
be slightly different.
Occasionally service personnel mistake the starting noise
for bearing drag. The starting noise is quite normal, will
be more pronounced on larger motors, and does not
harm the compressor In any way.
2. Star-Delta Starting
For star-delta starting (also referred to as wye-delta)
a specially wound motor is required with both ends of
each phase winding brought out to terminals. By means
of contactors a motor designed for normal operation in
delta is first connected in star, and after a predetermined
time delay, the star connection is changed to delta. This
starting arrangement is relatively simple and inexpensive,
and is widely used in Europe.
Recently three phase, 50 cycle motors have been
developed for most Copeland® brand compressors 7½
HP and larger specially wound for star-delta starting.
Leads were brought out from both ends of each phase
so that the motors could be connected in either star or
delta. Motors are available for star-delta start connections
on either 380 volt, 50 cycle, 3 phase or 220 volt, 50
cycle, 3 phase circuits.
When a motor designed for delta operation is connected
in star, the voltage across each phase is reduced to 58%
of normal, and the motor develops 1/3 of the normal
starting torque. The inrush current in star is 1/3 of normal
inrush current in delta.
Star-delta starting is suitable for low torque starting duty
only. To insure starting on the star connection, some
means of pressure equalization across the compressor
(continued on p. 10-7)
10-5
10-6 © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
prior to starting is essential. Unloading the compressor
during the starting phase is also recommended.

In order to eliminate the objectionable flicker or jump in

current occurring during the change from star to delta,
closed transition starters employ an additional contactor
and three resistors which are utilized to keep the motor
connected to power through the resistors during the
transition period. Since the transition period is less than
1/10 of a second in duration, the resistors can be relatively
small. Closed transition starting is recommended to
prevent objectionable surges of current.

Since the relation between line current and phase current

will vary with the switch from star to delta connections,
motor overload protectors must be mounted in the
motor winding circuit. Compressors equipped with
Thermotectors (fast response thermostats) require no
additional external line protection since the Thermotector
protects by sensing an increase in motor winding
temperature. For compressors requiring external
current sensing protectors, specially sized protectors
are required, and the Emerson Climate Technologies,
Inc. Application Engineering Department should be
contacted for specifications.

3. Autotransformer Starters

Autotransformer type starters reduce the voltage across

the motor terminals during the starting and accelerating
period by first connecting the motor to taps on the
transformer, and then after a time delay, switching the
motor connection across the line.

Due to the lower starting voltage, the motor will draw

less current and will develop less torque than if the motor
were connected across the line.

Because of the transformer action, the current in the

motor windings is actually greater than the line current
by a proportion equal to the ratio of transformation, after
allowing for the autotransformer excitation current. This
results in a very flexible control system, since the starting
current inrush can be effectively limited as desired, while
the starting torque per ampere of the line current is the
maximum available from any reduced voltage starter.
The autotransformer starter is the most complex and the
most expensive of the reduced voltage starters, but if
high starting torque is required, it often is the only type
that will perform acceptably.

Taps are provided on the transformer for various stages

of voltage reduction, with reductions of 80% and 65%
of full line voltage normally available on most models.
Closed circuit transition is recommended to prevent
high transient current when transferring from “start” to
“run” conditions.

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 10-7
Regular Copeland® brand motor protectors can be
mounted in the leads to the compressor, or adequate
protection is provided by inherent protectors.
Since no special winding is required in the motor,
the autotransformer starter can be used with any
Copelametic® compressor. As with other types, the time
delay must be very brief to avoid tripping the protector
during the starting process.
4. Primary Resistor Starters
In many respects, the primary resistor starter is similar
to the autotransformer type. The motor is connected
to line current through heavy resistors during the initial
starting step in order to reduce the voltage applied to
the motor windings. After a time delay, the resistors
are shorted out of the circuit, and the compressor is
connected across the line.
However, since starting torque is proportional to the
square of the voltage applied to the motor, the starting
torque falls off rapidly with the reduction of applied motor
voltage. The resistors act to prevent current surges, and
provide smooth acceleration of the motor once starting
is accomplished, since the voltage drop across the
resistors decreases as the motor comes up to speed
and the inrush starting current decreases.
No special motor windings are required, and regular
Copeland® brand motor protectors can be used. As with
the autotransformer starter, this system can be applied
to any Copelametic® motor. The time delay must be
limited to avoid tripping during starting.
5. Reduced Voltage Step Starting Accessory
The reduced voltage accessory panel was developed
primarily as a low cost, special purpose auxiliary to solve
the problem of light flicker caused by air conditioners
of 3 HP and larger on single phase power lines. The
cost of special transformers and additional equipment
for the power companies made some type of voltage
limitation device essential if service was to be continued
to the large single phase loads. Basically the reduced
voltage step starting accessory operates on the same
principle as the primary resistor starter, but it is moderate
in cost, is used in conjunction with the regular contactor,
and is designed for consumer applications rather than
industrial use.
The accessory inserts a resistance in series with the
motor for approximately two seconds, after which a timing
relay energizes a contactor and shorts the resistors out
of the circuit. The resulting torque is low, and the motor
quite possibly will not start with the resistance in the
circuit, but the result is to break the inrush current into
10-8
two steps which reduces light flicker to a level which is
not objectionable.
MOTOR PROTECTION
Since hermetic motors may have to handle great
variations in load for extended periods, close tolerance
protection must be provided to protect the motor in the
event of an overload. Standard heater coils in general
purpose starters do not trip fast enough to protect the
motor under locked rotor conditions. Although fast trip
heater coils were developed to give faster response,
their variation due to ambient temperature changes
makes them undependable under field conditions.
Therefore specialized types of motor protection have
been developed for refrigeration motor-compressors.
In the event the compressor fails to start, and an internal
protector or thermostat trips, disconnecting the motor,
it will normally reset very quickly after the initial trip. If
several protector trips occur in succession, especially
when the motor is very hot from operation at heavily
loaded conditions, the motor temperature will rise to a
point exceeding the protector setting, and an off period
varying from 20 minutes to one hour may be required
for the compressor motor to cool sufficiently so that
the protector may reset. When this occurs, particularly
on across-the-line internally sealed protectors, service
personnel frequently assume that the motor has been
damaged and is inoperative, when in reality the motor
protection system is performing its intended duty. In the
event a compressor is checked and found to be very hot
and inoperative, allow at least one hour for the motor
to cool, and recheck after the cooling period before
changing the compressor .
Motor protection may be either of the line break or
pilot circuit type. A line break protector incorporates
contacts which actually open the line directly when the
protector trips. A pilot circuit protector takes the motor
off the line indirectly by opening the holding coil circuit
of the contactor, but the compressor protection is still
dependent on the contactor, since the compressor may
be subject to damage in case the contacts of a contactor
or starter have stuck or welded, despite the fact that the
pilot circuit protector may open.
INTERNAL INHERENT LINE BREAK PROTECTOR
An internal inherent line break protector is a device
carrying full load current, responsive both to current
and/or temperature, which breaks line current if safe
limits are exceeded.
For three phase motors, the internal inherent protector
is connected in the center of a wye wound motor. It is
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
located within the motor compartment on the motor
winding, and there are no external connections. Because
of its location, the protector is sensitive to temperature
as well as current. When the protector opens, it breaks
all three phases of the motor winding. Since this across-
the-line device provides both over-current and locked
rotor protection, a contactor may be used instead of a
motor starter. Internal inherent protectors are among the
best protection systems now available for hermetic and
accessible-hermetic motor-compressors, but because
of the size of the device required, in larger motors, and
also because their usage is limited to single voltage
motors, their use is currently restricted to 7½ HP motors
and smaller.
Single phase internal inherent protectors usually consist
of contacts mounted on a bimetal disc which is sensitive
to both current passing through the protector and heat
generated by the motor windings. They carry and break
full line current in the same manner as three phase
protectors, and have proved to be most satisfactory.
EXTERNAL INHERENT PROTECTOR
The external inherent protector is similar in construction
and operation to the internal inherent protector, but the
external protector is mounted on the compressor body
and senses motor current and compressor body heat
rather than motor winding heat. Because the external
protector is not subjected to refrigerant pressure, its
case is not hermetically sealed as is that of the internal
inherent protector.
INTERNAL THERMOSTATS
On some motor-compressors, particularly larger
horsepower sizes where inherent protectors cannot
be used, internal thermostats are located in the motor
winding. These are pilot circuit devices only, and react
only to motor winding heat. When overheated they open
the control circuit, thereby stopping the compressor.
These thermostats cannot be replaced in the field and
are protected against excessive current in the control
circuit by fuses.
Because the temperature rise in motor windings during
locked rotor conditions is both rapid and uneven, the
thermostat often lags behind the winding temperature,
and therefore some additional approved protective
device is necessary to protect the compressor motor
against locked rotor conditions.
EXTERNAL THERMOSTATS
On some older models of Copelametic® motor-
compressors, an external thermostat is clamped to the
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
motor housing to indirectly sense motor temperature.
This is a pilot circuit device, and is similar to the internal
thermostat in operation. Its sensitivity to temperature is
reduced, and consequently the protection provided is not
as good as that of the internal type. External thermostats
are no longer used by Emerson Climate Technologies,
Inc. on current production.
CURRENT SENSITIVE PROTECTORS
External current sensing motor protectors are used in
conjunction with internal thermostats to provide close
tolerance locked rotor protection. They may be either
thermal or magnetic in operation, carry full motor current,
and are responsive to the current drawn by the motor.
Normally these devices act to break the pilot circuit in
the event of a motor overload, but calibrated circuit
breaker types are available, which will break the line
current to the compressor.
THERMOTECTOR
The Thermotector is a quick reacting thermostat
imbedded in the motor windings which senses motor
temperature. Its current carrying capacity limits its use to
pilot circuit protection, but because of its fast response,
it provides protection against overheating under locked
rotor as well as running conditions. Therefore it can be
used with a contactor without external current sensing
protective devices, resulting in a simplified control
circuit.
SOLID STATE PROTECTORS
Various electronic solid state devices are now under
development for use in motor protection, and it is probable
their usage will increase. The control system design will
vary, but normally the sensing device is a temperature
sensing element mounted on the motor windings in
which the resistance changes with a change in motor
temperature. The change in resistance when amplified
by other solid state components acts to make or break
the pilot circuit. As in the case with the Thermotector
the quick response provides both running and locked
rotor current protection.
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
On air conditioners having motor compressors with PSC
motors, it is possible that nuisance tripping of household
type circuit breakers may occur. PSC motors have very
low starting torque, and if pressures are not equalized
at start up, the motor may require several seconds to
start and accelerate.
This is most apt to occur where a short cycle of the
compressor can be caused by the thermostat making
10-9
contact prematurely due to shock or vibration. Typically
this can occur where the thermostat is wall mounted and
can be jarred by the slamming of a door.
U. L. and most electrical inspection agencies now require
that hermetic type refrigeration motor-compressors
must comply with the National Electric Code maximum
fuse sizing requirement. This establishes the maximum
fuse size at 225% of the motor full load current, and by
definition the motor-compressor nameplate amperage
is considered full load current, unless this rating is
superseded by another on the unit nameplate.
Since the motor protector may take up to 17 seconds to
trip if the compressor fails to start, it is probable that a
standard type fuse or circuit breaker sized on the basis
of 225% of full load current may break the circuit prior to
the compressor protector trip, since locked rotor current
of the motor may be from 400% to 500% of nameplate
amperage.
To avoid nuisance tripping, Emerson Climate
Technologies, Inc. recommends that air conditioners
with PSC motors be installed with branch circuit fuses or
circuit breakers sized as closely as possible to the 225%
maximum limitation, the fuse or circuit breaker to be of
the time delay type with a capability of withstanding motor
locked rotor current for a minimum of 17 seconds.
EFFECT OF UNBALANCED VOLTAGE AND
CURRENT ON THREE PHASE MOTOR
PROTECTION
When external current sensing motor protectors are
used to protect a three phase motor-compressor against
excessive current draw and resulting motor overheating,
unbalanced motor currents can seriously affect the
motor protection system. While it is generally recognized
that a break in one phase of a three phase distribution
system can result in excessive amperage draw because
of the resulting single phasing condition, another and
equally serious hazard is the effect on amperage of an
unbalanced voltage in the power supply.
If single phasing occurs, the motor may stall unless lightly
loaded, and once stopped, it will not start, resulting in
locked rotor amperage draw. Under unbalanced voltage
conditions, however, the motor will continue to operate,
and motor protection may be dependent on the ability
of the protectors to sense the abnormally high running
current or the increase in the motor temperature.
A properly wound three phase motor connected to a
supply source in which the voltages in each phase
are balanced at all times will have identical currents in
all three phases. The differences in motor windings in
10-10
modern motors are normally so small that the effect on
amperage draw is negligible. Under an ideal condition,
if the phase voltages were always equal, a single motor
protector in just one line would adequately protect the
motor against damage due to excessive amperage
draw. As a practical matter, balanced supply voltages
are not always maintained, so the three line currents
will not always be equal.
Inherent line break motor protectors mounted at the
center of the wye on wye wound motors provide protection
against all forms of voltage variation. However, on larger
motors the size of the protector makes inherent protectors
impractical, and many larger models of Copeland®
brand compressors have a combination pilot circuit
protection system, consisting of internal thermostats and
external current sensing protectors. Because internal
thermostats are somewhat slow in reaction, and lag
behind the actual motor temperature in the event of a
fast temperature rise, locked rotor protection is provided
by the external protector. Since in most cases adequate
protection can be provided by two leg current sensing
protection, and because of the size and cost of external
protectors, the majority of compressors are installed with
two leg protection, although the third protector can be
supplied if desired. In order to determine if the motor
will be adequately protected under various abnormal
conditions, an understanding of the inter-relation of
current and unbalanced voltage is essential.
When line voltages applied to a three phase induction
motor are not the same, unbalanced currents will flow in
the stator windings. The effect of unbalanced voltages
is equivalent to the introduction of a “negative sequence
voltage” which is exerting a force opposite to that created
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
with balanced voltages. These opposing forces will
produce currents in the windings greatly in excess of
those present under balanced voltage conditions.

Voltage unbalance is calculated as follows:

% Voltage Unbalance = 100 x

Max. Voltage Deviation from Average Volt.
Average Voltage

For example, in Figure 57, assume voltage AB is 220

volts, BC is 230 volts, and AC is 216 volts.

Average Voltage =
216 + 220 + 230
3 = 222 Volts

Maximum Deviation = 230 - 222 = 8 Volts

100 X 8
% Voltage Unbalance = 222 = 3.6%
As a result of the voltage unbalance, the locked rotor
current will be unbalanced to the same degree. However,
the unbalance in load currents at normal operating
speed may be from 4 to 10 times the voltage unbalance,
depending on the load. With the 3.6% voltage unbalance
in the previous example, load current in one phase might
be as much as 30% greater than the average line current
being drawn by the other two phases.
The NEMA Motors and Generators Standards Publication
states that the percentage increase in temperature rise
in a phase winding resulting from voltage unbalance will
be approximately two times the square of the voltage
unbalance.
% Increase in Temperature =
2 (Voltage Unbalance %)²
the highest amperage draw.
A common source of unbalanced voltage on a three
phase circuit is the presence of a single phase load
between two of the three phases. (See Figure 58).
A large unbalanced single phase load, for example a
lighting circuit, can easily cause sufficient variations in
motor currents to endanger the motor. If at all possible,
this condition should be corrected by shifting the single
phase load as necessary. Supply voltages should
be evenly balanced as closely as can be read on a
commercial voltmeter.
A recent national survey by U.L. indicated that 36 out of
83 utilities surveyed, or 43%, allowed voltage unbalance
in excess of 3%, and 30% allowed voltage unbalance
of 5% or higher.

Using the voltage unbalance from the previous example, In the event of a supply voltage unbalance, the power
the % increase in temperature can be estimated as company should be notified of such unbalance to
follows: determine if the situation can be corrected.

% Increase in Temperature = 2(3.6 x 3.6) = 25.9%
As a result of this condition, it is possible that one phase
winding in a motor may be overheated while the other
two have temperatures within normal limits. If only two
motor protectors are being used, and the high current
winding is not protected, ultimate motor failure may
occur even though the protectors do not trip. Therefore,
when installing external motor protectors for a motor in
which only two of the three phases are to be protected,
be sure the protectors are mounted in the phases with
Unless the unbalance can be corrected, the only way
to insure motor safety is to be sure the protectors are
mounted in the high current phases when using two leg
protection, or to use protectors in all three legs.
A simple single phase condition in the load circuit will
cause the current in two of the three phases to increase,
while there will be no current in the open phase.
A motor can be protected against this type of failure
with only two protectors, since there will always be at
least one protector in a line carrying the high single
phase current.

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 10-11
The effect of an open phase in the primary circuit of a
power transformer depends on the type of transformer
connection. Where both primary and secondary windings
are connected in the same fashion, wye-wye or delta-
delta, a fault in one phase of the primary will result in
a low current in one phase of the secondary, and high
currents in two phases, with results similar to the simple
load circuit single phase condition.
But in wye-delta or delta-wye connected power
transformers, an open circuit or single phase on the
primary side of the transformer will result in a high current
in only one phase of the motor with low currents in the
other two phases.
Under locked rotor conditions, the high phase will
draw an amperage slightly less than nameplate locked
rotor current, while the other two legs will each draw
approximately 50% of that amount. Under operating
conditions, the current in the high phase could be in
excess of 200% of full load amperes, depending on load,
while the current in the other two legs will be slightly
greater than normal full load amperes.
Since the majority of power systems now use wye-delta
or delta-wye transformer connections, occasional faults
of this type can be expected.
Most commercial power systems are quite reliable, and if
a primary single phase condition does occur in a system
where the compressor has only two leg protection, the
10-12
motor would still be protected should the high current
fall in either of the two protected legs. Therefore, the
statistical chances of failure are small, so normally no
special provisions for this type of protection are provided
unless required by code or regulatory bodies. However,
if a primary single phase fault occurs, it may last for
several hours, and motors not adequately protected
are quite likely to fail.
Most of the three phase protections systems used
by Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. will protect
against primary single phasing, but if there is any
question concerning an application, the matter should
be referred to the Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
Application Engineering Department. However, where
unbalanced supply voltages and single phase loads
represent a continuing threat to three phase motor life,
it is recommended that inherently protected motors be
used, or if inherent protection is not available because
of motor size, the motor-compressor should be equipped
with 3 leg protection.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 Section 11
ACCESSORIES

A number of accessory items are used in refrigeration
circuits for specific purposes, and their requirement in
a particular system depends on the application.
RECEIVERS
gas flows through the large center tube, while liquid is
piped through the smaller tube wrapped around the
suction tubing. The cold suction vapor absorbs heat
from the warm, high pressure liquid through the tube
to tube metal contact. Internal fins are often provided

A receiver is primarily a liquid storage tank for refrigerant

which is not in circulation. Small package systems
utilizing capillary tubes for liquid refrigerant feed may
have very small refrigerant charges, and if the operating
load is fairly constant, careful design of the evaporator
and condenser may allow the elimination of the receiver
from the system. If the condenser has volume enough
to provide storage space, a separate receiver is not
required, and this is common design practice in water-
cooled units with shell and tube condensers. However,
on practically all air cooled units equipped with expansion
valves, a separate receiver is required.
in the suction gas section to increase the heat transfer
In order to provide space to store the refrigerant between the suction gas and the liquid refrigerant.
charge when maintenance is required on the system,
the receiver should be large enough to hold the entire SUCTION ACCUMULATORS
refrigerant charge. A valve at the receiver outlet is
required in order to pump the refrigerant charge into If liquid refrigerant is allowed to flood through the system
the receiver, an operation commonly called pumping and return to the compressor before being evaporated,
the system down. it may cause damage to the compressor due to liquid
slugging, loss of oil from the crankcase, or bearing
The outlet of the receiver must be so located that a liquid washout. To protect against this condition on systems
seal is maintained at the outlet even though the level in
the receiver tank may vary, to prevent any vapor from
entering the liquid line. Therefore if the outlet is at the
top, or if a side outlet is provided, a dip tube extending
to approximately ½” from the bottom of the receiver is
used.

HEAT EXCHANGERS

A heat exchanger is a device for transferring heat from

one medium to another. In commercial refrigeration
systems the general term of heat exchanger is used
to describe a component for transferring heat from the
liquid refrigerant to the refrigerant suction gas.

As mentioned previously, a heat exchanger is used

to raise the temperature of the return gas to prevent
frosting or condensation, to subcool the liquid refrigerant
sufficiently to prevent the formation of flash gas in the
liquid line, to evaporate any liquid refrigerant flooding
through the evaporator, and to increase system
capacity.

A typical heat exchanger is shown in Figure 61. Suction

© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 11-1
vulnerable to liquid damage such as heat pumps, truck
refrigeration, or on any installation where liquid floodback
can occur, a suction accumulator is often used.
The accumulator’s function is to intercept liquid refrigerant
before it can reach the compressor crankcase. It should
be located in the compressor suction line between the
evaporator and the compressor, should have a capacity
large enough to hold the maximum amount of liquid
that might flood through, and must have provisions
for a positive return of oil to the crankcase. Either a
source of heat must be provided to evaporate the liquid
refrigerant or a means must be provided to meter the
liquid to the compressor at a safe rate. A positive oil
return must also be provided so that oil does not trap
in the accumulator.
Figure 62 illustrates a vertical accumulator with a U-tube
suction connection.
OIL SEPARATORS
Although well designed systems are effective in
preventing oil return problems, there are some cases
where the use of oil separators may be necessary.
They are most often required on ultra-low temperature
systems, with flooded evaporators, or on other systems
where inherent oil return problems are present.
An oil separator is basically a separation chamber for oil
and discharge gas. There is always some oil in circulation
in a refrigeration system and oil leaving the compressor
is entrained in the hot discharge gas which is traveling
at high velocity. The oil separator when used is installed
in the discharge line between the compressor and the
condenser. By means of baffles and a reduction of gas
velocity in the oil separator chamber, most of the oil
is separated from the hot gas, and is returned to the
compressor crankcase by means of a float valve and
connecting tubing. The efficiency of an oil separator
varies with load conditions, and is never 100% effective
even under ideal conditions. If system design causes
oil logging, an oil separator may only delay lubrication
difficulty rather than cure it.
DEHYDRATORS
Moisture is one of the basic enemies of a refrigeration
system, and the moisture level in an operating system
must be held to an acceptable low level to avoid system
malfunctions or compressor damage. Even with the best
precautions, moisture will enter a system any time it is
opened for field service. Unless the system is thoroughly
evacuated and recharged after exposure to moisture, the
only other effective means of removing small amounts
of moisture is with a dehydrator.
11-2
Dehydrators or driers, as they are commonly called,
consist of a shell filled with a desiccant or drying agent,
with an adequate filter at each end. Some driers are made
in porous block form so that the refrigerant is filtered by
the entire block. Driers are mounted in the refrigerant
liquid line, so that all of the refrigerant in circulation must
pass through the drier each time it circulates through
the system. Most driers are so constructed that they can
serve a dual function as both filter and drier.
Many different drying agents are used, but practically
all modern driers are either of the throwaway type, or
of the replaceable element type, and it is considered
good practice to discard the used drier element each
time the system is opened, and replace with a new drier
or drier element.
SUCTION LINE FILTERS
In order to protect the compressor from contamination
left in the system at the time of installation, suction
line filters are widely used. The suction line filter is
designed for permanent installation in the suction line,
and may be of the sealed type, or may be equipped with
a replaceable element so that the filter can be easily
changed if necessary.
The replaceable element type is convenient for installing
a system cleaning filter-drier element in the event of
system contamination.
VIBRATION ELIMINATORS
In order to prevent the transmission of noise and vibration
from the compressor through the refrigeration piping,
vibration eliminators are frequently installed in both the
suction and discharge lines. On small units, where small
diameter soft copper tubing is used for the refrigerant
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
lines, a coil of tubing may provide adequate protection
against vibration. On larger compressors, flexible metallic
hose is most frequently used.
STRAINERS
Strainers, as the name implies, are mounted in refrigerant
lines to strain any dirt, metal chips, etc. out of the
refrigerant which might cause a malfunction in either
the refrigerant control devices or the compressor. While
the configuration of the strainer will vary, basically it is
comprised of a shell with a fine mesh screen. Because
of the small orifice in expansion and solenoid valves,
strainers are normally mounted just upstream from them
in the refrigerant liquid line.
SIGHT GLASS AND MOISTURE INDICATORS
A sight glass in the liquid line allows the operator or
serviceman to observe the flow of liquid refrigerant.
Bubbles or foaming in the sight glass indicate a shortage
of refrigerant, or a restriction in the liquid line that is
adversely affecting system operation. Sight glasses are
widely used as a means of determining if the system is
adequately charged when adding refrigerant.
Moisture indicators have been incorporated in sight
glasses as shown in Figure 65.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
The moisture indicator provides a warning signal for
the serviceman in the event moisture has entered the
system, indicating that the dehydrator should be changed
or that other action should be taken to effectively dry
the system.
DISCHARGE MUFFLERS
On systems where noise transmission must be reduced to
a minimum, or where compressor pulsation might create
vibration problems, a discharge muffler is frequently used
to dampen and reduce compressor discharge noise.
The muffler is basically a shell with baffle plates, with
the internal volume required primarily dependent on
the compressor displacement, although the frequency
and intensity of the sound waves are also factors in
muffler design.
CRANKCASE HEATERS
When the compressor is installed in a location where
it will be exposed to ambient temperatures colder than
the evaporator, refrigerant migration to the crankcase
can be aggravated by the resulting pressure difference
between the evaporator and compressor during off
cycles. To protect against the possibility of migration,
crankcase heaters are often employed to keep the oil in
the crankcase at a temperature high enough so that any
liquid refrigerant entering the crankcase will evaporate
and create a pressure sufficient to prevent large scale
migration.
Crankcase heaters may be of the insert type or can be
mounted externally on the crankcase. The heater is a
low wattage resistance element, normally energized
continuously, and must be carefully selected to avoid
overheating of the oil in the compressor.
11-3
REFRIGERATION GAUGES
Pressure gauges, especially calibrated for refrigeration
usage, are the primary tool of the serviceman in checking
system performance. Gauges for the high pressure side
of the system have scales reading from 0 psig to 300
psig (or for usage on higher pressures, from 0 psig to 400
psig). Gauges for the low pressure part of the system are
termed compound gauges, since the scale is graduated
11-4
for pressures above atmospheric pressure in psig, and
for pressures below atmospheric pressure in vacuum in
inches of mercury. The compound gauge is calibrated
from 30 inches of vacuum to pressures ranging from 60
psig to 150 psig depending on gauge design.
In addition to the pressure scales, equivalent saturation
temperatures for commonly used refrigerants are usually
shown on the gauge dial.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Form No. AE 102 R2 (10/06))
1675 W. Campbell Rd.
Emerson®, Emerson. Consider It Solved™, Emerson Climate Technologies™ and Sidney, OH 45365
the Emerson Climate Technologies™ logo are the trademarks and service marks of
Emerson Electric Co. and are used with the permission of Emerson Electric Co. EmersonClimate.com
Copelametic®, Copeland®, and the Copeland® brand products logo are the
trademarks and service marks of Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
Printed in the USA. © 1967 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Refrigeration Manual

Part 3 - The Refrigeration Load

 FOREWORD

The practice of refrigeration undoubtedly goes back as far as the history of mankind, but
for thousands of years the only cooling mediums were water and ice. Today refrigeration in
the home, in the supermarket, and in commercial and industrial usage is so closely woven
into our everyday existence it is difficult to imagine life without it. But because of this rapid
growth, countless people who must use and work with refrigeration equipment do not fully
understand the basic fundamentals of refrigeration system operation.

This manual is designed to fill a need which exists for a concise, elementary text to aid
servicemen, salesman, students, and others interested in refrigeration. It is intended to
cover only the fundamentals of refrigeration theory and practice. Detailed information as to
specific products is available from manufacturers of complete units and accessories. Used
to supplement such literature—and to improve general knowledge of refrigeration—this
manual should prove to be very helpful.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Part 3
THE REFRIGERATION LOAD
Section 12.  HEAT TRANSMISSION
Transmission Heat Load — Q........................... 12-1
Thermal Conductivity — k................................. 12-1
Thermal Resistivity — r..................................... 12-1
Conductance — C............................................. 12-1
Thermal Resistance — R.................................. 12-1
Surface File Resistance.................................... 12-1
Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer — U.......... 12-1
Transmission Heat Load.................................... 12-2
Values of Thermal Conductivity for
Building Materials....................................... 12-3
Outdoor Design Data......................................... 12-3
Allowance for Radiation from the Sun............... 12-8
Recommended Insulation Thickness................. 12-8
Quick Calculation Table for Walk-in Coolers..... 12-9
Section 13.  AIR INFILTRATION
Air Change Estimating Method.......................... 13-1
Air Velocity Estimating Method.......................... 13-1
Ventilating Air..................................................... 13-2
Infiltration Heat Load......................................... 13-2
Section 14.  PRODUCT LOAD
Tables of Specific Product Data........................ 14-1
Heat of Respiration............................................ 14-1
Sensible Heat Above Freezing.......................... 14-7
Latent Heat of Freezing..................................... 14-8
Sensible Heat Below Freezing.......................... 14-8
Total Product Load............................................ 14-8
Storage Data..................................................... 14-8
Section 15.  SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD
Electric Lights and Heaters............................... 15-1
Electric Motors................................................... 15-1
Human Heat Load............................................. 15-1
Total Supplementary Load................................. 15-1
Section 16.  EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Hourly Load....................................................... 16-1
Sample Load Calculation.................................. 16-1
Relative Humidity and Evaporator TD............... 16-2
Compressor Selection....................................... 16-2
Component Balancing....................................... 16-3
The Effect of Change in Compressor
Only on System Balance............................ 16-9
Quick Select Tables for Walk-in Coolers........... 16-11
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
INDEX OF TABLES

Table 4 Typical Heat Transmission Coefficients.................................................................................. 12-3

Table 5 Summer Outdoor Design Data............................................................................................... 12-5
Table 6 Allowance for Sun Effect......................................................................................................... 12-8
Table 7 Recommended Minimum Insulation Thickness...................................................................... 12-9
Table 7A Quick Estimate Factors for Heat Transmission Through Insulated Walls............................... 12-9
Table 8 Average Air Changes per 24 Hours for Storage Rooms Due to Opening and Infiltration....... 13-1
Table 9 Heat Removed in Cooling Air to Storage Room Conditions................................................... 13-2
Table 10 Food Products Data................................................................................................................ 14-1
Table 11 Properties of Solids................................................................................................................. 14-4
Table 12 Properties of Liquids............................................................................................................... 14-6
Table 13 Storage Requirements and Properties of Perishable Products.............................................. 14-9
Table 14 Storage Conditions for Cut Flowers and Nursery Stock......................................................... 14-11
Table 15 Space, Weight, and Density Data for Commodities Stored in Refrigerated Warehouses...... 14-12
Table 16 Heat Equivalent of Electric Motors.......................................................................................... 15-1
Table 17 Heat Equivalent of Occupancy............................................................................................... 15-1
Table 18 Recommended Condensing Unit Capacity for Walk-in Coolers, 35°F. Temperature.............. 16-12
Table 19 Recommended Condensing Unit Capacity for Walk-in Coolers, Low Temperature................ 16-12

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Section 12
HEAT TRANSMISSION
The heat gain through walls, floors and ceilings will vary
with the type of construction, the area exposed to a dif-
ferent temperature, the type of insulation, the thickness
of insulation, and the temperature difference between
the refrigerated space and the ambient air.
In catalog and technical literature pertaining to heat
transfer, certain letter symbols are commonly used to
denote the heat transfer factors, and a working knowl-
edge of these symbols is frequently necessary to easily
interpret catalog data.
TRANSMISSION HEAT LOAD — Q
The basic formula for heat transfer through some heat
transfer barrier is:
Q = U x A x TD
Q = Heat transfer, BTU/Hr
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
BTU/(hour)(sq. ft.)(°F TD)
A = Area in square feet
TD = Temperature differential between
sides of thermal barrier, for
example, between outside design
temperature and the refrigerated
space temperature.
Q is the rate of heat flow, the quantity of heat flowing
after all factors are considered.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY — k
Thermal conductivity, k, is defined as the rate of heat
transfer that occurs through a material in units of
BTU/(hr)(square foot of area)(°F TD) per inch of thick-
ness. Different materials offer varying resistances to
the flow of heat.
For example, the heat transfer in 24 hours through two
square feet of material three inches in thickness hav-
ing a thermal conductivity factor of .25 with an average
temperature difference across the material of 70°F
would be calculated as follows:
.25(k) x 2 sq. ft. x 24 hours x 70° TD
Q= 3 inches thickness = 280 BTU TRANSFER — U
Since the total heat transferred by conduction varies
directly with time, area, and temperature difference, and
varies inversely with the thickness of the material, it is
readily apparent that in order to reduce heat transfer,
12-1
the thermal conductivity factor should be as small as
possible, and the material as thick as possible.
THERMAL RESISTIVITY — r
Thermal resistivity is defined as the reciprocal of thermal
conductivity of 1/k. “r” is of importance because resis-
tance values can be added numerically.
R total = r1 + r2 + r3
Where r1, r2, and r3 are individual resistances. This
makes the use of r convenient in calculating overall
heat transfer coefficients.
CONDUCTANCE — C
Thermal conductance is similar to thermal conductiv-
ity, except that it is an overall heat transfer factor for
a given thickness of material, as opposed to thermal
conductivity, k, which is a factor per inch of thickness.
The definition is similar, BTU/(hour)(square foot of
area)(°F TD).
THERMAL RESISTANCE — R
Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of conductance, 1/C
in the same way that thermal resistivity is the reciprocal
of conductivity.
SURFACE FILM RESISTANCE
Heat transfer through any material is affected by the
surface resistance to heat flow, and this is determined
by the type of surface, rough or smooth; its position,
vertical or horizontal; its reflective properties; and the
rate of airflow over the surface. Surface film conduc-
tance, normally denoted by fi for inside surfaces and fo
for outside surfaces is similar to conductance.
However, in refrigeration work with insulated walls, the
conductivity is so low that the surface film conductance
has little effect, and therefore, can be omitted from the
calculation.
OVERALL COEFFICIENT OF HEAT
The overall coefficient of heat transfer, U, is defined as
the rate of heat transfer through a material or compound
structural member with parallel walls. The U factor,
as it is commonly called, is the resulting heat transfer
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
coefficient after giving effect to thermal conductivity, .80, and two inches of insulation having a conductance
conductance, and surface film conductance, and is ex- of .16, the U value is found as follows:
pressed in terms of BTU/(hour) (square foot of area)(°F
TD). It is usually applied to compound structures such 1 X 1

as walls, ceilings, and roofs. R Total = C + k 1

The formula for calculating the U factor is complicated 1 2

by the fact that the total resistance to heat flow through a = .16 + .80
substance of several layers is the sum of the resistance
of the various layers. The resistance of heat flow is the = 6.25 + 2.5 = 8.75
reciprocal of the conductivity. Therefore, in order to
calculate the overall heat transfer factor, it is necessary 1 1
to first find the overall resistance to heat flow, and then U = R Total = 8.75
find the reciprocal of the overall resistance to calculate
the U factor. =.114 BTU/(hour)(sq. ft.)(°F TD)

The basic relation between the U factor and the various TRANSMISSION HEAT LOAD
conductivity factors is as follows:
Once the U factor is known, the heat gain by transmis-
1 X1 X2 sion through a given wall can be calculated by the basic
R Total = C + k1 + k2 heat transfer equation.

1 Assume a wall with a U factor of .114 as calculated in the

U= R Total
In the above equation, k1, k2, etc. are the thermal
conductivities of the various materials used, C is the
conductance if it applies rather than k1, and X1, X2, etc.
are the thicknesses of the material.
For example, to calculate the U factor of a wall com-
posed of two inches of material having a k1 factor of
previous example. Given an area of 90 square feet with
an inside temperature of 0°F, an outside temperature of
80°F, the heat transmission would be:
Q = U x A x TD
= .114 x 90 sq. ft x 80°TD
= 812 BTU/hr
The entire heat gain into a given refrigerated space
can be found in a similar manner by determining the
U factor for each part of the structure surrounding the
refrigerated space, and calculating as above.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 12-2
VALUES OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FOR
BUILDING MATERIALS
Extensive testing has been done by many laboratories
to determine accurate values for heat transfer through
all common building and structural materials. Certain
materials have a high resistance to the flow of heat (a
low thermal conductivity) and are therefore used as
insulation to decrease the heat transfer into the refriger-
ated space. There are many different types of insulation
such as asbestos, glass fiber, cork, reflective metals,
and the new foam materials. Most good insulating
materials have a thermal conductivity (k) factor of ap-
proximately .25 or less, and rigid foam insulations have
been developed with thermal conductivity (k) factors as
low as .12 to .15.
Heat transmission coefficients for many commonly used
building materials are shown in Table 4.
12-3
OUTDOOR DESIGN DATA
Extensive studies have been made of weather bureau
records for many years to arrive at suitable outdoor
design temperatures. For air conditioning or refrigera-
tion applications, the maximum load occurs during the
hottest weather.
However, it is neither economical or practical to design
equipment for the hottest temperature which might ever
occur, since the peak temperature might occur for only
a few hours over the span of several years. Therefore,
the design temperature normally is selected as a tem-
perature that will not be exceeded more than a given
percentage of the hours during the four month summer
season. Table 5 lists summer design temperatures,
which will be equaled or exceeded only during 1% of
the hours during the four summer months.
(continued on p. 12-8)
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 12-4
12-5 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 12-6
12-7 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
ALLOWANCE FOR RADIATION FROM THE SUN
The primary radiation factor involved in the refrigeration
load is heat gain from the sun’s rays. If the walls of the
refrigerated space are exposed to the sun, additional
heat will be added to the heat load. For ease in calcu-
lation, an allowance can be made for the sun load in
refrigeration calculations by increasing the temperature
differential by the factors listed in Table 6.
This table is usable for refrigeration loads only, and is
not accurate for air conditioning estimates.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
RECOMMENDED INSULATION THICKNESS
As the desired storage temperature decreases, the
refrigeration load increases, and as the evaporating
temperature decreases, the compressor efficiency
decreases. Therefore, from a practical and economic
standpoint, the insulation thickness must be increased
as the storage temperature decreases.
Table 7 lists recommended insulation thickness from the
1981 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. The recom-
mendations are based on expanded polyurethane which
has a conductivity factor of .16. If other insulations are
used, the recommended thickness should be adjusted
base on relative k factors.
12-8
QUICK CALCULATION TABLE FOR
WALK-IN COOLERS

As an aid in the quick calculation of heat transmission

through insulated walls, Table 7A lists the approximate
heat gain in BTU per 1°F. temperature difference per
square foot of surface per 24 hours for various thick-
nesses of commonly used insulations. The thickness of
insulation referred to is the actual thickness of insulation,
and not the overall wall thickness.

For example, to find the heat transfer for 24 hours

through a 6’ x 8’ wall insulated with 4 inches of glass
fiber when the outside is exposed to 95°F ambient
temperature, and the box temperature is 0°F., calculate
as follows:

1.9 factor x 48 sq. ft. x 95°TD = 8664 BTU

12-9 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Section 13
AIR INFILTRATION

Any outside air entering the refrigerated space must be 8 100

reduced to the storage temperature, thus increasing the Velocity = 100 FPM x 7 x 60
refrigeration load. In addition, if the moisture content of
the entering air is above that of the refrigerated space,
2.83 10
the excess moisture will condense out of the air, and
the latent heat of condensation will add to the refrigera- =100 x 2.65 x 7.74
tion load.
= 138 FPM
Because of the many variables involved, it is difficult to
calculate the additional heat gain due to air infiltration. Estimated rate of Infiltration
Various means of estimating this portion of the refrig-
eration load have been developed based primarily on 138 FPM x 8 ft. x 4 ft. = 2210 cu. ft per min.
experience, but all of these estimating methods are 2
subject to the possibility of sizable error, and specific
applications may vary widely in the actual heat gain Infiltration velocities for various door heights and TDs
encountered. are plotted in Figure 67.

AIR CHANGE ESTIMATING METHOD
The traffic in and out of a refrigerator usually varies with
its size or volume. Therefore the number of times doors
are opened will be related to the volume rather than the
number of doors.
If the average time the door is opened each hour can
be determined, the average hourly infiltration can be
calculated, and the heat gain can be determined as
before.

Table 8 lists estimated average air changes per 24 hours

for various sized refrigerators due to door openings
and infiltration for a refrigerated storage room. Note
that these values are subject to major modification if it
is definitely determined that the usage of the storage
room is either heavy or light.

AIR VELOCITY ESTIMATING METHOD

Another means of computing infiltration into a refriger-
ated space is by means of the velocity of airflow through
an open door. When the door of a refrigerated storage
space is opened, the difference in density between cold
and warm air will create a pressure differential causing
cold air to flow out the bottom of the doorway and warm
air to flow in the top. Velocities will vary from maximum
at the top and bottom to zero in the center.

The estimated average velocity in either half of the door

is 100 feet per minute for a doorway seven feet high at
60°F. TD. The velocity will vary as the square root of
the height of the doorway and as the square root of the
temperature difference.

For example the rate of infiltration through a door 8

feet high and 4 feet wide, with a 100°F. TD between
the storage room and the ambient can be estimated
as follows:

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 13-1
VENTILATING AIR
If positive ventilation is provided for a space by means of
supply or exhaust fans, the ventilation load will replace
the infiltration load (if greater) and the heat gain may be
calculated on the basis of the ventilating air volume.
INFILTRATION HEAT LOAD
Once the rate of infiltration has been determined, the
heat load can then be calculated from the heat gain
13-2
per cubic foot of infiltration as given in Table 9. For ac-
curate calculations at conditions not covered by Table
9, the heat load can be determined by the difference
in enthalpy between entering air and the storage room
air conditions. This is most easily accomplished by use
of the psychrometric chart, which will be discussed in
detail in a subsequent section.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 13-3
 Section 14
PRODUCT LOAD
The product load is composed of any heat gain occur-
ring due to the product in the refrigerated space. The
load may arise from a product placed in the refrigerator
at a temperature higher than the storage temperature,
from a chilling or freezing process, or from the heat of
respiration of perishable products. The total product load
is the sum of the various types of product load which
may apply to the particular application.
TABLES OF SPECIFIC PRODUCT DATA
The following tables list data on specific products that
is essential in calculating the refrigeration product load.
Table 10 covers food products, Table 11 solids, and
Table 12 liquids.
14-1
HEAT OF RESPIRATION
Fruits and vegetables, even though they have been
removed from the vine or tree on which they grew, are
still living organisms. Their life processes continue for
some time after being harvested, and as a result they
give off heat. Certain other food products also undergo
continuing chemical reactions which produce heat.
Meats and fish have no further life processes and do
not generate any heat.
The amount of heat given off is dependent on the
specific product and its storage temperature. Table 10
lists various food products with pertinent storage data.
Note that the heat of respiration varies with the storage
temperature.
(continued on p. 14-7)
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 14-2
14-3 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 14-4
 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
14-5 All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 14-6
SENSIBLE HEAT ABOVE FREEZING temperature above freezing may be calculated as fol-
lows:
Most products are at a higher temperature than the stor-
age temperature when placed in a refrigerator. Since Q = W x c x (T1 - T2)
many foods have a high percentage of water content,
their reaction to a loss of heat is quite different above Q = BTU to be removed
and below the freezing point. Above the freezing point, W = Weight of the product in pounds
the water exists in liquid form, while below the freezing c = Specific heat above freezing
point, the water has changed its state to ice. T1 = Initial temperature, °F.
T2 = Initial temperature, °F. (freezing or above)
As mentioned previously, the specific heat of a product
is defined as the BTUs required to raise the temperature For example, the heat to be removed in order to cool
of one pound of the substance 1°F. The specific heats 1,000 pounds of veal (whose freezing point is 29°F.)
of various commodities are listed in Tables 10, 11, and from 42°F. to 29°F. can be calculated as follows:
12. Note that in Table 10 the specific heat of the product
above freezing is different than the specific heat below Q = W x c x (T1 - T2)
freezing, and the freezing point (listed in the first column) = 1000 pounds x .71 specific heat x (42-29)
varies, but in practically all cases is below 32°F. = 1000 x .71 x 13
= 9,230 BTU
The heat to be removed from a product to reduce its

14-7 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
LATENT HEAT OF FREEZING
The latent heat of fusion or freezing for liquids other
than water is given in Table 12. Substances such as
metals which contain no water do not have a freezing
point, and no latent heat of fusion is involved in lowering
their temperature.
Most food products, however, have a high percentage
of water content. In order to calculate the heat removal
required to freeze the product, only the water need be
considered. The water content percentage for various
food products is given in Table 10, Column 2.
Since the latent heat of fusion or freezing of water is 144
BTU/lb., the latent heat of fusion for the product can be
calculated by multiplying 144 BTU/lb. by the percentage
of water content, and for ease in calculations this figure
is given in Column 5 of Table 10. To illustrate, veal has a
water percentage of 63%, and the latent heat of fusion
listed in Column 5 for veal is 91 BTU/lb.
63% x 144 BTU/lb. = 91 BTU/lb.
The heat to be removed from a product for the latent
heat of freezing may be calculated as follows:
Q = W x hif
Q = BTU to be removed
W = Weight of product in pounds
hif = latent heat of fusion, BTU/lb.
The latent heat of freezing of 1000 pounds of veal at
29°F. is:
Q = W x hif
= 1000 lbs. x 91 BTU/lb.
= 91,000 BTU
SENSIBLE HEAT BELOW FREEZING
Once the water content of a product has been frozen,
sensible cooling again can occur in the same manner
as that above freezing, with the exception that the ice in
the product causes the specific heat to change. Note in
Table 10 the specific heat of veal above freezing is .71,
while the specific heat below freezing is .39,
The heat to be removed from a product to reduce its tem-
perature below freezing may be calculated as follow:
Q = W x ci x (Tf - T3)
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Q = BTU to be removed
W = Weight of product in pounds
ci = Specific heat below freezing
Tf = Freezing temperature
T3 = Final temperature
For example, the heat to be removed in order to cool
1,000 pounds of veal from 29°F. to 0°F. can be calcu-
lated as follows:
Q = W x ci x (Tf - T3)
= 1,000 lbs. x .39 specific heat x (29-0)
= 1,000 x .39 x 29
= 11,310 BTU
TOTAL PRODUCT LOAD
The total product load is the sum of the individual
calculations for the sensible heat above freezing, the
latent heat of freezing, and the sensible heat below
freezing.
From the foregoing example, if 1,000 pounds of veal is
to be cooled from 42°F. to 0°F., the total would be:
Sensible Heat above Freezing 9,230 BTU
Latent Heat of Freezing 91,000 BTU
Sensible Heat Below Freezing 11,310 BTU
Total Product Load 111,540 BTU
If several different commodities or crates, baskets, etc.
are to be considered, then a separate calculation must
be made for each item for an accurate estimate of the
product load.
STORAGE DATA
Most commodities have conditions of temperature and
relative humidity at which their quality is best preserved
and their storage life is a maximum. Recommended stor-
age conditions for various perishable products are listed
in Table 13 and recommended storage conditions for cut
flowers and nursery stock are listed in Table 14.
Data on various types of storage containers is listed
in Table 15.
14-8
 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
14-9 All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 14-10
 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
14-11 All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 14-12
 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
14-13 All rights reserved.
 Section 15
SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD

In addition to the heat transmitted into the refrigerated
space through the walls, air infiltration, and product load,
any heat gain from other sources must be included in
the total cooling load estimate.
ELECTRIC LIGHTS AND HEATERS
Any electric energy directly dissipated in the refrigerated
space such as lights, heaters, etc. is converted to heat
and must be included in the heat load. One watt hour
equals 3.41 BTU, and this conversion ratio is accurate
for any amount of electric power.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
TOTAL SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD
The total supplementary load is the sum of the individual
factors contributing to it. For example, the total supple-
mentary load in a refrigerated storeroom maintained at
0°F. in which there are 300 watts of electric lights, a 3
HP motor driving a fan, and 2 people working continu-
ously would be as follows:
300 Watts x 3.41 BTU/hr. 1,023 BTU/hr.
3 HP motor x 2,950 BTU/hr. 8,850 BTU/hr.
2 people x 1300 BTU/hr. 2,600 BTU/hr.
Total Supplementary Load 12,473 BTU/hr.

Since energy cannot be destroyed, and can only be

changed to a different form, any electrical energy
transmitted to motors inside a refrigerated space must
undergo a transformation. Any motor losses due to fric-
tion and inefficiency are immediately changed to heat
energy. That portion of the electrical energy converted
into useful work, for example in driving a fan or pump,
exists only briefly as mechanical energy, is transferred
to the fluid medium in the form of increased velocity, and
as the fluid loses its velocity due to friction, eventually
becomes entirely converted into heat energy.

A common misunderstanding is the belief that no heat

is transmitted into the refrigerated space if an electric
motor is located outside the space, and a fan inside the
space is driven by means of a shaft. All of the electrical
energy converted to mechanical energy actually be-
comes a part of the load in the refrigerated space.

Because the motor efficiency varies with size, the heat

load per horsepower as shown in Table 16 has different
values for varying size motors. While the values in the
table represent useful approximations, the actual elec-
tric power input in watts is the only accurate measure
of the energy input.

HUMAN HEAT LOAD

People give off heat and moisture, and the resulting

refrigeration load will vary depending on the duration of
occupancy of the refrigerated space, temperature, type
of work, and other factors. Table 17 lists the average
head load due to occupancy, but stays of short duration,
the heat gain will be somewhat higher.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 15-1
 Section 16
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Once the refrigeration load is determined, together with
the required evaporating temperature and the expected
condensing temperature, a compressor can be intel-
ligently selected for a given application.
For refrigerated fixtures or prefabricated coolers and
cold storage boxes to be produced in quantity, the
load is normally determined by test. If the load must
be estimated, the expected load should be calculated
by determining the heat gain due to each of the factors
contributing to the total load. Many short methods of
estimating are commonly used for small refrigerated
walk-in storage boxes with varying degrees of accuracy.
A great deal of judgment must be used in the application
of any method.
HOURLY LOAD
Refrigeration equipment is designed to function continu-
ously, and normally the compressor operating time is de-
termined by the requirements of the defrost system. The
load is calculated on a 24 hour basis, and the required
hourly compressor capacity is determined by dividing
the 24 hour load by the desired hours of compressor
operation during the 24 hour period. A reasonable safety
factor must be provided to enable the unit to recover
rapidly after a temperature rise, and to allow for loading
heavier than the original estimate.
When the refrigerant evaporating temperature will not be
below 30°F., frost will not accumulate on the evaporator,
and no defrost period is necessary. It is general practice
to choose the compressor for such applications on the
basis of 18 to 20 hour operation.
For applications with storage temperatures of 35°F.
or higher, and refrigerant temperatures low enough to
cause frosting, it is common practice to defrost by stop-
ping the compressor and allowing the return air to melt
the ice from the coil. Compressors for such applications
should be selected for 16 to 18 hour operation.
On low temperature applications, some positive means
of defrost must be provided. With normal defrost peri-
ods, 18 hour compressor operation is usually accept-
able, although some systems are designed for continu-
ous operation except during the defrost period.
An additional 5% to 10% safety factor is often added to
load calculations as a conservative measure to be sure
the equipment will not be undersized. If data concerning
the refrigeration load is very uncertain, this may be desir-
16-1
able, but in general the fact that the compressor is sized
on the basis of 16 to 18 hour operation in itself provides
a sizable safety factor. The load should be calculated
on the basis of the peak demand at design conditions,
and normally the design conditions are selected on the
basis that they will occur no more that 1% of the hours
during the summer months. If the load calculations are
made reasonably accurately, and the equipment sized
properly, an additional safety factor may actually result
in the equipment being oversized during light load condi-
tions, and can result in operating difficulties.
SAMPLE LOAD CALCULATION
The most accurate means of estimating a refrigeration
load is by considering each factor separately. The follow-
ing example will illustrate a typical selection procedure,
although the load has been chosen to demonstrate the
calculations required and does not represent a normal
loading.
Walk-in cooler with 4 inches of glass fiber insulation,
located in the shade.
Outside Dimensions, Height 8 ft., Width 10 ft.,
Length 40 ft., inside volume 3,000 cu. ft.
Floor area (outside dimensions) 400 sq. ft. on insulated
slab in contact with ground.
Ambient temperature 100°F., 50% relative humidity
Ground temperature 55°F.
Refrigerator temperature 40°F.
1/2 HP fan motor running continuously
Two 100 watt lights, in use 12 hours per day.
Occupancy, 2 men for 2 hours per day.
In storage: 500 pounds of bacon at 50°F.
1000 pounds of string beans
Entering product:
500 pounds of bacon at 50°F.
15,000 pounds of beer at 80°F.
To be reduced to storage temperature
in 24 hours.
Heavy door usage.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
(A) HEAT TRANSMISSION LOAD (E) REQUIRED COMPRESSOR CAPACITY

Sidewalls: 24 Hour Load:

40’ x 8’ x 2 = 640 Ft2 x
60°TD x 1.9 (Table 7A) = 72,960 BTU Heat Transmission 148,200 BTU
Air Infiltration 120,270
10’ x 8’ x 2 = 160 Ft2 x Product 608,025
60°TD x 1.9 = 18,240 Supplementary 62,544
Total 24 Hour Load 939,039 BTU
Ceiling:
40’ x 10’ = 400 Ft2 x 60°TD Required compressor capacity:
x 1.9 = 45,600
Based on 16 hour operation 58,690 BTU/Hr.
Floor:
40’ x 10’ = 400 Ft2 x 15°TD RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND EVAPORATOR TD
x 1.9 = 11,400
Relative humidity in a storage space is affected by
Total 24 hour transmission load = 148,200 many variables, such as system running time, moisture
infiltration, condition and amount of product surface ex-
(B) AIR INFILTRATION posed, air motion, outside air conditions, type of system
control, etc. Perishable products differ in their require-
3000 Ft3 x 9.5 air changes ments for an optimum relative humidity for storage, and
(Table 8) x 2 usage factor x recommended storage conditions for various products
2.11 factor (Table 9) 120,270 BTU are shown in Tables 13 and 14. Normally satisfactory
control of relative humidity in a given application can be
(C) PRODUCT LOAD achieved by selecting the compressor and evaporator
for the proper operating temperature difference or TD
500 lbs. bacon x .50 sp. between the desired room temperature and the refriger-
ht. (Table 10) x 10°TD = 2,500 BTU ant evaporating temperature.

15,000 lbs. beer x 1.0 sp. ht. The following general recommendations have proven
(Table 10) x 40°TD = 600,000 BTU to be satisfactory in most normal applications:

500 lbs. lettuce x 2700 Desired TD

BTU/24 Hr/Ton (Table 10) = 675 BTU
1,000 lbs. beans x 9700
BTU/24 Hr/Ton (Table 10) = 4,850 BTU
Total 24 hour Product Load 608,025 BTU
(D) SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD
Temperature Relative (Refrigerant
Range Humidity to Air)
25°F. to 45°F. 90% 8°F. to 12°F.
25°F. to 45°F. 85% 10°F. to 14°F.
25°F. to 45°F. 80% 12°F. to 16°F.
25°F. to 45°F. 75% 16°F. to 22°F.
10°F. and below — 15°F. or less

200 Watts x 12 hours x 3.41 COMPRESSOR SELECTION

BTU/Hr 8,184 BTU
1/2 H.P. x 4250 BTU/Hr-Hr
(Table 16) x 24 51,000 BTU
2 People x 2 Hrs/Day x 840
BTU/Hr (Table 17) 3,360 BTU
Total 24 hour Supplementary
Load 62,544 BTU
In order to select a suitable compressor for a given
application, not only the required compressor capacity
must be known, but also the desired evaporating and
condensing temperatures.
Assuming a desired relative humidity of 80%, a 14° TD
might be used, which in a 40°F. storage room result
in evaporating temperature of 26°F. To provide some
safety factor for line losses, the compressor should be
selected for the desired capacity at 2°F. to 3°F. below
the desired evaporating temperature.

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 16-2
The condensing temperature depends on the type of
condensing medium to be used, air or water, the design
ambient temperature or water temperature, and the
capacity of the condenser selected. Air cooled condens-
ers are commonly selected to operate on temperature
differences (TD) from 10°F. to 30°F. the lower TD nor-
mally being used for low temperature applications, and
higher TDs for high temperature applications where the
compression ratio is less critical. For the purposes of
this example, a design TD of 20°F. has been selected,
and in 100°F. ambient temperatures, this would result
in a condensing temperature of 120°F.
COMPONENT BALANCING
Commercially available components seldom will exactly
match the design requirements of a given system, and
since system design is normally based on estimated
peak loads, the system may often have to operate at
conditions other than design conditions. More than
one combination of components may meet the per-
formance requirements, the efficiency of the system
normally being dependent on the point at which the
system reaches stabilized conditions or balances under
operating conditions.
The capacities of each of the three major system
components, the compressor, the condenser, and the
evaporator, are each variable but interrelated. The
compressor capacity varies with the evaporating and
condensing temperatures. For illustration purposes an
air cooled condenser will be considered, and for a given
condenser with constant air flow, its capacity will vary
with the temperature difference between the condensing
temperature and the ambient temperature.
The factors involved in the variation in evaporator capac-
ity are quite complex when both sensible heat transfer
and condensation are involved. For component bal-
ancing purposes, the capacity of an evaporator where
both latent and sensible heat transfer are involved (a
wet coil) may be calculated as being proportional to the
total heat content of the entering air, and this in turn is
proportional to the wet bulb temperature. For wet coil
conditions, evaporator capacities are normally available
from coil manufacturers with ratings based on the wet
bulb temperature of the air entering the coil. For condi-
tions in which no condensation occurs (a dry coil) the
evaporator capacity can be accurately estimated on
the basis of the dry bulb temperature of the air enter-
ing the coil.
Some manufacturers of commercial and low tempera-
ture coils publish only ratings based on the temperature
difference between entering dry bulb temperature and
the evaporating refrigerant temperature. Although frost
16-3
accumulation involving latent heat will occur, unless the
latent load is unusually large, the dry bulb ratings may
be used without appreciable error.
Because of the many variables involved, the calculation
of system balance points is extremely complicated. A
simple, accurate, and convenient method of forecast-
ing system performance from readily available manu-
facturer’s catalog data is the graphical construction of
a component balancing chart. The following example
illustrates the use of such a chart in checking the pos-
sible balance points of a system when selecting equip-
ment. To illustrate the procedure, tentative selections
of a compressor, condenser, and evaporator have been
made for the sample load previously calculated.
Figure 69 shows the compressor capacity curves as
published by Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. on
the Copeland® brand compressor specification sheet.
It should be noted that Copeland® brand compressor
capacity curves for Copelametic® compressors are
based on 65°F. return suction gas. In order to realize the
full compressor capacity, the suction gas must be raised
to this temperature in a heat exchanger. If the suction
gas returns to the compressor at a lower temperature,
or if the increase in suction gas temperature occurs due
to heat transfer into the suction line outside the refriger-
ated space, the effective compressor capacity will be
somewhat lower. In the example, the desired capacity
was 58,690 BTU/hr. at 24°F. evaporating temperature
and 120°F.condensing temperature, and this compres-
sor was the closest choice available, having a capacity
of 57,000 BTU/hr. at the design conditions.
Figure 70 shows the same compressor curves, with
the condenser capacity curves for the tentative con-
denser selection superimposed. From the condenser
manufacturer’s data, condenser capacity in terms of
compressor capacity at varying evaporating tempera-
tures are plotted, and the condenser capacity curves can
then be drawn. Note that the net condensing capacity
decreases at lower evaporating temperatures due to
the increased heat of compression.
It is now possible to construct balance lines for the com-
pressor and condenser at various ambient temperatures
as shown in Figure 71. For an ambient temperature
of 100°F., point A would represent the balance point
if the compressor were operating at a suction pres-
sure equivalent to a 28°F. evaporating temperature
and 120°F. condensing temperature. At this point the
capacity of the condenser would exactly match that of
the compressor at a 20° TD (condensing temperature
minus ambient temperature). The balance point is de-
termined by the intersection of the 20°F. TD condenser
capacity curve with the compressor capacity curve for
(continued on p. 16-9)
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 16-4
CONDENSER CAPACITY CURVES SUPERIMPOSED
ON COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CURVES

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

16-5 All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 16-6
 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
16-7 All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 16-8
a condensing temperature 20°F above the specified
ambient temperature of 100°F., or 120°F. In a similar
manner balance point B can be located by the inter-
section of the 25°F. TD condenser capacity curve and
the compressor capacity curve (estimated) for 125°F.
condensing, and balance point C can be located by the
intersection of the 15°F. TD condenser capacity curve
with the compressor capacity curve (estimated) for
115°F. condensing. The line connecting points A, B, and
C represents all the possible balance points when the
system is operating with air entering the condenser at a
temperature of 100°F. In a similar fashion, condenser-
compressor balance lines can be determined for other
ambient temperatures, and plotted as shown in Figure
72. (To simplify the illustration, condenser capacity
curves have not been shown)
The tentative evaporator coil selected was rated by
the manufacturer only in terms of BTU/hr per degree
temperature difference between the entering dry bulb
temperature and the refrigerant evaporating tempera-
ture, and have a capacity of 4,590 BTU/hr/°TD. In Figure
73 evaporator capacity curves have been plotted and
superimposed on the compressor capacity curves and
the condenser-compressor balance lines. An evaporator
capacity curve for each entering air temperature can be
constructed by plotting any two points.
Point A represents the evaporator capacity at 14°TD
which for an entering air temperature of 40°F. would
require a refrigerant evaporating temperature of 26°F.
However, an allowance must be made for line friction
losses since the pressure in the evaporator will always
be higher than the suction pressure at the compressor
because of pressure drop in the suction line. Allowing
2°F. as an estimated allowance for line pressure drop,
an evaporating temperature of 26°F. would result in a
pressure at the compressor equivalent to a saturated
evaporating temperature of 24°F. Therefore the capac-
ity of the evaporator for a 14° TD and 40°F. entering
air would be plotted at the corresponding compressor
capacity at 24°F.
Point B represents the evaporator capacity at 10°
TD, which for 40°F. entering air temperature requires
a refrigerant evaporating temperature of 30°F., and
after allowing for suction line losses, a corresponding
compressor capacity at 28°F. A line can then be drawn
through these two points, representing all possible
capacities of the evaporator with 40°F. entering air
and varying refrigerant evaporating temperatures. In a
similar fashion, capacity curves can be constructed for
other entering air temperatures.
The system performance can now be forecast for any
condition of evaporator entering air temperature and
16-9
ambient temperature. With 100°F. ambient temperature
and an evaporator entering air temperature of 40°F.,
the original design conditions, the system would have
a capacity of 59,000 BTU/hr, a compressor suction
pressure equivalent to an evaporating temperature of
26°F., and a condensing temperature of 120°F. Even
under extreme load conditions of 50°F. entering air and
110°F. ambient, the condensing temperature would not
exceed 133°F. These conditions are close enough to
the original design requirement to insure satisfactory
performance.
This type of graphical analysis can be quickly and eas-
ily made by using the compressor specification sheet
as the basic chart, and superimposing condenser and
evaporator capacity curves.
THE EFFECT OF CHANGE IN COMPRESSOR
ONLY ON SYSTEM BALANCE
Occasionally the exact replacement compressor may
not be available, and the question arises as to whether
an alternate compressor with either more or less ca-
pacity might provide satisfactory performance. The
graphical balance chart provides a convenient means
of forecasting system performance.
Figure 74 is a revised balance chart for a system utilizing
the same evaporator and condenser as in the previous
example, but with a compressor having only 5/6 of the
previous capacity. New compressor capacity curves for
the smaller compressor have been plotted on the same
capacity chart used previously. Since there is no change
in the basic capacity of the condenser or evaporator,
the condenser capacity and evaporator capacity curves
are unchanged.
However, a new compressor-condenser balance line
must be plotted, and to avoid excessive detail in the il-
lustration, a balance line for 100° ambient temperature
only has been shown.
A comparison can now be made between the system
with the original compressor, Figure 73, and the system
with the smaller compressor, Figure 74.
Original Revised
System System
Ambient Temperature 100°F. 100°F.
Air Entering Evaporator 40°F. 40°F.
Refrigerant Evaporating
Temp. 26°F. 27°F.
Condensing Temperature 120°F. 115°F.
Capacity at 100°F. Ambient
and 40°F. Entering Air,
BTU/hr. 59,000 53,000
(continued on p. 16-11)
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 16-10
Note that although the compressor capacity was de-
creased by 1/6 or 16 2/3%, the net system capacity
decreased only about 10%. Since the condenser and
evaporator were unchanged, the compressor could
operate at more efficient conditions, with decreased
condensing pressure and increased suction pressure.
The same type of analysis can be applied to determine
the effect on system capacity if the compressor on a
unit designed for 60 cycle operation is operated on 50
cycle power. However for the evaporator and condenser
capacity to remain constant, the air flow across both
evaporator and condenser must be unchanged. If the
original balance chart was made on the basis of fans
operating on 60 cycle power, and the fan air delivery is
decreased by operation of the fan motors on 50 cycle
power, then both the evaporator and condenser capac-
ity curves must be changed to reflect the decrease in
capacity.
Another type of application where this type of analysis
may be valuable is on systems with fluctuating loads
and compressors with capacity control features. Since
the evaporator and condenser remain unchanged, the
reduced compressor capacity can be plotted as dem-
onstrated, and new balance points determined, taking
into effect any changes in the temperature of the air
entering the evaporator.
16-11
QUICK SELECTION TABLES FOR WALK-IN
COOLERS
The most accurate means of determining the refrigera-
tion load is by calculating each of the factors contributing
to the load as was done in the previous example. How-
ever, for small walk-in coolers, various types of short
cut estimating methods are frequently used.
The transmission load will always be dependent on the
external surface, and an actual calculation should be
made where possible.
As an aid in rapid selection of a condensing unit for the
normal walk-in cooler application, Tables 19 and 20 give
recommended refrigeration capacities for various sized
coolers. The condensing unit capacity must be equal
to or greater than the capacity shown at the required
refrigerant evaporating temperature after allowance for
the desired evaporating and condensing TD.
The capacities given are for average applications. If the
load is unusual, these tables should not be used. The
low temperature tables do not include any allowance
for a freezing load, and if a product is to be frozen, ad-
ditional capacity will be required.
© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 Table 18

Table 19

© 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 16-12
 © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
16-13 All rights reserved.
Form No. AE 103 R3 (10/06)
1675 W. Campbell Rd.
Emerson®, Emerson. Consider It Solved™, Emerson Climate Technologies™ and Sidney, OH 45365
the Emerson Climate Technologies™ logo are the trademarks and service marks of
Emerson Electric Co. and are used with the permission of Emerson Electric Co. EmersonClimate.com
Copelametic®, Copeland®, and the Copeland® brand products logo are the
trademarks and service marks of Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
Printed in the USA. © 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Refrigeration Manual

Part 4 - System Design

 This is the fourth of a series of publications comprising the Emerson Climate Technologies,
Inc. Refrigeration Manual. Although each separate part covers a specific area of refrigera-
tion theory and practice, each successive publication presumes a basic understanding of
the material presented in the previous sections.

Part 1 Fundamentals of Refrigeration

Part 2 Refrigeration System Components
Part 3 The Refrigeration Load
Part 4 System Design

The application and design recommendations are intended only as a general guide. The
exact requirements of a given installation can only be determined after the specific design
criteria and desired operating conditions are known.

© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 ­Part 4
SYSTEM DESIGN­
Section 17.  BASIC APPLICATION
RECOMMENDATIONS
Fundamental Design Principles....................... 17-1
Compressor Selection..................................... 17-1
System Balance.............................................. 17-1
Refrigerant....................................................... 17-2 Compressor Efficiency............................. 19-2
Compressor Cooling........................................ 17-2
Compressor Lubrication.................................. 17-3
Oil Pressure Safety Control............................. 17-3
Oil Separators................................................. 17 4
Suction Line Accumulators.............................. 17-4
Pumpdown System Control............................. 17-5
Crankcase Heaters.......................................... 17-5
Crankcase Pressure Regulating Valves.......... 17-6
Low Ambient Head Pressure Control.............. 17-6
Liquid Line Filter-Drier..................................... 17 6
Sight Glass and Moisture Indicator................. 17-7
Liquid Line Solenoid Valve.............................. 17-7
Heat Exchanger............................................... 17-7
Thermostatic Expansion Valves...................... 17-7
Evaporators..................................................... 17-8
Suction Line Filters.......................................... 17-9
High and Low Pressure Controls..................... 17-9
Interconnected Systems.................................. 17-10
Electrical Group Fusing................................... 17-10
Section 18.  REFRIGERATION PIPING
Basic Principles of Refrigeration
Piping Design........................................... 18-1
Copper Tubing for Refrigerant Piping.............. 18-2
Fittings for Copper Tubing............................... 18-2
Equivalent Length of Pipe............................... 18-2
Pressure Drop Tables...................................... 18-5
Sizing Hot Gas Discharge Lines...................... 18-5
Sizing Liquid Lines.......................................... 18-14
Sizing Suction Lines........................................ 18-15
Double Risers.................................................. 18-21
Suction Piping for Multiplex Systems.............. 18-22
Piping Design for Horizontal and
Vertical Lines............................................ 18-23
Suction Line Piping Design at the
Evaporator................................................ 18-24
Receiver Location............................................ 18-25
Vibration and Noise......................................... 18-25
Recommended Line Sizing Tables.................. 18-26
1
Section 19.  LOW TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
Single Stage Low Temperature Systems......... 19-1
Two Stage Low Temperature Systems............ 19-2
Volumetric Efficiency....................................... 19-2
Two Stage Compression and
Compressor Overheating at Excessive
Compression Ratios................................. 19-5
Basic Two Stage System................................. 19-6
Two Stage System Components..................... 19-6
Piping on Two Stage Systems......................... 19-9
Cascade Refrigeration Systems...................... 19-13
Section 20.  TRANSPORT REFRIGERATION
Compressor Cooling........................................ 20-1
Compressor Speed......................................... 20-1
Compressor Operating Position...................... 20-2
Compressor Drive........................................... 20-2
Refrigerant Charge.......................................... 20-2
Refrigerant Migration....................................... 20-2
Oil Charge....................................................... 20-3
Oil Pressure Safety Control............................. 20-3
Oil Separators................................................. 20-3
Crankcase Pressure Regulating Valve............ 20-3
Condenser....................................................... 20-4
Receiver.......................................................... 20-4
Purging Air in a System................................... 20-4
Liquid Line Filter-Drier..................................... 20-4
Heat Exchanger............................................... 20-5
Liquid Line Solenoid Valve.............................. 20-5
Suction Line Accumulator................................ 20-5
Crankcase Heaters.......................................... 20-5
Pumpdown Cycle............................................ 20-5
Forced Air Evaporator Coils............................ 20-5
Thermostatic Expansion Valves...................... 20-6
Defrost Systems.............................................. 20-6
Thermostat...................................................... 20-7
High-Low Pressure Control............................. 20-7
Eutectic Plate Applications.............................. 20-7
Refrigerant Piping............................................ 20-10
Vibration.......................................................... 20-10
Electrical Precautions...................................... 20-10
Installation....................................................... 20-11
Field Troubleshooting on Transport Units........ 20-12
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Section 21.  CAPACITY CONTROL
Internal Capacity Control Valves....................21-1
External Capacity Control Valves...................21-1
Hot Gas Bypass.............................................21-1
Bypass into Evaporator Inlet..........................21-3
Bypass into Suction Line................................21-3
Solenoid Valves for Positive Shut-off
and Pumpdown Cycle....................................21-5
Desuperheating Expansion Valve...................21-5
Typical Multiple-Evaporator
Control System........................................21-5
Power Consumption with
Hot Gas Bypass......................................21-6
Liquid Refrigerant Flooding............................22-2
Liquid Refrigerant Slugging............................22-2
Tripping of Oil Pressure Safety Control..........22-2
Recommended Corrective Action...................22-2
Section 23.  ELECTRICAL CONTROL CIRCUITS
Typical Lockout Control Circuit.......................23-1
Control Circuit for Compressor
Protection Against Liquid
Refrigerant Flooding................................23-3
Control Circuits to Prevent Short Cycling.......22-3
Control Circuits for Compressors with
Capacity Control Valves..........................23- 5

Section 22.  LIQUID REFRIGERANT CONTROL

IN REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS

Refrigerant-Oil Relationship...........................22-1
Refrigerant Migration......................................22-1

© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
INDEX OF TABLES

Table 20A Ventilation Air Requirements for Machine Rooms CFM/1000 BTU/HR at
10° F. Air Temperature Rise.............................................................................................. 17-3
Table 21 Recommended Minimum Low Pressure Control Setting......................................................... 17-9
Table 22 Dimensions and Properties of Copper Tube............................................................................ 18-3
Table 23 Weight of Refrigerant in Copper Lines.................................................................................... 18-4
Table 24 Equivalent Length in Feet of Straight Pipe For Valves and Fittings......................................... 18-5
Table 25 Pressure Drop Equivalent for 2° F. Change in Saturation Temperature at
Various Evaporating Temperatures.................................................................................. 18-15
Table 26 Maximum Recommended Spacing Between Pipe Supports for Copper Tubing..................... 18-26
Table 27 Recommended Liquid Line Sizes............................................................................................ 18-27
Table 28 Recommended Discharge Lines Sizes.................................................................................... 18-28
Table 29 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-12, 40° F...................................................................... 18-29
Table 30 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-12, 25° F...................................................................... 18-30
Table 31 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-12, 15° F...................................................................... 18-31
Table 32 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-12, –20° F.................................................................... 18-31
Table 33 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-12, –40° F.................................................................... 18-32
Table 34 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-22, 40° F...................................................................... 18-32
Table 35 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-22, 25°F....................................................................... 18-33
Table 36 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-22, 15° F...................................................................... 18-34
Table 37 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-22, –20° F.................................................................... 18-35
Table 38 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-502, 25° F.................................................................... 18-35
Table 39 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-502, 15° F.................................................................... 18-36
Table 40 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-502, –20° F.................................................................. 18-37
Table 41 Recommended Suction Line Sizes, R-502, –40° F.................................................................. 18-38
Table 42 Efficiency Comparison of Single Stage vs. Two Stage Compression Typical
Air Cooled Application with Refrigerant R-502................................................................. 19-6
Table 43 Recommended Discharge Line Sizes for Two Stage Compressors........................................ 19-10
Table 44 Recommended Liquid Line Sizes for Two Stage Compressors.............................................. 19-10
Table 45 Recommended Suction Line Sizes for Two Stage Compressors, –60° F................................ 19-11
Table 46 Recommended Suction Line Sizes for Two Stage Compressors, –60° F................................ 19-11
Table 47 Recommended Suction Line Sizes for Two Stage Compressors, –80° F................................ 19-12
Table 48 Recommended Suction Line Sizes for Two Stage Compressors, –80° F................................ 19-12

© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Section 17
BASIC APPLICATION RECOMMENDATIONS
FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES
There are certain fundamental refrigeration design
principles which are vital to the proper functioning of
any system.
1. The system must be clean, dry, and free from all
contaminants.
2. The compressor must be operated within safe
temperature, pressure, and electrical limits.
3. The system must be designed and operated so that
proper lubrication is maintained in the compressor
at all times.
4. The system must be designed and operated so that
excessive liquid refrigerant does not enter the com-
pressor. Refrigeration compressors are designed
to pump refrigerant vapor, and will tolerate only a
limited quantity of liquid refrigerant.
5. Proper refrigerant feed to the evaporator must be
maintained, and excessive pressure drop in the
refrigerant piping must be avoided.
If these give steps are accomplished, then operation of
the system is reasonably certain to be trouble free. If
any one is neglected, then eventual operating problems
are almost certain to occur. These basic fundamentals
are closely inter-related, and must always be kept in
mind with regard to the application of any component,
or whenever any change in system operation is con-
templated.
COMPRESSOR SELECTION
The compressor must be selected for the capacity
required at the desired operating conditions in accor-
dance with the manufacturer’s recommendations for
the refrigerant to be used. Standard Copeland® brand
single stage compressors are approved for operation
with a given refrigerant in one of the following operating
ranges. be operated beyond published operating limits without
Evaporat-
ing
Temperature
High Temperature 45° F. to 0° F.
or 55° F. to 0° F.
Medium Temperature 25° F. to -5° F.
Low Temperature 0° F. to -40° F.
Extra Low Temperature -20° F. to -40° F.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Operation at evaporating temperatures above the ap-
proved operating range may overload the compressor
motor. Operation at evaporating temperatures below the
approved operating range is normally not a problem if
the compressor motor can be adequately cooled, and
discharge temperatures can be kept within allowable lim-
its. Evaporating temperatures below -40° F. are normally
beyond the practical lower limit of single stage operation
because of compressor inefficiencies and excessive
discharge gas temperatures. Because of problems of
motor cooling or overloading, some motor-compressors
may have approval for operation at limited condensing
or evaporating temperatures within a given range, and
if so, these limitations will be shown by limited perfor-
mance curves on the specification sheet.
A given compressor may be approved in two different
operating ranges with different refrigerants, for example,
high temperature R-12 and low temperature R-502. Since
the power requirements for a given displacement with
both R-22 and R-502 are somewhat similar, in some
cases a compressor may be approved in the same
operating range for either of these refrigerants.
Two stage compressors may be approved for evapo-
rating temperatures as low as -80° F., but individual
compressor specifications should be consulted for the
approved operating range.
Operation at temperatures below -80° F. is normally
beyond the practical efficiency range of Copeland®
brand two stage compressors, and for lower evaporating
temperatures, cascade systems should be employed.
Compressors with unloaders have individually estab-
lished minimum operating evaporating temperatures
since motor cooling is more critical with these compres-
sors. As the compressor is unloaded, less refrigerant is
circulated through the system, and consequently less
return gas is available for motor cooling purposes.
Copeland® brand motor-compressors should never
prior approval of the Emerson Climate Technologies,
Inc. Application Engineering Department.
SYSTEM BALANCE
If the compressor or condensing unit selected for a given
application is to satisfactorily handle the refrigeration
load, it must have sufficient capacity. However, over ca-
17-1
pacity can be equally as unsatisfactory as under capacity,
and care must be taken to see that the compressor and
evaporator balance at the desired operating conditions.
Checking the proposed system operation by means of
a compressor-evaporator-condenser balance chart as
described in Section 16 is recommended.
If fluctuations in the refrigeration load are to be ex-
pected, which could result in compressor operation at
excessively low suction pressures, then some means of
capacity control must be provided to maintain acceptable
evaporating temperatures. If compressors with unloaders
are not available or suitable, and if the load cannot be
adequately handled by cycling the compressor, a hot
gas bypass circuit may be required.
REFRIGERANT
Copeland® brand compressors are primarily designed
for operation with Refrigerants 12, 22, and 502. Opera-
tion with other refrigerants in cascade systems may
be satisfactory if the proper motor and displacement
combination is selected, adequate lubrication can be
maintained, and if adequate compressor protection is
provided.
R-502 is highly recommended for all single stage
low temperature applications, and particularly where
evaporating temperatures of -20° F. and below may be
encountered. Because of the undesirable high discharge
temperatures of R-22 when operated at high compres-
sion ratios, R-22 should not be used in single stage low
temperature compressors 5 HP and larger.
Different expansion valves are required for each refrig-
erant, so the refrigerants are not interchangeable in a
given system, and should never be mixed. If for some
reason it is desirable to change from one refrigerant to
another in an existing system, it is usually possible to
convert the system by changing expansion valves and
control settings providing the existing piping sizes and
component working pressures are compatible. In some
cases the existing motor-compressor may be satisfac-
tory—for example, in converting from R-22 to R-502. If
the conversion will result in higher power requirements
as is the case in changing from R-12 to R502, then it may
also be necessary to change the motor-compressor.
The refrigerant charge should be held to the minimum
required for satisfactory operation, since an abnormally
high charge will create potential problems of liquid re-
frigerant control.
COMPRESSOR COOLING
Refrigerant cooled motor-compressors are dependent
17-2
on return suction gas for motor cooling, and to a con-
siderable extent, on both air and refrigerant cooled
motor-compressors, the discharge gas temperature is
directly related to the temperature of the return suction
gas. Discharge temperatures above 325° F. to 350° F.
contribute to oil breakdown and valve plate damage, and
to avoid compressor damage, operating temperatures
must be kept below this level. Peak temperatures occur
at the discharge valves, and normally the temperature
of the discharge line will be from 50° F. to 100°F. be-
low the temperature at the valve plate. Therefore the
maximum allowable discharge line temperatures from
225°F. to 250°F.
Suction gas entering the compressor should be no
higher than 65°F. under low temperature load condi-
tions, or 90°F. under high temperature load conditions,
and must never exceed 100°F. On some abnormally
critical low temperature applications it may be desirable
to insulate the suction lines and return the suction gas
to the compressor at lower than normal temperatures
to prevent the discharge temperatures from exceeding
safe limits, but this is not normally necessary on com-
mercial application where the saturated evaporating
temperature is -40°F. or above. The low discharge
temperature characteristics of R-502 have made pos-
sible much more trouble free operation in single stage
low temperature applications.
Air cooled motor-compressors must have a sufficient
quantity of air impinging directly on the compressor body
for motor cooling. Refrigerant cooled motor-compres-
sors are cooled adequately by the refrigerant vapor at
evaporating temperatures above 0°F., but at evaporating
temperatures below 0°F., additional motor cooling by
means of air flow is necessary.
On air cooled condensing units, adequate cooling can
normally be accomplished by locating the compressor
in the discharge air blast from the condenser fan. For
proper cooling, the fan must discharge air directly against
the compressor, since the compressor usually cannot be
adequately cooled by air pulled through a compartment
in which the compressor is located. If the compressor
is not located in the condenser discharge air stream,
cooling must be provided by means of an auxiliary fan
discharging air directly again the compressor body. On
Copeland® brand compressors with multiple heads such
as the 4R and 6R models, auxiliary horizontal airflow
may not provide satisfactory cooling, and vertical cool-
ing fans are required.
Water cooled compressors are provided with a water
jacket or are wrapped with a copper water coil, and wa-
ter must be circulated through the compressor cooling
circuit before entering the condenser.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Two-stage compressors are equipped with a desuper-
heating expansion valve for interstage cooling, and no
auxiliary cooling is required.
If compressors or condensing units are located in a ma-
chine room, adequate ventilation air must be provided
to avoid an excessive temperature rise in the room. To
allow for peak summer temperatures a 10°F. temperature
rise is recommended, although a 15°F. rise in cooler
ambients might be acceptable.
The most accurate calculation is to determine the total
heat to be rejected by adding the compressor refriger-
ating capacity at the design operating condition to the
heat equivalent of the motor input. The CFM can then
be calculated by the formula…
BTU/HR
CMF = ºTD
For example, determine the machine room ventilation
for an air cooled condensing unit operating at -25°F.
evaporator, 120°F. condensing with a net refrigeration
capacity of 23,000 BTU/HR, 6,400 watts input to the
compressor motor, and a 1 H.P. condenser fan motor.
Compressor capacity 23,000 BTU/HR
Heat equivalent 6400 watts x 3.413 21,843 BTU/HR
Heat equivalent 1 H.P. fan motor 3,700 BTU/HR
Total Heat to be Rejected 48,543 BTU/HR
48,543 BTU/HR
CMF = 10º TD = 4.854 CFM
With remote condensers, approximately 10% of the heat
rejected is given off by the compressor casting and the
discharge tubing, and the ventilation can be calculated
accordingly.
For convenience, table 20A gives a quick estimate of
the ventilation air requirement if only the compressor
capacity is known.
COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION
An adequate supply of oil must be maintained in the
crankcase at all times to insure continuous lubrication.
The normal oil level should be maintained at or slightly
above the center of the sight glass while operating.
An excessive amount of oil must not be allowed in the
system as it may result in slugging and possible damage
to the compressor valves.
Compressors leaving the factory are charged with
naphthenic refrigerant oils. A complete list of acceptable
refrigerants and lubricants are listed on form #93-11.
The use of any other oil must be specifically cleared
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
with the Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. Application
Engineering Department. The naphthenic base oil has
definite advantages over paraffinic base oils because
separation of refrigerant from paraffinic oils occurs at
substantially higher temperatures with the same oil-
refrigerant concentration. When this separation or two
phase condition exists the oil floats on top of the refrig-
erant and the oil pump inlet at the bottom of the sump
is fed almost pure refrigerant at start up. The resulting
improper lubrication can result in bearing failure. Because
of the lower separating temperature of naphthenic oil,
the possibility of two-phasing is greatly reduced.
Copelametic® compressors are shipped with a generous
supply of oil in the crankcase. However the system may
require more or less oil depending on the refrigerant
charge and the system design. On field installed sys-
tems, after the system stabilizes at its normal operating
conditions, it may be necessary to add or remove oil to
maintain the desired level.
OIL PRESSURE SAFETY CONTROL
A major percentage of all compressor failures are caused
by lack of proper lubrication. Improper lubrication or the
loss of lubrication can be due to a shortage of oil in the
system, logging of oil in the evaporator or suction line due
to insufficient refrigerant velocities, shortage of refriger-
ant, refrigerant migration or floodback to the compressor
crankcase, failure of the oil pump, or improper operation
of the refrigerant control devices.
Regardless of the initial source of the difficulty, the great
majority of compressor failures due to loss of lubrication
could have been prevented. Although proper system
design, good preventive maintenance, and operation
within the system’s design limitations are the only cure
for most of these problems, actual compressor damage
usually can be averted by the use of an oil pressure
safety control.
An oil pressure safety control with a time delay of 120
seconds is a mandatory requirement of the Emerson
Climate Technologies, Inc. warranty on all Copelametic®
compressors having an oil pump. The control oper-
17-3
ates on the differential between oil pump pressure and
crankcase pressure, and the two minute delay serves
to avoid shut down during short fluctuations in oil pres-
sure during start-up.
A trip of the oil pressure safety switch is a warning that
the system has been without proper lubrication for a
period of two minutes. Repeated trips of the oil pressure
safety control are a clear indication that something in the
system design or operation requires immediate remedial
action. On a well designed system, there should be no
trips of the oil pressure safety control, and repeated
trips should never be accepted as a normal part of the
system operation.
The oil pressure safety control will not protect against
all lubrication problems. It cannot detect whether the
compressor is pumping oil or a combination of refriger-
ant and oil. If bearing trouble is encountered on systems
where the oil pressure safety control has not tripped,
even though inspection proves it to be properly wired,
with the proper pressure setting, and in good operating
condition, marginal lubrication is occurring which prob-
ably is due to liquid refrigerant floodback.
OIL SEPARATORS
Proper refrigerant piping design and operation of the
system within its design limits so that adequate refriger-
ant velocities can be maintained are the only cure for oil
logging problems, but an oil separator may be a definite
aid in maintaining lubrication where oil return problems
are particularly acute.
For example, consider a compressor having an oil
charge of 150 ounces, with the normal oil circulation
rate being 2 ounces per minute. This means that on a
normal system with proper oil return at stabilized condi-
tions, two ounces of oil leave the compressor through
the discharge line every minute, and two ounces return
through the suction line. If a minimum of 30 ounces of
oil in the crankcase is necessary to properly lubricate
the compressor, and for some reason oil logged in
the system and failed to return to the compressor, the
compressor would run out of oil in 60 minutes. Under
the same conditions with an oil separator having an
efficiency of 80%, the compressor could operate 300
minute or 5 hours before running out of oil.
As a practical matter, there seldom are conditions in a
system when no oil will be returned to the compressor,
and even with low gas velocities, some fraction of the
oil leaving the compressor will be returned. If there are
regular intervals of full load conditions or defrost periods
when oil can be returned normally, an oil separator can
help to bridge long operating periods at light load con-
17-4
ditions. Oil separators are mandatory on systems with
flooded evaporators controlled by a float valve, on all
two stage and cascade ultra-low temperature systems,
and on any system where oil return is critical.
Oil separators should be considered as a system aid
but not a cure-all or a substitute for good system de-
sign. They are never 100% efficient, and in fact may
have efficiencies as low as 50% depending on system
operating conditions. On systems where piping design
encourages oil logging in the evaporator, an oil separa-
tor can compensate for system oil return deficiencies
only on a temporary basis, and may only serve to delay
lubrication difficulties.
If a system is equipped with a suction accumulator, it
is recommended that the oil return from the separa-
tor be connected to the suction line just ahead of the
accumulator. This will provide maximum protection
against returning liquid refrigerant to the crankcase. If
the system is not equipped with a suction accumulator,
the oil return line on suction cooled compressors may
be connected to the suction line if more convenient
than the crankcase, but on air cooled compressors, oil
return must be made directly to the crankcase to avoid
damage to the compressor valves.
If the separator is exposed to outside ambient tem-
peratures, it must be insulated to prevent refrigerant
condensation during off periods, resulting in return of
liquid to the compressor crankcase. Small low wattage
strap-on heaters are available for oil separators, and if
any problem from liquid condensation in the separator
is anticipated, a continuously energized heater is highly
recommended.
SUCTION LINE ACCUMULATORS
If liquid refrigerant is allowed to flood through a refrigera-
tion or air conditioning system and return to the compres-
sor before being evaporated, it may cause damage to
the compressor due to liquid slugging, loss of oil from
the crankcase, or bearing washout. To protect against
this condition on systems vulnerable to liquid damage
a suction accumulator may be necessary.
The accumulator’s function is to intercept liquid re-
frigerant before it can reach the compressor valves or
crankcase. It should be located in the suction line near
the compressor, and if a reversing valve is used in the
system, the accumulator must be located between the
reversing valve and the compressor. Provisions for posi-
tive oil return to the crankcase must be provided, but a
direct gravity flow which will allow liquid refrigerant to
drain to the crankcase during shut-down periods must
be avoided. The liquid refrigerant must be metered back
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
to the compressor during operation at a controlled rate
to avoid damage to the compressor.
Some systems, because of their design, will periodically
flood the compressor with liquid refrigerant. Typically,
this can occur on heat pumps at the time the cycle is
switched from cooling to heating, or from heating to cool-
ing. The coil which has been serving as the condenser is
partially filled with liquid refrigerant, and when suddenly
exposed to suction pressure, the liquid is dumped into
the suction line. On heat pumps equipped with expansion
valves, there may be further flooding due to the inability
of the expansion valve to effectively control refrigerant
feed for a short period after the cycle change until the
system operation is again stabilized.
A similar situation can occur during defrost cycles. With
hot gas defrost, when the defrost cycle is initiated, the
sudden introduction of high pressure gas into the evapo-
rator may force the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator
into the suction line. If the defrost cycle is such that the
evaporator can fill with condensed liquid during defrost,
or on systems utilizing electric defrost without a pump-
down cycle, an equally dangerous situation may exist
at the termination of the defrost cycle.
On systems with a large refrigerant charge, or on any
system where liquid floodback is likely to occur, a suc-
tion line accumulator is strongly recommended. On heat
pumps, truck applications, and on any system where
liquid slugging can occur during operation, a suction line
accumulator is mandatory for compressor protection
unless otherwise approved by the Emerson Climate
Technologies, Inc. Application Engineering Department.
The actual refrigerant holding capacity needed for a
given accumulator is governed by the requirements of
the particular application, and the accumulator should
be selected to hold the maximum liquid floodback an-
ticipated.
PUMPDOWN SYSTEM CONTROL
Refrigerant vapor will always migrate to the coldest
part of the system, and if the compressor crankcase
can become colder than other parts of the system,
refrigerant in the condenser, receiver, and evaporator
will vaporize, travel through the system, and condense
in the compressor crankcase.
Because of the difference in vapor pressures of oil and
refrigerant, refrigerant vapor is attracted to refrigera-
tion oil, and even though no pressure or temperature
difference exists to cause a flow, refrigerant vapor will
migrate through the system and condense in the oil until
the oil is saturated. During off cycles extending several
hours or more, it is possible for liquid refrigerant to al-
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
most completely fill the compressor crankcase due to
the oil attraction. For example, in a system using R-12
refrigerant which is allowed to equalize at an ambient
temperature of 70° F., the oil-refrigerant mixture in the
crankcase will end up about 70% refrigerant before
equilibrium is reached.
The most positive and dependable means of keeping
refrigerant out of the compressor crankcase is the use
of a pumpdown cycle. By closing a liquid line solenoid
valve, the refrigerant can be pumped into the condenser
and receiver, and the compressor operation controlled
by means of a low pressure control. The refrigerant can
thus be isolated during periods when the compressor
is not in operation, and migration of refrigerant to the
compressor crankcase is prevented.
Pumpdown control can be used on all thermostatic ex-
pansion valve systems with the addition of a liquid line
solenoid valve, provided adequate receiver capacity is
available. Slight refrigerant leakage may occur through
the solenoid valve, causing the suction pressure to rise
gradually, and a recycling type control is recommended to
repeat the pumpdown cycle as required. The occasional
short cycle usually is not objectionable.
A pumpdown cycle is highly recommended whenever
it can be used. If a non-recycling pumpdown circuit is
required, then consideration should be given to the use
of a crankcase heater in addition to the pumpdown for
more dependable compressor protection.
CRANKCASE HEATERS
On some systems operating requirements, noise consid-
erations, or customer preference may make the use of a
pumpdown system undesirable, and crankcase heaters
are frequently used to control migration.
By warming the oil, the absorption of refrigerant by the
oil is minimized, and under mild weather conditions,
any liquid refrigerant in the crankcase can be vaporized
and forced out of the compressor. For effective protec-
tion, heaters must be energized several hours before
starting the compressor. It is recommended that they
be energized continuously, independent of compressor
operation. Improperly sized heaters can overheat the
oil, and heaters used on Copeland® brand compres-
sors must be specifically approved by the Emerson
Climate Technologies, Inc. Application Engineering
Department.
It would be a mistake to assume that crankcase heaters
are a dependable cure for all migration problems. As the
ambient conditions contributing to migration worsen, the
ability of the crankcase heater to keep refrigerant out
17-5
of the crankcase decreases. If the suction line slopes
toward the compressor, and the temperature to which
the suction line is exposed is sufficiently lower than the
temperature of the oil, refrigerant may condense in the
suction line and flow back to the compressor by gravity
at a rate sufficient to offset the heat introduced by the
heater. Heaters will not protect against liquid slugs or
excessive liquid flooding. However, where operating
conditions are not too severe, crankcase heaters can
provide satisfactory protection against migration.
Where a pumpdown cycle is not used, crankcase heaters
are mandatory on heat pumps, and on other air con-
ditioning applications if the refrigerant charge exceeds
the established limits for Copeland® brand compres-
sors, unless tests prove the compressor is adequately
protected by other means.
To prevent possible damage in shipment, crankcase heat-
ers are not installed on compressors at the factory.
CRANKCASE PRESSURE REGULATING VALVES
In order to limit the power requirement of the compressor
to the allowable operating limit, a crankcase pressure
regulating valve may be necessary. This most frequently
occurs on low temperature compressors where the power
requirement during pulldown periods or after defrost
may be greatly in excess of the compressor motor’s
capabilities. Copeland® brand compressors should
not be operated at suction pressures in excess of the
published limits on compressor specification sheets
without approval of the Emerson Climate Technologies,
Inc. Application Engineering Department.
Since any pressure drop in the compressor suction line
lowers the system capacity, the CPR valve should be
sized for a minimum pressure drop. In order to restrict
pull down capacity as little as possible, the valve set-
ting should be as high as the motor power requirement
will allow.
Thermal expansion valves of the pressure limiting type
are not recommended when a CPR valve is used, par-
ticularly if the pressure settings are fairly close, because
of the possibility of the action of the two valves coming
in conflict in their response to system pressures.
LOW AMBIENT HEAD PRESSURE CONTROL
Within the operating limitations of the system, it is desir-
able to take advantage of lower condensing tempera-
tures whenever possible for increased capacity, lower
discharge temperatures, and lower power requirements.
However, too low a discharge pressure can produce
serious malfunctions. Since the capacity of capillary
17-6
tubes and expansion valves is proportional to the dif-
ferential pressure across the capillary tube or valve, a
reduction in discharge pressure will reduce its capacity
and produce a drop in evaporating pressure.
Low discharge pressures can result in starving the
evaporator coil with resulting oil logging, short cycling
on low pressure controls, reduction of system capacity,
or erratic expansion valve operation.
Systems with water cooled condensers and cooling
towers require water regulating valves, or some other
means of controlling the temperature or the quantity of
water passing through the condenser.
If air cooled air conditioning systems are required to
operate in ambient temperatures below 60° F., a suitable
means of controlling head pressures must be provided.
Refrigeration systems are also vulnerable to damage
from low head pressure conditions, and adequate head
pressure controls should be provided for operation in
ambient temperatures below 50°F.
Several proprietary control systems are available for low
ambient operation, most of which maintain head pres-
sure above a preset minimum by partially flooding the
condenser and thus reducing the effective surface area.
Methods of this type can control pressures effectively, but
do require a considerable increase in refrigerant charge
and adequate receiver capacity must be provided.
Air volume dampers on the condenser operated from
refrigerant discharge pressure provide a simple, eco-
nomical, and effective means of control which is widely
used.
Adequate protection at lowest cost can often be pro-
vided by a reverse acting high pressure control which
senses discharge pressure, and acts to disconnect the
condenser fan circuit when the head pressure falls below
the control’s minimum setting. The proper adjustment
of the off-on differential is particularly important to avoid
excessive fan motor cycling, and the resulting fluctua-
tions in discharge pressure may contribute to uneven
expansion valve feeding. In cold ambient temperatures
the condenser must be shielded from the wind.
LIQUID LINE FILTER-DRIER
A liquid line filter-drier must be used on all field installed
systems, and on all systems opened in the field for
service. Filter-driers are highly recommended for all sys-
tems, but are not mandatory on factory assembled and
charged units where careful dehydration and evacuation
is possible during manufacture. Precharged systems with
quick connect fittings having a rupture disc are considered
to be the equivalent of factory charged systems.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Moisture can be a factor in many forms of system dam-
age, and the reduction of moisture to an acceptable
level can greatly extend compressor life and slow down
harmful reactions. The desiccant used must be capable
of removing moisture to a low end point and further
should be of a type which can remove a reasonable
quantity of acid. It is most important that the filter-drier
be equipped with an excellent filter to prevent circulation
of carbon and foreign particles.
SIGHT GLASS AND MOISTURE INDICATOR
A combination sight glass and moisture indicator is es-
sential for easy field maintenance on any system, and is
required on any field installed system unless some other
means of checking the refrigerant charge is provided.
A sight glass is a convenient means of determining
the refrigerant charge, showing bubbles when there is
insufficient charge, and a solid clear glass when there
is sufficient charge. However, the operator should bear
in mind that under some circumstances even when the
receiver outlet has a liquid seal, bubbles or flash gas may
show in the sight glass. This may be due to a restriction
or excessive pressure drop in the receiver outlet valve,
a partially plugged drier or strainer, or other restriction in
the liquid line ahead of the sight glass. If the expansion
valve feed is erratic or surging, the increased flow when
the expansion valve is wide open can create sufficient
pressure drop to cause flashing at the receiver outlet.
Another source of flashing in the sight glass may be
rapid fluctuations in compressor discharge pressure.
For example, in a temperature controlled room, the
sudden opening of shutters or the cycling of a fan can
easily cause a reduction in the condensing temperature
of 10°F. to 15°F. Any liquid in the receiver may then be
at a temperature equivalent to the lower condensing
pressure, and flashing will continue until the system has
stabilized at the new condensing temperature.
While the sight glass can be a valuable aid in servic-
ing a refrigeration or air conditioning system, a more
positive liquid indicator is desirable, and the system
performance must be carefully analyzed before placing
full reliance on the sight glass as a positive indicator of
the system charge.
LIQUID LINE SOLENOID VALVE
A liquid line solenoid valve is recommended on all
field installed systems with large refrigerant charges,
particularly when the system has a charge in excess of
three pounds of refrigerant per motor HP. The solenoid
valve will prevent continued feed to the evaporator
through the expansion valve or capillary tube when the
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
compressor is not operating, and will control migration
of liquid refrigerant from the receiver and condenser to
the evaporator and compressor crankcase.
If a pumpdown cycle is not used, the liquid line solenoid
valve should be wired to the compressor motor terminals
so that the valve will be de-energized when the motor
is not operating.
HEAT EXCHANGER
A liquid to suction heat exchanger is highly recom-
mended on all refrigeration systems, and is required on
package water chillers and water to water heat pumps
because of the low operating superheat. On medium
and low temperature applications, a heat exchanger
increases system capacity, helps to eliminate flashing
of liquid refrigerant ahead of the expansion valve, and
aids both in preventing condensation on suction lines
and in evaporating any liquid flooding through the
evaporator.
On small systems, soldering the liquid and suction
lines together for several feet makes an effective heat
exchanger.
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES
Thermostatic expansion valves must be selected and
applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s instruc-
tions. Either internally equalized or externally equalized
valves will feed properly if applied correctly. If the thermal
expansion valve is of the externally equalized type, the
external equalizer line must be connected, preferably
at a point beyond the expansion valve thermal bulb. Do
not cap or plug the external equalizer connection as the
valve will not operate without this connection.
Valve superheat should be preset by the valve manu-
facturer, and field adjustment should be discouraged.
Valves in need of adjustment should be set to provide
5°F. to 10°F. superheat at the thermal bulb location.
Too high a superheat setting will result in starving the
evaporator, and can cause poor oil return. Too low a
superheat setting will permit liquid floodback to the
compressor.
A minimum of 15°F. superheat at the compressor must
be maintained at all times to insure the return of dry gas
to the compressor suction chamber, and a minimum of
20°F. superheat is recommended. Note that this is not
superheat at the expansion valve, but should be calcu-
lated from pressure measured at the suction service valve
and the temperature measured 18” from the compres-
sor on the bottom of the horizontal run of suction line
tubing. Lower superheat can result in liquid refrigerant
17-7
flooding back to the compressor during variations in the
evaporator feed with possible compressor damage as
a result. Excessively wet refrigerant vapor continually
returning to the compressor can reduce the lubricating
qualities of the oil and greatly increase compressor wear,
as well as resulting in a loss of capacity.
It is important that users realize that flash gas in the
liquid line can seriously affect expansion valve control.
So long as a head of pure liquid refrigerant is maintained
at the expansion valve, its performance is relatively
stable. But if flash gas is mixed with liquid refrigerant
fed to the valve, a larger orifice opening is required to
feed the same weight of liquid refrigerant. The only way
the orifice opening can be increased is by an increase in
superheat, and as the percentage of flash gas increases,
the superheat increases, the valve opens wide, and the
evaporator is progressively more starved.
If the valve has been operating with a large percentage
of flash gas entering the expansion valve, and a head
of pure liquid refrigerant is suddenly restored, the orifice
opening will be larger than required for the load, and
liquid will flood through the system to the compressor
until the valve again regains control. Conventional
expansion valves with the thermal bulb strapped to the
suction line may be somewhat sluggish in response,
and it may be several minutes before control can be
restored to normal.
Typically, changes in the quality of liquid refrigerant feed-
ing the expansion valve can occur quickly and frequently
because of the action of head pressure control devices,
sudden changes in the refrigeration load, hunting of the
expansion valve, action of an unloading valve, or rapid
changes in condensing pressure.
On systems with short suction lines and low superheat
requirements, quick response thermal bulbs or wells
in the suction line may be essential to avoid periodic
floodback to the compressor.
Temperatures and pressure alone may not give a true
picture of the actual liquid refrigerant control in a system.
Excessive oil circulation has the effect of increasing the
evaporating temperature of the refrigerant. The response
of the expansion valve is based on the saturation pressure
and temperature of pure refrigerant. In an operating sys-
tem, the changed pressure-temperature characteristics
of the oil rich refrigerant will give the expansion valve
a false reading of the actual superheat, and can result
in a somewhat lower actual superheat than apparently
exists, causing excessive liquid refrigerant floodback to
the compressor. The only real cure for this condition is to
reduce oil circulation to a minimum. Normally excessive
oil in the evaporator can only result from an excessive
17-8
system oil charge or other factors which could cause
excessive oil circulation, or from low velocities in the
evaporator which result in oil logging. In low tempera-
ture applications where proper oil circulation cannot be
maintained, an oil separator may be required.
Vapor charged valves are satisfactory for air condition-
ing usage, and are desirable in many cases because
of their inherent pressure limiting characteristics. For all
refrigeration applications, liquid charged valves should be
used to prevent condensation of the charge in the head
of the valve and the resulting loss of control in the event
the head becomes colder than the thermal bulb.
A pressure limiting type valve may be helpful in limiting
the compressor load, and also prevents excessive liquid
refrigerant floodback on start-up. On systems using hot
gas defrost, the defrost load is normally greater than the
refrigeration load, and some other means of limiting the
compressor power input must be used if required.
The thermostatic expansion valve must be sized prop-
erly for the load. Although a given valve normally has a
wide operating capacity range, excessively undersized
or oversized valves can cause system malfunctions.
Undersized valves may starve the evaporator, and the
resulting excessive superheat may adversely affect
the system performance. Oversized valves can cause
hunting, alternately starving and flooding the evaporator,
resulting in extreme fluctuations in suction pressure.
The thermal bulb should normally be located on a hori-
zontal section of the suction line, close to the evaporator
outlet, on the evaporator side of any suction line trap
or heat exchanger. Do not under any circumstances
locate the thermal bulb in a location where the suction
line is trapped since this can result in erratic feeding.
Satisfactory performance can usually be obtained with
the bulb strapped to the suction line at the 3 o’clock
position. Mounting on the top of the suction line will de-
crease sensitivity, and may allow possible liquid flooding.
Mounting on the bottom of the suction line can cause
erratic feeding due to the rapid temperature changes that
can result from even small amounts of liquid refrigerant
reaching the thermal bulb location. Particular attention
should be given to the location of the thermal bulb on
multiple evaporator systems to insure that the refriger-
ant returning from one evaporator does not affect the
control of another evaporator.
EVAPORATORS
Evaporators must be properly selected for the refrig-
eration load. Too large an evaporator might result in
low velocities and possible oil logging. Too small an
evaporator will have excessive temperature differentials
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
between the evaporating refrigerant and the medium to
be cooled. The allowable TD between the entering air
and the evaporating refrigerant may also be dictated by
the humidity control required.
Internal volume of the evaporator tubing should be at a
minimum to keep the system refrigerant charge as low
as possible, so the smallest diameter tubing that will
give acceptable performance should be used. Since
pressure drop at low evaporating temperatures is criti-
cal so far as capacity is concerned, multiple refrigerant
circuits with fairly short runs are preferred. At the same
time, it is essential that velocities of refrigerant in the
evaporator be high enough to avoid oil trapping.
Vertical headers should have a bottom outlet to allow
gravity oil drainage.
SUCTION LINE FILTERS
A heavy duty suction line filter is recommended for
every field installation. The filter will effectively remove
contaminants from the system at the time of installation,
and serves to keep the compressor free of impurities
during operation. In the event of a motor burn, the filter
will prevent contamination from spreading into the system
through the suction line.
The suction line filter should be selected for a reason-
able pressure drop, and should be equipped with a
pressure fitting just ahead of the filter, preferably in the
shell, to facilitate checking pressure drop across the
filter during operation.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
HIGH AND LOW PRESSURE CONTROLS
Both high and low pressure controls are recommended
for good system design on all air cooled systems 1 HP
and larger, and are essential on all field installed air
cooled systems and on all water cooled systems.
When used for low temperature unit operation control,
the low pressure control must not be set below the
minimum operating limits of the compressor or the
system. One of the most frequent causes of motor
overheating and inadequate lubrication is operation of
the compressor at excessively low suction pressures.
Product specification sheets list the approved compres-
sor operating range, and recommended minimum low
pressure control settings for various operating ranges
are shown in Table 21.
High pressure controls may be either manual or automatic
reset as desired by the customer. If of the manual reset
type, provision must be made to prevent liquid refrigerant
flooding through the system to the compressor in the
event of a trip of the high pressure control.
Internal automatic reset pressure relief valves (Co-
pelimit) are provided in most welded compressors
1 ¾ HP and larger. On factory assembled package
systems, the internal Copelimit valve may satisfy U.L.
and code requirements without the use of an external
high pressure control. A similar high side to low side
automatic reset pressure relief valve is installed in all
Copelametic® compressors with displacements of 3,000
CFH or greater.
17-9
On factory assembled and charged package systems,
such as room air conditioners, where loss of charge
protection is not considered critical, or where the motor
protection device can provide loss of charge protection,
low pressure controls may not be essential although
recommended.
INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS
When the crankcases of two or more compressors
are interconnected for parallel operation on a single
refrigeration system, serious problems of oil return and
vibration may be encountered unless the system is
properly designed. The tandem compressor consisting
of two individual compressors with an interconnecting
housing replacing the individual stator covers provides
a simple, trouble free solution to this problem.
17-10
Because of the potential operating problems, intercon-
nection of individual compressors is not approved with
the exception of factory designed, tested, and assembled
units specifically approved by the Emerson Climate Tech-
nologies, Inc. Application Engineering Department.
ELECTRICAL GROUP FUSING
Individual circuit breakers or fuses should be provided
for each compressor motor. Group fusing, where two or
more compressors are installed on one fused discon-
nect, is not recommended since an electrical failure in
one compressor would not trip the fuse, and extensive
electrical damage could result.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 Section 18
REFRIGERATION PIPING
Probably the first skill that any refrigeration apprentice
mechanic learns is to make a soldered joint, and run-
ning piping is so common a task that often its critical
importance in the proper performance of a system is
overlooked. It would seem elementary in any piping
system that what goes in one end of a pipe must come
out the other, but on a system with improper piping, it
is not uncommon for a serviceman to add gallons of oil
to a system, and it may seemingly disappear without a
trace. It is of course lying on the bottom of the tubing
in the system, usually in the evaporator or suction line.
When the piping or operating condition is corrected,
the oil will return and those same gallons of oil must
be removed.
Refrigeration piping involves extremely complex relation-
ships in the flow of refrigerant and oil. Fluid flow is the
name given in mechanical engineering to the study of
the flow of any fluid, whether it might be a gas or a liquid,
and the inter-relationship of velocity, pressure, friction,
density, viscosity, and the work required to cause the
flow. These relationships evolve into long mathematical
equations which form the basis for the fan laws which
govern fan performance, and the pressure drop tables
for flow through piping. But 99% of the theories in fluid
flow textbooks deal with the flow of one homogenous
fluid, and there is seldom even a mention of a combi-
nation flow of liquid, gas, and oil such as occurs in any
refrigeration system. Because of its changing nature,
such flow is just too complex to be governed by a simple
mathematical equation, and practically the entire working
knowledge of refrigeration piping is based on practical
experience and test data. As a result, the general type
of gas and liquid flow that must be maintained to avoid
problems is known, but seldom is there one exact an-
swer to any problem.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION PIPING
DESIGN
The design of refrigeration piping systems is a continuous
series of compromises. It is desirable to have maximum
capacity, minimum cost, proper oil return, minimum
power consumption, minimum refrigerant charge, low
noise level, proper liquid refrigerant control, and perfect
flexibility of system operation from 0 to 100% of system
capacity without lubrication problems. Obviously all of
these goals cannot be satisfied, since some are in direct
conflict. In order to make an intelligent decision as to
just what type of compromise is desirable, it is essential
that the piping designer clearly understand the basic
effects on system performance of the piping design in
the different parts of the system.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
In general, pressure drop in refrigerant lines tends to
decrease capacity and increase power requirements, and
excessive pressure drops should be avoided. The mag-
nitude of the pressure drop allowable varies depending
on the particular segment of piping involved, and each
part of the system must be considered separately. There
are probably more tables and charts available covering
line pressure drop and refrigerant line capacities at a
given pressure drop than on any other single subject in
the field of refrigeration.
It is most important, however, that the piping designer
realize that pressure drop is not the only criteria that
must be considered in sizing refrigerant lines, and that
often refrigerant velocities rather than pressure drop
must be the determining factor in system design. In
addition to the critical nature of oil return, there is no
better invitation to system difficulties than an exces-
sive refrigerant charge. A reasonable pressure drop
is far more preferable than over-sized lines which can
contain refrigerant far in excess of the system’s needs.
An excessive refrigerant charge can result in serious
problems of liquid refrigerant control, and the flywheel
effect of large quantities of liquid refrigerant in the low
pressure side of the system can result in erratic opera-
tion of the refrigerant control devices.
The size of the service valve supplied on a compressor,
or the size of the connection on a condenser, evapora-
tor, accumulator, or other accessory does not determine
the size of line to be used. Manufacturers select a valve
size or connection fitting on the basis of its application
to an average system, and such factors as the type of
application, length of connecting lines, type of system
control, variation in load, and other factors can be major
factors in determining the proper line size. It is quite
possible the required line size may be either smaller or
larger than the fittings on various system components.
In such cases, reducing fittings must be used.
Since oil must pass through the compressor cylinders
to provide lubrication, a small amount of oil is always
circulating with the refrigerant. Refrigeration oils are
soluble in liquid refrigerant, and at normal room tem-
peratures they will mix completely. Oil and refrigerant
vapor, however, do not mix readily, and the oil can be
properly circulated through the system only if the mass
velocity of the refrigerant vapor is great enough to sweep
the oil along. To assure proper oil circulation, adequate
refrigerant velocities must be maintained not only in
the suction and discharge lines, but in the evaporator
circuits as well.
18-1
Several factors combine to make oil return most critical
at low evaporating temperatures. As the suction pres-
sure decreases and the refrigerant vapor becomes less
dense, the more difficult it becomes to sweep the oil
along. At the same time as the suction pressure falls, the
compression ratio increases, and as a result compres-
sor capacity is reduced, and the weight of refrigerant
circulated decreases. Refrigeration oil alone becomes
the consistency of molasses at temperatures below 0°F.,
but so long as it is mixed with sufficient liquid refrigerant,
it flows freely. As the percentage of oil in the mixture
increases, the viscosity increases.
At low temperature conditions all of these factors start
to converge, and can create a critical condition. The
density of the gas decreases, the mass velocity flow
decreases, and as a result more oil starts accumulating
in the evaporator. As the oil and refrigerant mixture be-
comes more viscous, at some point oil may start logging
in the evaporator rather than returning to the compressor,
resulting in wide variations in the compressor crankcase
oil level in poorly designed systems.
Oil logging can be minimized with adequate velocities
and properly designed evaporators even at extremely low
evaporating temperatures, but normally oil separators
are necessary for operation at evaporating temperatures
below -50°F. in order to minimize the amount of the oil
in circulation.
COPPER TUBING FOR REFRIGERANT PIPING
For installations using R-12, R-22, and R-502, copper
tubing is almost universally used for refrigerant piping.
Commercial copper tubing dimensions have been stan-
dardized and classified as follows:
Type K Heavy Wall
Type L Medium Wall
Type M Light Wall
18-2
Only types K or L should be used for refrigerant piping,
since type M does not have sufficient strength for high
pressure applications. Type L tubing is most commonly
used, and all tables and data in this manual are based
on type L dimensions.
It is highly recommended that only refrigeration grade
copper tubing be used for refrigeration applications,
since it is available cleaned, dehydrated, and capped
to avoid contamination prior to installation. Copper
tubing commonly used for plumbing usually has oils
and grease or other contaminants on the interior wall,
and these can cause serious operating problems if not
removed prior to installation.
Table 22 lists the dimensions and properties of standard
commercial copper tubing in the sizes commonly used
in refrigeration systems, and Table 23 lists the weight
of various refrigerants per 100 feet of piping in liquid,
suction and discharge lines.
FITTINGS FOR COPPER TUBING
For brazed or soldered joints, the required elbows, tees,
couplings, reducers, or other miscellaneous fittings may
be either forged brass or wrought copper. Cast fittings
are not satisfactory since they may be porous and often
lack sufficient strength.
EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF PIPE
Each valve, fitting, and bend in a refrigerant line con-
tributes to the friction pressure drop because of its
interruption or restriction of smooth flow. Because of the
detail and complexity of computing the pressure drop
of each individual fitting, normal practice is to establish
an equivalent length of straight tubing for each fitting.
This allows the consideration of the entire length of line,
including fittings, as an equivalent length of straight
pipe. Pressure drop and line sizing tables and charts
are normally set up on the basis of a pressure drop per
100 feet of straight pipe, so the use of equivalent lengths
allows the data to be used directly.
(continued on p. 18-5)
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-3
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-4 All rights reserved.
The equivalent length of copper tubing for commonly
used valves and fittings is shown in Table 24.
For accurate calculations of pressure drop, the equiva-
lent length for each fitting should be calculated. As a
practical matter, an experienced piping designer may
be capable of making an accurate overall percentage
allowance unless the piping is extremely complicated.
For long runs of piping of 100 feet or greater, an allow-
ance of 20% to 30% of the actual lineal length may be
adequate, while for short runs of piping, an allowance
as high as 50% to 75% or more of the lineal length may
be necessary. Judgment and experience are necessary
in making a good estimate, and estimates should be
checked frequently with actual calculations to insure
reasonable accuracy.
For items such as solenoid valves and pressure
regulating valves, where the pressure drop through
the valve is relatively large, data is normally available
from the manufacturer’s catalog so that items of this
nature can be considered independently of lineal length
calculations.
PRESSURE DROP TABLES
Figure 76, 77, and 78 are combined pressure drop
charts for refrigerants R-12, R-22, and R-502. Pressure
drops in the discharge line, suction line, and liquid line
can be determined from these charts for condensing
temperatures ranging from 80°F. to 120°F.
To use the chart, start in the upper right hand corner with
the design capacity. Drop vertically downward on the line
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
representing the desired capacity to the intersection with
the diagonal line representing the operating condition
desired. Then move horizontally to the left. A vertical
line dropped from the intersection point with each size
of copper tubing to the design condensing temperature
line allows the pressure drop in psi per 100 feet of tubing
to be read directly from the chart. The diagonal pres-
sure drop lines at the bottom of the chart represent the
change in pressure drop due to a change in condensing
temperature.
For example, in Figure 78 for R-502, the dotted line
represents a pressure drop determination for a suction
line in a system having a design capacity of 5.5 tons
or 66,000 BTU/hr operating with an evaporating tem-
perature of -40°F. The 2 5/8” O.D. suction line illustrated
has a pressure drop of 0.22 psi per 100 feet at 85°F.
condensing temperature, but the same line with the
same capacity would have a pressure drop of 0.26 psi
per 100 feet at 100°F. condensing, and 0.32 psi per 100
feet at 120°F. condensing.
In the same manner, the corresponding pressure drop for
any line size and any set of operating conditions within
the range of the chart can be determined.
SIZING HOT GAS DISCHARGE LINES
Pressure drop in discharge lines is probably less criti-
cal than in any other part of the system. Frequently the
effect on capacity of discharge line pressure drop is
over-estimated since it is assumed the compressor
discharge pressure and the condensing pressure are
the same. In fact, there are two different pressures, the
compressor discharge pressure being greater than the
condensing pressure by the amount of the discharge
line pressure drop. An increase in pressure drop in the
discharge line might increase the compressor discharge
pressure materially, but have little effect on the condens-
ing pressure. Although there is a slight increase in the
heat of compression for an increase in head pressure,
the volume of gas pumped is decreased slightly due
to a decrease in volumetric efficiency of the compres-
sor. Therefore the total heat to be dissipated through
the condenser may be relatively unchanged, and the
condensing temperature and pressure may be quite
stable, even though the discharge line pressure drop
and therefore the compressor discharge pressure might
vary considerably.
The performance of a typical Copelametic® compres-
sor, operating at air conditioning conditions with R-22
and an air cooled condenser indicates that for each 5
psi pressure drop in the discharge line, the compres-
sor capacity is reduced less than ½ of 1%, while the
power required is increased about 1%. On a typical low
(continued on p. 18-9)
18-5
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18-6 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-7
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-8 All rights reserved.
temperature Copelametic® compressor operating with
R-502 and an air cooled condenser, approximately 1%
of compressor capacity will be lost for each 5 psi pres-
sure drop, but there will be little or no change in power
consumption.
As a general guide, for discharge line pressure drops
up to 5 psi, the effect on system performance would be
so small as to be difficult to measure. Pressure drops
up to 10 psi would not be greatly detrimental to system
performance provided the condenser is sized to maintain
reasonable condensing pressures.
Actually a reasonable pressure drop in the discharge
line is often desirable to dampen compressor pulsation,
and thereby reduce noise and vibration. Some discharge
line mufflers actually derive much of their efficiency from
pressure drop through the muffler.
Discharge lines on factory built condensing units usually
are not a field problem, but on systems installed in the
field with remote condensers, line sizes must be selected
to provide proper system performance.
Because of the high temperatures existing in the dis-
charge line, oil flows freely, and oil circulation through
both horizontal and vertical lines can be maintained
satisfactorily with reasonably low velocities. Since oil
traveling up a riser usually creeps up the inner surface
of the pipe, oil travel in vertical risers is dependent on
the velocity of the gas at the tubing wall. The larger the
pipe diameter, the greater will be the required velocity
at the center of the pipe to maintain a given velocity at
the wall surface. Figures 79 and 80 list the maximum
recommended discharge line riser sizes for proper oil
return for varying capacities. The variation at different
condensing temperatures is not great, so the line sizes
shown are acceptable on both water cooled and air cooled
applications.
If horizontal lines are run with a pitch in the direction
of flow of at least ½” in 10 feet, there is normally little
problem with oil circulation at lower velocities in horizontal
lines. However, because of the relatively low velocities
required in vertical discharge lines, it is recommended
wherever possible that both horizontal and vertical dis-
charge lines be sized on the same basis.
To illustrate the use of the chart, assume a system
operating with R-22 at 40°F. evaporating temperature
has a capacity of 100,000 BTU/hr. The intersection
of the capacity and evaporating temperature lines
at point X on Figure 80 indicate the design condi-
tion. Since this is below the 2 1/8” O.D. line, the
maximum size that can be used to insure oil return
up a vertical riser is 1 5/8” O.D.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Oil circulation in discharge lines is normally a problem
only on systems where large variations in system capac-
ity are encountered. For example, an air conditioning
system may have steps of capacity control allowing
it to operate during periods of light load at capacities
possibly as low as 25% or 33% of the design capacity.
The same situation may exist on commercial refrigera-
tion systems where compressors connected in parallel
are cycled for capacity control. In such cases, vertical
discharge lines must be sized to maintain velocities
above the minimum necessary to properly circulate oil
at the minimum load condition.
For example, consider an air conditioning system using
R-12 having a maximum design capacity of 300,000
BTU/hr with steps of capacity reduction up to 66%.
Although the 300,000 BTU/hr condition could return oil
up a 3 1/8” O.D. riser, at light load conditions the system
would have only 100,000 BTU/hr capacity, so a 2 1/8”
O.D. riser must be used. In checking the pressure drop
chart, Figure 76, at maximum load conditions, a 2 1/8”
O.D. pipe will have a pressure drop of approximately 3 psi
per 100 feet at a condensing temperature of 120°F.
One other limiting factor in discharge line sizing is
excessive velocity which can cause noise problems.
Velocities of 3,000 FPM or more may result in high noise
levels, and it is recommended that maximum velocities
be kept well below this level. Figures 81 and 82 give
equivalent discharge line gas velocities for varying
capacities and line sizes over the normal refrigeration
and air conditioning range.
Because of the flexibility in line sizing that the allowable
pressure drop makes possible, discharge lines can al-
most always be sized satisfactorily without the necessity
of double risers. If modifications are made to an existing
system which result in the existing discharge line being
oversized at light load conditions, the addition of an oil
separator to minimize oil circulation will normally solve
the problem.
To summarize, in sizing discharge lines, it is recom-
mended that a tentative selection of line size be made
on the basis of a total pressure drop of approximately
5 psi plus or minus 50%, the actual design pressure
drop to a considerable degree being a matter of the
designer’s judgment. Check Figure 79 or 80 to be sure
that velocities at minimum load conditions are adequate
to carry oil up vertical risers, and adjust vertical riser size
if necessary. Check Figure 81 or 82 to be sure velocities
at maximum load are not excessive.
Recommended discharge line sizes for varying capaci-
ties and equivalent lengths of line are given in Table
28.
(continued on p. 18-14)
18-9
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
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© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-11
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-12 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-13
SIZING LIQUID LINES
Since liquid refrigerant and oil mix completely, velocity
is not essential for oil circulation in the liquid line. The
primary concern in liquid line sizing is to insure a solid
liquid head of refrigerant at the expansion valve. If the
pressure of the liquid refrigerant falls below its saturation
temperature, a portion of the liquid will flash into vapor
to cool the liquid refrigerant to the new saturation tem-
perature. This can occur in a liquid line if the pressure
drops sufficiently due to friction or vertical lift.
Flash gas in the liquid line has a detrimental effect on
system performance in several ways. It increases the
pressure drop due to friction, reduces the capacity of the
expansion device, may erode the expansion valve pin and
seat, can cause excessive noise, and may cause erratic
feeding of the liquid refrigerant to the evaporator.
For proper system performance, it is essential that
liquid refrigerant reaching the expansion device be
subcooled slightly below its saturation temperature.
On most systems the liquid refrigerant is sufficiently
subcooled as it leaves the condenser to provide for
normal system pressure drops. The amount of subcool-
ing necessary, however, is dependent on the individual
system design.
On air cooled and most water cooled applications, the
temperature of the liquid refrigerant is normally higher
than the surrounding ambient temperature, so no heat
is transferred into the liquid, and the only concern is
the pressure drop in the liquid line. Besides the friction
loss caused by flow through the piping, a pressure drop
equivalent to the liquid head is involved in forcing liquid
to flow up a vertical riser. A head of two feet of liquid
refrigerant is approximately equivalent to 1 psi. For
example, if a condenser or receiver in the basement of
a building is to supply liquid refrigerant to an evapora-
tor three floors above, or approximately 30 feet, then a
pressure drop of approximately 15 psi must be provided
for in system design for the liquid head alone.
On evaporative or water cooled condensers where
the condensing temperature is below the ambient air
temperature, or on any application where liquid lines
must pass through hot areas such as boiler or furnace
rooms, an additional complication may arise because
of heat transfer into the liquid. Any subcooling in the
condenser may be lost in the receiver or liquid line due
to temperature rise alone unless the system is properly
designed. On evaporative condensers where a receiver
and subcooling coil are used, it is recommended that
the refrigerant flow be piped from the condenser to
the receiver and then to the subcooling coil. In critical
applications it may be necessary to insulate both the
receiver and the liquid line.
18-14
On the typical air cooled condensing unit with a conven-
tional receiver, it is probable that very little subcooling of
liquid is possible unless the receiver is almost completely
filled with liquid. Vapor in the receiver in contact with
the subcooled liquid will condense, and this effect will
tend toward a saturated condition.
At normal condensing temperatures, the following
relation between each 1°F. of subcooling and the cor-
responding change in saturation pressure applies.
Equivalent Change
in Saturation
Refrigerant Subcooling Pressure
R-12 1° F. 1.75 psi
R-22 1° F. 2.75 psi
R-502 1° F. 2.85 psi
To illustrate, 5°F. subcooling will allow a pressure drop
of 8.75 psi with R-12, 13.75 psi with R-22, and 14.25
psi with R-502 without flashing in the liquid line. For the
previous example of a condensing unit in a basement
requiring a vertical lift of 30 feet or approximately 15
psi, the necessary subcooling for the liquid head alone
would be 8.5°F. with R-12, 5.5°F. with R-22, and 5.25°F.
with R-502.
The necessary subcooling may be provided by the
condenser used, but for systems with abnormally high
vertical risers, a suction to liquid heat exchanger may be
required. Where long refrigerant lines are involved, and
the temperature of the suction gas at the condensing unit
is approaching room temperatures, a heat exchanger
located near the condenser may not have sufficient
temperature differential to adequately cool the liquid,
and individual heat exchangers at each evaporator may
be necessary.
In extreme cases, where a great deal of subcooling is
required, there are several alternatives. A special heat
exchanger with a separate subcooling expansion valve
can provide maximum cooling with no penalty on system
performance. It is also possible to reduce the capacity
of the condenser so that a higher operating condens-
ing temperature will make greater subcooling possible.
Liquid refrigerant pumps may also be used to overcome
large pressure drops.
Liquid line pressure drop causes no direct penalty in
power consumption, and the decrease in system capac-
ity due to friction losses in the liquid line is negligible.
Because of this the only real restriction on the amount
of liquid line pressure drop is the amount of subcooling
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
available. Most references on pipe sizing recommend
a conservative approach with friction pressure drops
in the 3 to 5 psi range, but where adequate subcooling
is available, many applications have successfully used
much higher design pressure drops. The total friction
includes line losses through such accessories as sole-
noid valves, filter-driers, and hand valves.
In order to minimize the refrigerant charge, liquid
lines should be kept as small as practical, and exces-
sively low pressure drops should be avoided. On most
systems, a reasonable design criteria is to size liquid
lines on the basis of a pressure drop equivalent to 2°F.
subcooling.
A limitation on liquid line velocity is possible damage
to the piping from pressure surges or liquid hammer
caused by the rapid closing of liquid line solenoid valves,
and velocities above 300 FPM should be avoided when
they are used. If liquid line solenoids are not used, then
higher velocities can be employed. Figure 83 gives liquid
line velocities corresponding to various pressure drops
and line sizes.
To summarize, in sizing liquid lines, it is recommended
that the selection of line size be made on the basis of a
total friction pressure drop equivalent to 2°F. subcool-
ing. If vertical lifts or valves with large pressure drops
are involved, then the designer must make certain that
sufficient subcooling is available to allow the necessary
pressure drop without approaching a saturation condi-
tion at which gas flashing could occur. Check Figure 83
to be sure velocities do not exceed 300 FPM if a liquid
line solenoid is used.
Recommended liquid line sizes for varying capacities
and equivalent lengths of line are given in Table 27.
SIZING SUCTION LINES
Suction line sizing is the most critical from a design and
system standpoint. Any pressure drop occurring due to
frictional resistance to flow results in a decrease in the
pressure at the compressor suction valve, compared
with the pressure at the evaporator outlet. As the suc-
tion pressure is decreased, each pound of refrigerant
returning to the compressor occupies a greater volume,
and the weight of the weight of the refrigerant pumped
by the compressor decreases. For example, a typical
low temperature R-502 compressor at -40°F. evaporating
temperature will lose almost 6% of its rated capacity for
each 1 psi suction line pressure drop.
Normally accepted design practice is to use as a design
criteria a suction line pressure drop equivalent to a 2°F.
change in saturation temperature. Equivalent pressure
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
drops for various operating conditions are shown in
Table 25.
Table 25
Pressure drop Equivalent for 2° F.
Change in Saturation Temperature at
Various Evaporating Temperatures
Evaporating Pressure Drop, PSI
Temperature R-12 R-022 R-502
45ºF 2.0 3.0 3.3
20ºF 1.35 2.2 2.4
0ºF 1.0 1.65 1.85
-20ºF .75 1.15 1.35
-40ºF .5 .8 1.0
Of equal importance in sizing suction lines is the ne-
cessity of maintaining adequate velocities to properly
return oil to the compressor. Studies have shown that
oil is most viscous in a system after the suction vapor
has warmed up a few degrees from the evaporating
temperature, so that the oil is no longer saturated with
refrigerant, and this condition occurs in the suction line
after the refrigerant vapor has left the evaporator. Move-
ment of oil through suction lines is dependent on both
the mass and velocity of the suction vapor. As the mass
or density decreases, higher velocities are required to
force the oil along.
Nominal minimum velocities of 700 FPM in horizontal
suction lines and 1500 FPM in vertical suction lines
have been recommended and used successfully for
many years as suction line sizing design standards.
Use of the one nominal velocity provided a simple and
convenient means of checking velocities. However,
tests have shown that in vertical risers the oil tends to
crawl up the inner surface of the tubing, and the larger
the tubing, the greater velocity required in the center of
the tubing to maintain tube surface velocities which will
carry the oil. The exact velocity required in vertical lines
is dependent on both the evaporating temperature and
the line size, and under varying conditions, the specific
velocity required might be either greater or less than
1500 FPM.
For better accuracy in line sizing, revised maximum
recommended vertical suction line sizes based on the
minimum gas velocities shown in the 1980 ASHRAE
Handbook have been calculated and are plotted in
chart form for easy usage in Figures 84 and 86. These
revised recommendations superseded previous vertical
suction riser recommendations. No change has been
made in the 700 FPM minimum velocity recommenda-
tion for horizontal suction lines, and Figures 85 and 87
cover maximum recommended horizontal line sizes for
proper oil return.
(continued on p. 18-21)
18-15
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-16 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-17
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-18 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-19
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-20 All rights reserved.
To illustrate, again assume a system operating with R-
12 at 40°F. evaporating temperature has a capacity of
100,000 BTU/hr. On Figure 84, the intersection of the
evaporating temperature and capacity lines indicate
that a 2 1/8” O.D. line will be required for oil return in
the vertical suction risers.

Even though the system might have a much larger design

capacity, the suction line sizing must be based on the
minimum capacity anticipated in operation under light
load conditions after allowing for the maximum reduction
in capacity from capacity control if provided.

Since the dual goals of low pressure drop and high

velocities are in direct conflict, obviously compromises
must be made in both areas. As a general approach,
in suction line design, velocities should be kept as high
as possible by sizing lines on the basis of the maximum
pressure drop that can be tolerated, but in no case should
gas velocity be allowed to fall below the minimum levels
necessary to return oil. It is recommended that a tenta-
tive selection of suction line sizes be made on the basis
of a total pressure drop equivalent to a 2°F. change in
the saturated evaporating temperature. Check Figures
84 or 86 to be sure that velocities in vertical risers are
satisfactory. Where refrigerant lines are lengthy, it may be
desirable to use as large tubing as practical to minimize
pressure drop, and Figure 85 or 87 should be checked
to determine the maximum permissible horizontal line
size. The final consideration must always be to maintain
velocities adequate to return oil to the compressor, even
if this results in a higher pressure drop than is normally
desirable.
Recommended suction line sizes for varying capaci-
ties and equivalent lengths of line are given in Tables
29 to 41.
DOUBLE RISERS
On systems equipped with capacity control compressors,
or where tandem or multiple compressors are used with
one or more compressors cycled off for capacity control,
single suction line risers may result in either unaccept-
ably high or low gas velocities. A line properly sized
for light load conditions may have too high a pressure
drop at maximum load, and if the line is sized on the
basis of full load conditions, then velocities may not be
adequate at light load conditions to move oil through the
tubing. On air conditioning applications where somewhat
higher pressure drops at maximum load conditions can
be tolerated without any major penalty in overall sys-
tem performance, it is usually preferable to accept the
additional pressure drop imposed by a single vertical
riser. But on medium or low temperature applications
where pressure drop is more critical and where separate
risers from individual evaporators are not desirable or
possible, a double riser may be necessary to avoid an
excessive loss of capacity.
A typical double riser configuration is shown in Figure
88. The two lines should be sized so that the total cross-
sectional area is equivalent to the cross-section area
of a single riser that would have both satisfactory gas
velocity and acceptable pressure drop at maximum load
conditions. The two lines normally are different in size,
with the larger line trapped as shown, and the smaller
line must be sized to provide adequate velocities and
acceptable pressure drop when the entire minimum load
is carried in the smaller riser.
In operation, at maximum load conditions gas and en-
trained oil will be flowing through both risers. At minimum
load conditions, the gas velocity will not be high enough
to carry oil up both risers. The entrained oil will drop out
of the refrigerant gas flow, and accumulate in the “P”
trap, forming a liquid seal. This will force all of the flow
up the smaller riser, thereby raising the velocity and
assuring oil circulation through the system.

© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 18-21
For example, assume a low temperature system as
follows:
Maximum capacity 150,000 BTU/hr.
Minimum capacity 50,000 BTU/hr.
Refrigerant R-502
Evaporating Temperature -40°F.
Equivalent length of
piping, horizontal 125 ft.
Vertical Riser 25 ft.
Desired design pressure drop
(equivalent to 2°F.) 1 psi
A preliminary check of the R-502 pressure drop chart,
Figure 78, indicates for a 150 foot run with 150,000 BTU/
hr capacity and a total pressure drop of approximately
1 psi, a 3 1/8” O.D. line is indicated. At the minimum
capacity of 50,000 BTU/hr, Figure 87 shows a 3 5/8”
O.D. horizontal suction line is acceptable, but Figure 84
indicates that the maximum vertical riser size is 2 1/8”
O.D. Referring again to the pressure drop chart, Figure
78, the pressure drop for 150,000 BTU/hr through 2 1/8”
O.D. tubing is 4 psi per 100 feet, or 1.0 psi for the 25 foot
suction riser. Obviously, either a compromise must be
made in accepting a greater pressure drop at maximum
load conditions, or a double riser must be used.
If the pressure drop must be held to a minimum, then
the size of the double riser must be determined. At
maximum load conditions, a 3 1/8” O.D. riser would
maintain adequate velocities, so a combination of the
sizes approximating the 3 1/8” O.D. line can be selected
for the double riser. The cross sectional area of the line
sizes to be considered are:
3 1/8” O.D. 6.64 sq. in.
2 5/8” O.D. 4.77 sq. in.
2 1/8” O.D. 3.10 sq. in.
1 5/8” O.D. 1.78 sq. in.
At the minimum load condition of 50,000 BTU/hr., the
1 5/8” O.D. line will have a pressure drop of approxi-
mately .5 psi, and will have acceptable velocities, so a
combination of 2 5/8” O.D. and 1 5/8” O.D. tubing should
be used for the double riser.
In a similar fashion, double risers can be calculated for
any set of maximum and minimum capacities where
single risers may not be satisfactory.
18-22
SUCTION PIPING FOR MULTIPLEX SYSTEMS
It is common practice in supermarket applications to
operate several fixtures, each with liquid line solenoid
valve and expansion valve control, from a single com-
pressor. Temperature control of individual fixtures is
normally achieved by means of a thermostat opening
and closing the liquid line solenoid valve as necessary.
This type of system, commonly called multiplexing,
requires careful attention to design to avoid oil return
problems and compressor overheating.
Since the fixtures fed by each liquid line solenoid valve
may be controlled individually, and since the load on
each fixture is relatively constant during operation, in-
dividual suction lines and risers are normally run from
each fixture or group of fixtures controlled by a liquid line
solenoid valve for minimum pressure drop and maximum
efficiency in oil return. This provides excellent control so
long as the compressor is operating at its design suction
pressure, but there may be periods of light load when
most or all of the liquid line solenoids are closed. Un-
less some means of controlling compressor capacity is
provided, this can result in compressor short cycling or
operation at excessively low suction pressures, which
can result not only in overheating the compressor, but in
reducing the suction pressure to a level where the gas
becomes so rarefied it can no longer return oil properly
in lines sized for much greater gas density.
Because of the fluctuations in refrigeration load caused
by closing of the individual liquid line solenoid valves,
some means of compressor capacity control must be
provided. In addition, the means of capacity control must
be such that it will not allow extreme variations in the
compressor suction pressure.
Where multiple compressors are used, cycling of indi-
vidual compressors provides satisfactory control. Where
multiplexing is done with a single compressor, a hot
gas bypass system has proven to be the most satisfac-
tory means of capacity reduction, since this allows the
compressor to operate continuously at a reasonably
constant suction pressure while compressor cooling
can be safely controlled by means of a desuperheating
expansion valve.
In all cases, the operation of the system under all pos-
sible combinations of heavy load, light load, defrost, and
compressor capacity must be studied carefully to be
certain that operating conditions will be satisfactory.
Close attention must be paid to piping design on mul-
tiplex systems to avoid oil return problems. Lines must
be properly sized so that the minimum velocities neces-
sary to return oil are maintained in both horizontal and
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
vertical suction lines under minimum load conditions.
Bear in mind that although a hot gas bypass maintains
the suction pressure at a proper level, the refrigerant
vapor being bypassed is not available in the system to
aid in returning oil.

PIPING DESIGN FOR HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL LINES

Horizontal suction and discharge lines should be pitched

downward in the direction of flow to aid in oil drainage,
with a downward pitch of at least ½ inch in 10 feet.
Refrigerant lines should always be as short and should
run as directly as possible.

Piping should be located so that access to system com-

ponents is not hindered, and so that any components
which could possibly require future maintenance are
easily accessible. If piping must be run through boiler
rooms or other areas where they will be exposed to
abnormally high temperatures, it may be necessary
to insulate both the suction and liquid lines to prevent
excessive heat transfer into the lines.

Every vertical suction riser greater than 3 to 4 feet in

height should have a “P” trap at the base to facilitate
oil return up the riser as shown in Figure 89. To avoid
the accumulation of large quantities of oil, the trap
should be of minimum depth and the horizontal section
should be as short as possible. Prefabricated wrought
copper traps are available, or a trap can be made by
using two street ells and one regular ell. Traps at the
foot of hot gas risers are normally not required because
of the easier movement of oil at higher temperatures.
However, it is recommended that the discharge line
from the compressor be looped to the floor prior to be-
ing run vertically upwards to prevent the drainage of oil
back to the compressor head during shut down periods.
See Figure 90.

For long vertical risers in both suction and discharge

lines, additional traps are recommended for each full
length of pipe (approximately 20 feet) to insure proper
oil movement.

In general, trapped sections of the suction line should

be avoided except where necessary for oil return. Oil or
liquid refrigerant accumulating in the suction line during
the off cycle can return to the compressor at high velocity
as liquid slugs on start up, and can break compressor
valves or cause other damage.

© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 18-23
SUCTION LINE PIPING DESIGN
AT THE EVAPORATOR
If a pumpdown control system is not used, each evapo-
rator must be trapped to prevent liquid refrigerant from
draining back to the compressor by gravity during the
off cycle. Where multiple evaporators are connected to
a common suction line, the connections to the common
suction line must be made with inverted traps to prevent
drainage from one evaporator from affecting the expan-
sion valve bulb control of another evaporator.
18-24
Where a suction riser is taken directly upward from an
evaporator, a short horizontal section of tubing and a
trap should be provided ahead of the riser so that a
suitable mounting for the thermal expansion valve bulb
is available. The trap serves as a drain area, and helps
to prevent the accumulation of liquid under the bulb
which could cause erratic expansion valve operation. If
the suction line leaving the evaporator is free draining
or if a reasonable length of horizontal piping precedes
the vertical riser, no trap is required unless necessary
for oil return.
Typical evaporator connections are illustrated in Figure
91.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
RECEIVER LOCATION
Gas binding at the receiver can occur when the receiver
is exposed to an ambient temperature higher than the
condensing temperature. Heat transfer through the re-
ceiver shell causes some of the liquid in the receiver to
evaporate, creating a pressure in the receiver high than
in the condenser. This forces liquid refrigerant to back
up into the condenser until its efficiency is reduced to
the point where the condensing pressure again exceeds
the pressure in the receiver.
The best remedy for this problem is to make sure the
receiver is always exposed to ambient temperatures
lower than the condensing temperature. If this is not
possible, the receiver should be insulated to minimize
heat transfer. Various types of venting arrangements
for receivers have been proposed, but these require
extreme care in circuiting to avoid flow problems. When
the receiver is vented back to the condenser, the only
force causing flow from the condenser to the receiver
is gravity. Vented piping arrangements are complicated
at best, and should be avoided if possible.
Even though there may not be sufficient heat transfer
into a receiver to cause gas binding, on systems where
the condensing temperature is lower than the ambient
(for example water cooled or evaporative condensers
with remote receivers) the liquid refrigerant may be
warmed sufficiently in the receiver to lose most and
possibly all of its subcooling. As mentioned previously,
special subcooling coils or insulation may be required
for proper operation under these conditions.
If a difference in temperature exists between two parts of
an idle refrigeration system with interconnecting piping,
this actually creates a little built-in static refrigeration
system. The liquid refrigerant at the high temperature
point will slowly vaporize, travel through the system as
vapor, and recondense at the lowest temperature point.
This most often is a matter of concern with a roof mounted
remote condenser when the compressor is located in
an inside machine room. If the system is idle, the sun
is shining on the condenser, and the machine room is
cool, then liquid is going to move out of the condenser
and back down the discharge line to the machine room.
Occasionally inverted traps are made in the discharge
line at the condenser in the belief they will prevent this
type of reverse flow. Actually with even a few degrees
temperature difference, an inverted loop 20 feet high
would be of no value.
However, if the receiver is located either in the machine
room, or at some other point where it will not be exposed
to the roof heat, reverse flow from the condenser seldom
is a source of operating difficulty. The amount of refrig-
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
erant actually returning down the discharge line will be
minimized and rarely if ever will this cause compressor
damage if good piping practice is followed. It is possible
to mount a check valve in the discharge line near the
condenser as a means of preventing refrigerant back-
flow of this nature, but check valves in this location are
noisy, expensive, and subject to damage, and should
be employed only if absolutely essential.
VIBRATION AND NOISE
No matter how well the compressor is isolated, some
noise and vibration will be transmitted through the pip-
ing, but both can be minimized by proper design and
support of the piping.
On small units a coil of tubing at the compressor may
provide adequate protection against vibration. On larger
units, flexible metallic hose is frequently used. When the
compressor is supported by vibration absorbing mounts
allowing compressor movement, refrigerant lines should
not be anchored solidly at the unit, but at a point beyond
the vibration absorber, so the vibration can be isolated
and not transmitted into the piping system.
The noise characteristics of a large refrigeration or air
conditioning system, particularly when installed with long
refrigerant lines and remote condensers, are not predict-
able. Variations in piping configuration, the pattern of
gas flow, line sizes, operating pressures, the compressor
and unit mounting, all can affect the noise generated by
the system. Occasionally a particular combination of gas
flow and piping will result in a resonant frequency which
may amplify the sound and vibration to an undesirable
level. Gas pulsation from the compressor may also be
amplified in a similar manner.
If gas pulsation or resonant frequencies are encountered
on a particular application, a discharge line muffler may
be helpful in correcting the problem. The purpose of a
muffler is to dampen the pulses of gas in the discharge
line and to change the frequency to a level which is
not objectionable. A muffler normally depends on mul-
tiple internal baffles and/or pressure drop to obtain an
even flow of gas. In general, the application range of a
muffler depends on the mass flow of gas through the
muffler, so the volume and density of the refrigerant
gas discharged from the compressor are both factors
in muffler performance.
A given muffler may work satisfactorily on a fairly wide
range of compressor sizes, but is also quite possible that
a given system may require a muffler with a particular
pressure drop to effectively dampen pulsations. On
problem applications, trial and error may be the only final
guide. While larger mufflers are often more efficient in
reducing the overall level of compressor discharge noise,
18-25
in order to satisfactorily dampen pulsations, smaller
mufflers with a greater pressure drop are usually more
effective. Adjustable mufflers are often helpful since they
allow tuning of the muffler pressure characteristics to
the exact system requirement.
Occasionally, a combination of operating conditions,
mounting and piping arrangement may result in a reso-
nant condition, which tends to magnify compressor pul-
sation and cause a sharp vibration, although noise may
not be a problem. For larger Copelametic® compressors,
discharge muffler plates have been developed for use
when necessary to dampen excessive pulsation. The
muffler plate fits between the discharge valve and the
compressor body and has a number of muffling holes
to provide the proper characteristics for the particular
compressor displacement. The muffling holes break up
the pattern of gas flow and create sufficient restriction
to reduce the gas pulsation to a minimum.
When piping passes through walls or floors, precautions
should be taken to see that the piping does not touch
any structural members and is properly supported by
hangers in order to prevent the transmission of vibra-
tion into the building. Failure to do so may result in the
building structure becoming a sounding board.
Table 26 gives the maximum recommended spacing
for pipe supports.
RECOMMENDED LINE SIZING TABLES
Tables 27 to 41 give recommended line sizes for single
stage applications at various capacities and for equivalent
18-26
lengths of pipe based on the design criteria discussed
previously. (For piping recommendations on two stage
systems, refer to Section 19).
Vertical suction line sizes have been selected on the
basis of a total vertical rise up to 30 feet. For longer
risers, individual calculations should be made since
the increased pressure drop may require different line
sizes and possibly the use of double risers in place of
the single riser shown.
Discharge line sizes have been calculated on the basis
of a nominal pressure drop of 5 psi. Vertical line sizes
have been selected so that minimum velocities neces-
sary to carry oil up the riser will be maintained under
the reduced load conditions shown, and velocities have
been checked to see that they do not exceed 2,700 FPM
at maximum load conditions. Because of the relatively
small variation in discharge line velocity over the normal
refrigeration and air conditioning range, the line sizes
shown may be safely used for evaporating temperatures
from -40°F. to 45°F., and condensing temperatures from
80°F. to 130°F.
Liquid line sizes have been calculated on the basis of a
nominal pressure drop equivalent to 2 ½° F. subcooling,
and velocities have been checked to see that they do
not exceed 250 FPM. Liquid lines from the condenser
to receiver have been selected on the basis of 100 FPM
velocity in accordance with standard industry practice
in order to allow a free draining line with gas equaliza-
tion where piping allows. As in the case with discharge
lines, the relatively small variation in liquid line velocities
over the normal refrigeration and air conditioning range
allows use of the recommended line sizing for evaporat-
ing temperatures from -40°F. to 45°F., and condensing
temperatures from 80°F. to 130°F.
Suction line sizes have been calculated on the basis of
a nominal pressure drop equivalent to a 2°F. change in
the saturated evaporating temperature. Both horizontal
and vertical line sizes have been checked to see that
the necessary minimum velocities are maintained under
the reduced load conditions shown. Line sizes have
been calculated for various evaporating temperatures,
and may be safely applied for condensing temperatures
from 80°F. to 130°F.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-27
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-28 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-29
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-30 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-31
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-32 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-33
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-34 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-35
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-36 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 18-37
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
18-38 All rights reserved.
 Section 19
LOW TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
SINGLE STAGE LOW TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
Low temperature single stage systems become increas-
ingly critical from a design and application standpoint
as the desired evaporating temperature is decreased.
The combination of high compression ratios, low oper-
ating temperatures, and rarefied return gas can cause
lubrication and overheating problems, and make the
compressor more vulnerable to damage from moisture
and contaminants in the system.
The compressor selection, suction temperature, and
application must be such that the temperature of the
discharge line measured within 1” to 6” of the discharge
service valve does not exceed 230°F. for Refrigerants
12, 22, and 502. Under these conditions, the estimated
average temperature at the discharge port (measured at
the valve retainer on the valve plate) will be approximately
310°F. for R-12 and R-502, and 320°F. for R-22.
The compressor displacement, pressure limiting devices,
and quantity of cooling air or water must be selected
to prevent the motor temperature from exceeding the
limits stated below:
A. 210°F. when protected by inherent
protectors affected by line current and
motor temperature.
B. 190°F. when protected by motor starters.
The temperature of the motor should be determined by
the resistance method and should be determined when
the compressor is tested in the highest ambient in which
it is expected to operate, at 90 per cent of rated voltage,
with 90°F. return suction gas temperature. For longer
motor life, operating temperatures of 170°F. to 190°F.
are highly recommended.
In order to prevent the discharge and motor tempera-
tures from exceeding recommended limits, it is very
desirable, and in some instances absolutely necessary,
to insulate the suction lines and return the suction gas
to the compressor at a lower than normal tempera-
ture. This is particularly important with suction-cooled
compressors when R-22 is used. (Approximately 30°F.
superheat suggested.)
Suction cooled compressors require auxiliary cooling by
means of an air blast on the compressor for operation
below 0°F evaporator temperature.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Either the evaporator must be properly designed, or
a pressure limiting device such as a pressure limiting
expansion valve or crankcase pressure regulating valve
must be provided to prevent motor overloading during
pulldown periods, or after defrost.
Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. now recommends
R-502 for all single stage low temperature applications
where evaporating temperatures of -20°F. and below may
be encountered. Now that R-502 is readily available, R-
22 should not be used in single stage low temperature
compressors, 5 H.P. and larger. The lower discharge
temperatures of R-502 have resulted in much more
trouble-free operation.
An adequate supply of oil must be maintained in the
crankcase at all times to insure continuous lubrication.
If the refrigerant velocity in the system is so low that
rapid return of the oil is not assured, an adequate oil
separator must be used. The normal oil level should be
maintained at or slightly above the center of the sight
glass. An excessive amount of refrigerant or oil must not
be allowed in the system as it may result in excessive
liquid slugging and damage to the compressor valves,
pistons, or cylinders.
The formation or make up of the lines must be so de-
signed that oil trapping will not exist. The highest velocity
possible without encountering excessive pressure drop
is recommended.
Care must be taken to prevent the evaporating
temperature from dropping so far below the normal
system operating point that the refrigerant veloc-
ity becomes too low to return oil to the compressor.
The low pressure control cut-out setting should not
be below the lowest published rating point for the
compressor, without prior approval of the Emerson
Climate Technologies, Inc. Application Engineering
Department.
The smallest practical size tubing should be used in
condensers and evaporators in order to hold the system
charge to a minimum. When large refrigerant charges
are unavoidable, recycling pumpdown control should
be used.
If air cooled condensing units are required to operate
in low ambient temperatures, the use of some means
of head pressure control to prevent the condensing
pressure from falling too low is highly recommended to
maintain normal refrigerant velocities. Several commonly
used types of control are described in Section 17.
19-1
An adequate filter-drier of generous size must be in-
stalled in the liquid line, preferably in the cold zone. The
desiccant used must be capable of removing moisture
to a low end point and be capable of removing a rea-
sonable quantity of acid. It is most important that the
filter-drier be equipped with an excellent filter to prevent
circulation of carbon and foreign particles. A permanent
suction line filter is highly recommended to protect the
compressor from contaminants which may be left in the
system during installation.
A combination liquid sight glass and moisture indicator
should be installed for easy field maintenance.
After complete assembly, all systems should be thor-
oughly evacuated with a high grade vacuum pump and
dehydrated to assure that no air or moisture remains in
the system. The compressor motor must not be operated
while the high vacuum pump is in operation, otherwise
motor damage is very likely to occur.
The system should be charged with clean dry refrigerant
only through a dehydrator. Other substances such as
liquid dehydrants or alcohol must not be used.
TWO STAGE LOW TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
Two stage systems because of their basic design and
operation are inherently more efficient and encounter
fewer operating hazards at low operating temperatures
than single stage equipment. The two stage compressor
has its limitations. At evaporating temperatures below
-80°F. it loses efficiency and motor heating becomes
an increasing problem. The lowest approved operating
range is -80°F. and at lower evaporating temperatures a
cascade system is recommended. But for applications
with evaporating temperatures in the -20°F. to -80°F.
range, the two stage compressor efficiency is high, the
discharge temperatures are low, and field experience
with properly applied two stage compressors has been
excellent.
The two stage system is somewhat more complex and
sophisticated than a simple single stage system, and
many of the operating problems encountered on two
stage systems stem from the fact that too often they
have been applied without sufficient appreciation of the
safeguards which must be taken in system design.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
Three definitions given previously are of importance in
analyzing two stage systems.
The compression ratio is the ratio of the absolute dis-
19-2
charge pressure (psia) to the absolute suction pressure
(psia).
The absolute pressure is gauge pressure plus atmo-
spheric pressure, which at sea level is standardized at
14.7 pounds per square inch.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual
volume of the refrigerant gas pumped by the compressor
to the volume displaced by the compressor pistons.
Figure 92 illustrates a typical single stage volumetric
efficiency curve. Note that as the compression ratio
increase, the volumetric efficiency decreases.
Two factors cause a loss of efficiency with an increase
in compression ratio. The density of the residual gas
remaining in the cylinder clearance space after the
compression stroke is determined by the discharge pres-
sure—the greater the discharge pressure the greater
the density. Since this gas does not leave the cylinder
on the discharge stroke, it re-expands on the suction
stroke, thus preventing the intake of a full cylinder of
vapor from the suction line. As the compression ratio
increases, the more space in the cylinder on the intake
stroke is filled by the residual gas.
The second factor in the loss of efficiency is the high
temperature of the cylinder walls resulting from the heat
of compression. As the compression ratio increases, the
heat of compression increases, and the cylinders and
head of the compressor become very hot. Suction gas
entering the cylinder on the intake stroke is heated by
the cylinder walls and expands, resulting in a reduced
weight of gas entering the compressor.
Obviously, a single stage compressor has its limita-
tions as compression ratios increase. The effective
low limit of even the most efficient single stage system
is approximately -40°F. evaporating temperature. At
lower evaporating temperatures, the compression ratio
becomes so high that capacity falls rapidly, the com-
pressor may no longer be handling a sufficient weight
of return gas for proper motor cooling, and because of
decreased gas density, oil may no longer be properly
circulated through the system.
TWO STAGE COMPRESSION AND COMPRESSOR
EFFICIENCY
In order to increase operating efficiency at low evapo-
rating temperatures, the compression can be done in
two steps or stages. For two stage operation, the total
compression ratio is the product of the compression ratio
of each stage. In other words, for a total compression
(continued on p. 19-4)
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 19-3
ratio of 16 to 1, the compression ratio of each stage
might be 4 to 1; or compression ratios of 4 to 1 and 5
to 1 in separate stages will result in a total compression
ratio of 20 to 1.

Two stage compression may be accomplished with

the use of two compressors with the discharge of one
pumping into the suction of the second, but because of
the difficulty of maintaining proper oil levels in the two
crankcases, it is more satisfactory to use one compres-
sor with multiple cylinders. On Copeland® brand two
stage compressors, the ratio of low stage to high stage
displacement is 2 to 1. The greater volume of the low
stage cylinders is necessary because of the difference
in specific volume of the refrigerant vapor at low and
interstage pressures. While the compression ratios of
the two stages are seldom exactly equal, they will be
approximately the same. A typical 6 cylinder two stage
compressor with its external manifold and desuperheat-
ing expansion valve is shown in Figure 93, and a typical
3 cylinder two stage compressor with external manifold
is shown in Figure 94.

Figure 95 shows a comparison of five different volu-

metric efficiency curves. The three straight lines are
typical single stage curves—one for an air conditioning
compressor, one for a typical multi-purpose compres-
sor, and one for a low temperature compressor. There
are some variations in compressor design involved,
but the primary difference in characteristics is due to
clearance volume.

The two vertical curved lines represent the compara-

tive efficiency of a two stage compressor. Actually each
separate stage would have a straight line character-
istic similar to the single stage curves, but to enable
comparison with single stage compressors, the overall
volumetric efficiency has been computed on the basis
of the total displacement of the compressor, not just the
low stage displacement.

The solid black curve represents the efficiency of a two

stage compressor without a liquid subcooler. Note that
the efficiency is relatively constant over a wide range
of total compression ratios, and that the crossover in
efficiency with the best low temperature single stage
compressor is at a compression ratio of approximately
13 to 1. In other words, at compression ratios lower
than 13 to 1, a single stage compressor will have more
capacity than a two stage compressor of equal displace-
ment without liquid subcooling.
The dotted curve represents the efficiency of the same
two stage compressor with a liquid subcooler. In the
subcooler, the liquid refrigerant being fed to the evapo-
rator is first subcooled by liquid refrigerant fed through
the interstage desuperheating expansion valve, and
a much greater share of the refrigeration load has
been transferred to the high stage cylinders. Since the
high stage cylinders operate at a much higher suction
pressure, the refrigeration capacity there is far greater
per cubic foot of displacement than in the low stage
cylinders. In effect the capacity of the compressor has
been greatly increased without having to handle any
additional suction gas returning from the evaporator.
Note that with the liquid subcooler, the crossover point
in efficiency as compared with a single stage compres-

© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

19-4 All rights reserved.
sor is at a compression ratio of approximately 7 to 1. practical for ultra-low temperature applications. Figure
In other words, at compression ratios lower than 7 to 96 shows a valve plate with carbon formation due to
1, the single stage compressor will have more capac- oil breakdown from excessive heat. Excessive cylinder
ity for equal displacement, but at compression ratios temperatures can also cause rapid piston and cylinder
higher than 7 to 1, the two stage compressor will have wear, cylinder scoring, and early failure of the compres-
more capacity. sor. With two stage compressors, the interstage expan-
sion valve maintains safe operating temperatures and
Table 42 lists comparative operating data at varying this type of damage is prevented.
evaporating temperatures for a Copeland® brand com-
pressor available either as a single stage or two stage
compressor. Although the displacement, refrigerant, and
motor are the same, the rapidly increasing advantage
of two stage operation as the evaporating temperature
decreases is plainly shown.

COMPRESSOR OVERHEATING AT EXCESSIVE­

COMPRESSION RATIOS

In addition to efficiency, the extremely high temperatures

created by operation at abnormally high compression
ratios makes the use of single stage compressors im-

© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 19-5
BASIC TWO STAGE SYSTEM
The basic flow of refrigerant in a six cylinder two stage
compressor is shown schematically in Figure 97. The
suction gas returning from the evaporator enters the
four low stage cylinders directly from the suction line.
Since the discharge gas from the first stage cylinders
is heated from compression, it must be cooled by the
desuperheating expansion valve before entering the
motor chamber. The desuperheated refrigerant vapor,
now at interstage pressure, enters the high stage cyl-
inders, is compressed, and is then discharged to the
condenser.
Figure 98 is a schematic view of a typical two stage
system showing the various components necessary
for proper operation.
TWO STAGE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
a. Liquid Line Solenoid Valve
To prevent leakage during the off period, a solenoid valve
must be placed in the liquid supply line immediately
19-6
ahead of the desuperheating expansion valve. It should
be wired so as to be open when the motor is running and
closed when not running. A toggle switch placed in the
electric line to the solenoid valve will facilitate service
during pumpdown.
A 100 mesh strainer must be installed in the liquid line
feeding the desuperheating valve, up stream from the
solenoid valve, to protect both valves from contami-
nants.
b. Oil Separator
At ultra-low temperatures, the decrease in density of the
refrigerant suction vapor and the increasing viscosity of
the refrigeration oil make oil return during extended pe-
riods of operation or during light load periods extremely
difficult. In order to minimize oil circulation and safely
bridge the operating periods between defrost periods
when oil will be returned, oil separators are standard on
all Copeland® brand two stage condensing units, and are
strongly recommended on all two stage compressors.
The oil separator will provide some increase in refrigerat-
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
ing capacity due to the increased heat transfer capability
of the evaporator surface resulting from the reduced
oil in circulation. It will also act as a muffler to reduce
discharge pulsation and system noise transmission.
c. Suction Line Accumulator
Since the suction gas is returned directly to the low
stage cylinders without going through the motor cham-
ber, the two stage compressor is vulnerable to damage
if excessive liquid floods back from the evaporator. To
prevent damage from slugging, adequate suction line
accumulators are mandatory on any system prone to
return slugs of liquid or oil to the compressor. This may
be especially critical on systems with hot gas defrost.
d. Suction Line Filter
A good suction line filter is recommended on any field
installed system to prevent damage from copper filings,
solder, flux, bits of steel wool, or other contamination
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
left in the system. The nominal cost of the filter is good
insurance for the most vulnerable part of the system.
e. Liquid Sight Glass
A liquid line sight glass should be installed in the liq-
uid line just ahead of the desuperheating expansion
valve to provide a positive check for shortage of liquid
refrigerant.
When a liquid subcooler is used, the regular liquid line
sight glass (additional to the one ahead of the desuper-
heating expansion valve) should be installed between
the receiver and the subcooler. If installed beyond the
subcooler it will not be dependable since it may not show
bubbles even when the system is short of refrigerant.
f. Crankcase Pressure Regulating Valve
Two stage compressors will overload if allowed to oper-
ate for extended periods with high suction pressures.
The suction pressure on some systems can be limited
19-7
to a satisfactory point by the size and type of evapora-
tor used, or by the use of pressure limiting expansion
valves. However, the load after defrost is often the most
critical, and pressure limiting expansion valves will not
protect against an overload at this time. If the system
can overload at any time during its operating cycle, a
crankcase pressure regulating valve must be used.
g. Desuperheating Expansion Valve
Expansion valves currently supplied as original equip-
ment with Copeland® brand two stage compressors
are of the non-adjustable superheat type. In the event
of valve failure, standard field replacement valves with
adjustable superheat which have been approved by
Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. may be used.
Improper valve selection can result in compressor
overheating and possible damage due to improper liquid
refrigerant control.
19-8
It is recommended that the branch liquid line to the
desuperheating expansion valve be taken from the
bottom of the main liquid line. Never install a tee with a
branch off the top of the main liquid line, since this can
result in improper refrigerant feed, and possible motor
overheating.
h. Defrost Cycle
With electric defrost, the compressor is not running dur-
ing the defrost cycle, so no special precautions other
than those normally required with single stage systems
are necessary.
However, motor cooling on two stage compressors is
dependent on an adequate feed of liquid refrigerant
from the desuperheating expansion valve. If a hot gas
defrost system is used, it is imperative that a solid head
of liquid is maintained at the desuperheating expansion
valve at all times, and that the compressor be adequately
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
protected against liquid refrigerant returning from the
evaporator after condensation during the defrost cycle.
Since hot gas defrost systems vary widely in design, it
is not possible to make a general statement as to what
special controls may be required. Most manufacturers
have thoroughly pretested their systems, but on field
installations, restrictor valves to maintain head pressure,
additional refrigerant charge, suction accumulators, or
other special controls may be necessary. In general, an
electric defrost system is much less complicated and
therefore usually more dependable on field installed
two stage systems.
i. Condenser Capacity
When two stage compressors were first introduced
into commercial usage for supermarkets, some users
assumed that a condenser designed for a 10 HP single
stage compressor would also be suitable for a 10 HP two
stage unit. They failed to take into account the increased
efficiency of the compressor, and apparently did not
check the relative compressor capacities when selecting
condensers. At -40°F. evaporating temperature, a two
stage compressor may have almost twice the capac-
ity of a low temperature single state compressor. As a
result some field problems were encountered on early
two stage units because of lack of condensing capacity.
This is really not a basic problem, but it is a pitfall to be
aware of when working with those who are accustomed
to thinking of condensing units and condensers in terms
of horsepower.
j. Liquid Refrigerant Subcooler
Two stage systems may be operated either with or with-
out liquid subcoolers. The function of the subcooler is
to cool the liquid refrigerant being fed to the evaporator
by the evaporation of refrigerant fed through the desu-
perheating expansion valve. This transfers a greater
portion of the refrigeration load to the high stage cylin-
ders, and because of the greater compressor capacity
at higher suction pressures, the system capacity is
greatly increased.
The temperature of the liquid refrigerant being fed to
the evaporator is reduced in the subcooler to within ap-
proximately 10°F. of the interstage saturated evaporating
temperature, and the increase in system capacity can
only be realized if the subcooled liquid is maintained at
this low temperature, and heat transfer into the liquid
line is prevented. Normally this requires insulation of
the liquid line.
When selecting expansion valves for two stage systems
with liquid subcoolers, the designer must bear in mind
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
that the expansion valve will have greatly increased
capacity due to the low temperature of the refrigerant
entering the valve. Unless this is taken into consider-
ation, the increased refrigerating effect per pound of
refrigerant may result in an oversized expansion valve
with resulting erratic operation.
PIPING ON TWO STAGE SYSTEMS
The exact oil return characteristics of any system are
difficult to forecast, and there is very little published
data available on the design of refrigeration piping for
ultra-low temperature systems. It is quite probable that
any ultra-low temperature system will trap some oil dur-
ing operation, even with the most conservative piping
design, and the evaporator design may have a major
influence on oil circulation.
In order to minimize oil circulation and prolong the operat-
ing periods between defrost periods or other heavy load
conditions which will return oil normally, oil separators are
almost invariably required on two stage systems. Even
with oil separators (which are never 100% efficient), it
may be necessary to increase the number and frequency
of defrost periods if oil is lost in the system.
Users frequently fail to realize that two stage systems
with and without liquid subcooling present differences in
piping design requirements. Two stage systems without
liquid subcoolers are similar to single stage systems in
that the liquid refrigerant temperature approaches the
condensing temperature. On two stage systems with
liquid subcoolers the refrigeration effect per pound of
refrigerant is greatly increased because of the cold
liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator. Therefore
the pounds of refrigerant circulated for a given capacity
will be greatly reduced, and line velocities correspond-
ingly less. Most standard line sizing and pressure drop
tables are based on liquid refrigerant temperatures
equivalent to normal air and water cooled condensing
temperatures, and do not apply to two stage systems
with liquid subcoolers.
Tables 43 through 48 give recommended line sizes for
two stage systems. Line sizing has been calculated
where possible on the basis of normal single stage pres-
sure drop criteria, but line sizes have been selected to
maintain the same mass velocity flow as that which has
been found to be acceptable in the normal commercial
range. It is essential that the piping designer realize that
no piping design on ultra-low stage systems can guar-
antee proper oil return, and that the requirement for an
oil separator and possibly frequent defrost periods still
remains, depending on the system characteristics.
(continued on p. 19-13)
19-9
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
19-10 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 19-11
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
19-12 All rights reserved.
CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Multiple stage refrigeration can also be accomplished
by using separate systems with the evaporator of the
high stage serving as the condenser of the low stage
by means of a heat exchanger. This type of system,
termed a cascade system, is extremely flexible, and is
well adapted to extremely low temperature systems,
or to any system where the total compression ratio is
very large. Since different refrigerants can be used in
the separate systems, refrigerants with characteristics
suitable for the specific application can be used. Cas-
cade systems in multiples of two, three, or even more
separate stages make possible refrigeration at almost
any desired evaporating or condensing temperature.
Cascade systems have many hazards and potential
problems not normally encountered in single stage re-
frigeration, and successful system design and application
require specialized knowledge and experience.
Figure 99 is a schematic diagram of a typical cascade
system consisting of two stages. The cascade condenser
is basically a direct expansion heat exchanger, acting
as the evaporator of the high stage and the condenser
of the low stage.
Various refrigerants can be and are used in cascade
systems, with R-12, R-22, or R-502 frequently used in
the high stage. The absolute pressures necessary to
obtain evaporating temperatures below -80°F. with R-
12, R-22, and R-502 are so low that the specific volume
of the refrigerant becomes very high, and the resulting
compressor displacement requirement is so great that
the use of these refrigerants in the low stage becomes
uneconomical. R-13, ethane, and a new refrigerant,
R-23/13 (R-503) are frequently used for low stage
applications.
R-13 is commonly used for evaporating temperatures in
the -100°F. to -120°F. range since its pressure at those
evaporating temperatures is such that its use is practi-
cal with commonly available refrigeration compressors.
However the critical temperature of R-13 is 84°F. and
the critical pressure is 561 psia. This means it cannot
be liquefied at temperatures above 84°F regardless of
pressure, and the equilibrium pressure of a mixture of
gas and liquid at 84°F. is 561 psia. In order to prevent
excessive pressures in the system during non-operat-
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
ing periods, an expansion tank as shown in Figure 99
must be provided so that the entire refrigerant charge
can exist as a vapor during off periods without exposing
the compressor crankcase or the piping to excessive
pressures. (Normally non-operating system pressures
should be held to 150 psig or below).
Normally the expansion tank is located in the low pres-
sure side of the system, with a relief valve from the
high pressure side of the system discharging into the
tank. The sizing of the tank is determined from the total
refrigerant charge, the internal volume of the system,
the maximum pressure desired, and the design ambient
temperature. The specific volume of the vapor at the
design storage conditions can be determined from the
pressure enthalpy diagram of the refrigerant, such as
shown in Figure 100. For example, at a temperature of
120°F. and a pressure of 140 psia, the specific volume
of R-13 is .40 cubic feet per pound. If the system charge
is 10 pounds of refrigerant, then the internal volume of
the system including the expansion tank must be at
least 4 cubic feet.
Because of the pressure relation of the system charge
to the internal volume, the refrigerant charge in cascade
systems is usually critical. Charging by means of a sight
glass is unsafe. Either the exact charge must be mea-
sured into the system, or the low stage may be charged
with vapor to a stabilized non-operating pressure of 150
to 175 psi in maximum ambient conditions.
The pull down load may be many times the load at de-
sign operating conditions, and some means of limiting
the compressor loading during the pull down period is
normally required, since it is seldom economical to size
either the compressor motor or the condenser for the
maximum load. Pressure limiting expansion valves or
crankcase pressure regulating valves are acceptable
if they are sized properly. Frequently a control system
is designed to lock out the low stage system until the
high stage evaporating temperature is reduced to the
operating level so that excessive low stage condensing
pressures do not occur on start up.
Various means of capacity control are employed, usu-
ally by means of hot gas bypass. Care must be taken
to insure proper compressor motor cooling and to avoid
liquid floodback to the compressor.
(continued on p. 19-16)
19-13
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
19-14 All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 19-15
The cascade condensing temperature varies with
individual system design. With normal high stage con-
densing temperatures, either air cooled or water cooled,
and evaporating temperatures in the -90°F. to -140°F.
range, high state evaporating temperatures from 30°F.
to -30°F. are commonly used. A difference of 10°F. to
20°F. between the high stage evaporating temperature
and the low stage condensing temperature results in a
reasonably sized cascade condenser. The compression
ratios of the high stage and low stage should be approxi-
mately equal for maximum efficiency, but small variations
will not materially affect system performance.
19-16
Copeland® brand compressors are not tested with the
refrigerants normally used in the low stage of cascade
systems. Although many models of Copeland® brand
compressors have been successfully applied for many
years on cascade systems, the responsibility for the
selection and application of the compressor must be that
of the system designer, based on his testing, experience,
and design approach.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 Section 20
TRANSPORT REFRIGERATION
Truck and trailer refrigeration is an increasingly impor-
tant segment of the refrigeration industry. Despite the
fact that transport applications face many operating
problems peculiar to their usage, there exists very little
application data pertaining to this field.
Many compressor failures in transport refrigeration usage
are the result of system malfunction rather than the result
of mechanical wear. It is clear that substantial savings
in operating cost, and tremendous improvements in unit
performance and life would be possible if the causes
of compressor failure could be removed. Primarily the
problem boils down to one of making sure that the com-
pressor has adequate lubrication at all times.
Part of the problem of identifying the cause of failure
stems from the fact that far too few users realize that
ultimate failure of a compressor resulting from lack of
lubrication frequently takes place at a time when there is
an adequate supply of oil in the crankcase. This is due
to continued deterioration of the moving parts resulting
from the original or repeated damage in the past. It is
not uncommon for a damaged compressor to operate
satisfactorily all winter and then fail in the spring when
subjected to heavier loads.
Another source of field problems is the fact that many
units are installed by personnel who may not have ad-
equate training, equipment, or experience. Often units,
particularly those in common carrier service, may be
serviced in emergencies by servicemen not familiar
with the unit, or indeed, with transport refrigeration
generally.
Because of the installation and service hazards, it is
extremely important that the unit be properly designed
and applied to minimize, and if possible, prevent service
problems.
COMPRESSOR COOLING
Air-cooled motor-compressors must have a sufficient
quantity of air passing over the compressor body for
motor cooling. Refrigerant-cooled motor-compres-
sors are cooled adequately by the refrigerant vapor at
evaporating temperatures above 0°F. saturation, but at
evaporating temperatures below 0°F. additional motor
cooling by means of air flow is necessary.
Normally the condenser fan if located so that it discharges
on the compressor will provide satisfactory cooling. For
proper cooling, the fan must discharge air directly against
the compressor. The compressor cannot be adequately
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
cooled by air pulled through a compartment in which the
compressor is located. If the compressor is not located
in the condenser discharge air stream, adequate air
circulation must be provided by an auxiliary fan.
COMPRESSOR SPEED
Open type compressors operating from a truck engine by
means of a power take-off or by a belt drive are subject
to extreme speed ranges. A typical truck engine may idle
at 500 RPM to 700 RPM, run at 1,800 RPM at 30 MPH,
and run at 3,600 RPM to 4,000 RPM over the highway at
high speeds. Whatever the power take-off or belt ratio,
this means the compressor must operate through a speed
ratio range of 6 to 1 or greater unless it is disconnected
from the power source by some means.
The compressor speed must be kept within safe limits
to avoid loss of lubrication and physical damage. Op-
eration within the physical limitations of the compressor
may be possible, for example from 400 RPM to 2,400
RPM. It may be possible to use a cut-out switch to
disconnect the compressor from the power source at a
given speed. The compressor manufacturer should be
contacted for minimum and maximum speeds of specific
compressors.
If the compressor is of the accessible-hermetic type,
there is no problem concerning speed so long as the
electrical source is operating at the voltage and frequency
for which the motor was designed. If the speed of the
generator is varied in order to obtain variable speed
operation, the voltage and frequency on the normal al-
ternating current generator will vary proportionally. Since
the compressor speed and motor load will vary directly
with the frequency, it is often possible to operate over
a wide speed range with satisfactory results.
However, it should be born in mind that increasing the
frequency and voltage of the generator above the level
for which the compressor motor was designed will in-
crease the load on the compressor, may overload the
motor, and can result in bearing or other compressor
damage. Operation at speeds too low to provide ad-
equate compressor lubrication must also be avoided,
although normally lubrication can be maintained on
Copelametic® compressors down to 600 RPM and
possibly lower speeds.
Each new application involving operation of the com-
pressor at a voltage and frequency differing from its
nameplate rating should be submitted to the Emerson
20-1
Climate Technologies, Inc. Application Engineering
Department for approval.
One other problem that may arise with operation from
a variable speed generator is the operation of electrical
contactors, relays, etc. on voltages below or above their
nameplate rating. Field test have shown that the winding
design and physical construction of electrical compo-
nents can cause wide variation in voltage tolerance.
The drop-out voltage of various types of commercially
available 220 volt contactors may vary from 145 volts to
180 volts depending on construction. If it is planned to
operate at variable voltage and frequencies, the electrical
components which are to be used should be extensively
tested at the electrical extremes in cooperation with the
manufacturer to insure proper operation.
COMPRESSOR OPERATING POSITION
Occasionally compressor failures will occur due to loss
of lubrication caused by parking the truck on too steep
a slope. The resulting tilt of the compressor may cause
the oil level to fall below the pick-up point of the oil
flinger or oil pump.
Operation of the unit while the truck is parked on steep
inclines should be avoided. If this is unavoidable, then
consideration should be given to mounting the compres-
sor so that oil will tend to flow to the oil pick-up point.
Since this will vary on different model compressors, and
the individual parking arrangement will affect the direc-
tion of the compressor pitch, each application must be
considered individually.
In severe cases, consult with the compressor
manufacturer.
COMPRESSOR DRIVE
Direct drive form an engine, either gasoline or diesel, to
a compressor requires very careful attention to the cou-
pling design. Alignment between the engine drive shaft
and the compressor crankshaft is critical both in parallel
and angular planes. Even slight angular misalignment
can cause repetitive compressor crankshaft breakage.
Because of the sharp impulses from the engine firing,
a flexible coupling giving some resiliency is required.
The coupling should be capable of compensating for
slight parallel or angular misalignment and should also
allow some slight endplay movement of the crankshafts.
Nylon splines, neoprene bushings, and flexible disc type
couplings have all been used successfully.
For a compressor driven from a power take-off by means
of a shaft and two universal joints, the crosses in the
20-2
U-joints must be kept parallel to each other. Where
possible, the compressor rotation should be in the
same direction whether on electric standby or driven
from the engine.
In driving a compressor with V-belts, care must be taken
to avoid excessive belt tension and belt slap. A means
for easily adjusting belt tension should be provided. It
may be necessary to provide an idler pulley to dampen
belt movement on long belt drives. Care should be taken
to mount the compressor so that the compressor shaft
is parallel with the engine crankshaft.
REFRIGERANT CHARGE
Refrigerant R-12 is used in most transport systems at
the present time, but R-502 is well suited for low tem-
perature applications, and its use is increasing. Since
R-502 creates a greater power requirement for a given
compressor displacement than R-12, the motor-com-
pressor must be properly selected for the refrigerant to
be used. Different expansion valves are required for
each refrigerant, so the refrigerants are not interchange-
able in a given system and should never be mixed.
Receivers for R-502 require higher maximum working
pressures than those used with R-12, so normally it is
not feasible to attempt to convert an existing R-12 unit
for the use of R-502.
The refrigerant charge should be held to the minimum
required for satisfactory operation. An abnormally high
refrigerant charge will create potential problems of liquid
refrigerant migration, oil slugging, and loss of compres-
sor lubrication due to bearing washout or excessive
refrigerant foaming in the crankcase.
Systems should be charged with the minimum amount
of refrigerant necessary to insure a liquid seal ahead of
the expansion valve at normal operating temperatures.
For an accurate indication of refrigerant charge, a sight
glass is recommended at the expansion valve inlet, and
a combination sight glass and moisture indicator is es-
sential for easy field maintenance checking. It should
be born in mind that bubbles in the refrigerant sight
glass can be caused by pressure drop or restrictions in
the liquid line, as well as inadequate liquid subcooling.
Manufacturer’s published nominal working charge data
should be used only as a general guide, since each
installation will vary in its charge requirements.
REFRIGERANT MIGRATION
Refrigerant migration is a constant problem on transport
units because of the varying temperatures to which the
different parts of the system are exposed. On eutectic
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
plate applications, liquid refrigerant will be driven from
the condensing unit to the plates during the day’s opera-
tion, with the threat of floodback on start-up. On both
plate and blower units not in operation, the body and
evaporator immediately after operation will be colder than
the condensing unit, causing migration to the evapora-
tor. During daytime hours the body and evaporator will
warm up, and because of body insulation will remain
much warmer than the compressor during the night
hours when the ambient temperature falls, resulting in
a pressure differential sufficient to drive the refrigerant
to the compressor crankcase.
Excessive refrigerant in the compressor crankcase on
start-up can cause slugging, bearing washout, and loss
of oil from the crankcase due to foaming. Dilution of oil
with excessive refrigerant results in a drastic reduction
of the lubricating ability of the oil. Adequate protective
measures must be taken to keep migration difficulties at
a minimum. Consideration should be given to keeping
the refrigerant charge as low as possible, using a pump
down cycle, use of a suction accumulator, and the use
of a liquid line solenoid valve.
OIL CHARGE
Compressors leaving the factory are charged
with naphthenic 150 viscosity refrigeration oil. A
complete list of acceptable refrigerants and oils is
available on form #93-11. The naphthenic oil has
definite advantages over paraffinic oils because of
less tendency to separate from the refrigerant at
reduced temperatures.
Compressors are shipped with a generous supply of oil.
However, the system may require additional oil depend-
ing on the refrigerant charge and system design. After the
unit stabilizes at its normal operating conditions on the
initial run-in, additional oil should be added if necessary
to maintain the oil level at the ¾ full level of the sight
glass in the compressor crankcase. The high oil level
will provide a reserve for periods of erratic oil return.
OIL PRESSURE SAFETY CONTROL
A major percentage of all compressor failures are
caused by lack of proper lubrication. Only rarely is the
lack of lubrication actually due to a shortage of oil in
the system or failure of the oiling system. More often
the source of the lubrication failure may be refrigerant
floodback, oil trapping in the coils, or excessive slug-
ging on start up.
To prevent failures from all these causes, the Emerson
Climate Technologies, Inc. warranty requires that an ap-
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
proved manual reset type oil pressure safety control with
a time delay of 120 seconds be used on all Copelametic®
compressors having an oil pump. The control operates on
the differential between oil pump pressure and crankcase
pressure, and the time delay serves to avoid shut down
during short fluctuations in oil pressure during start-up. A
non-adjustable control is strongly recommended, but if
an adjustable type control is used, it must be set to cut
out at a net differential pressure of 9 psig. Oil pressure
safety controls are available with alarm circuits which
are energized should the oil pressure safety control
open the compressor control circuit.
OIL SEPARATORS
Proper refrigerant velocities and good system design
are the only cure for oil trapping problems. Oil separa-
tors are vulnerable to damage from float valve vibration,
and for that reason are not commonly used on transport
units. Oil separators are not normally recommended for
over-the-road use on trailers, but they have been used
successfully in some city operations on ice cream truck
applications.
The oil separator traps a major part of the oil leaving the
compressor, and since the oil is returned directly to the
crankcase by means of a float valve, oil circulation in
the system is minimized. On low temperature systems,
oil separators may be of value in holding the amount of
oil in circulation to a level which can be adequately re-
turned to the compressor by the refrigerant in the system.
However, on systems where piping design encourages
oil logging in the evaporator circuit, an oil separator may
only serve to delay lubrication difficulties.
The oil separator should be insulated to prevent refriger-
ant condensation and return of liquid to the compressor
crankcase. A convenient means of returning oil to the
compressor, and still providing maximum protection
against liquid return is to connect the oil return line to
the suction line just before the suction accumulator.
CRANKCASE PRESSURE REGULATING VALVE
In order to limit the load on the compressor, a crankcase
pressure regulating valve may be necessary. During
periods when the valve is throttling, it acts as a restrictor,
and on start-up or during a hot gas defrost cycle, it acts
as an expansion valve in the line. The preferred location
for the CPR valve is ahead of the suction line accumula-
tor. The accumulator will trap liquid refrigerant feeding
back and allow it to boil off or feed the compressor at a
metered rate to avoid compressor damage. However,
location of the accumulator ahead of the CPR valve is
acceptable if the accumulator has adequate capacity to
20-3
prevent liquid floodback to the compressor.
The CPR valve should be sized for a minimum pres-
sure drop to avoid loss of capacity, and should never
be set above the published operating range of the
compressor.
CONDENSER
Condenser construction must be rigid and rugged,
and the fin surface should be treated for corrosion
resistance unless the metal is corrosion resistant. The
area in which the condenser is mounted affects its
design. Condensers mounted on the skirt of a truck or
beneath a trailer receive a great deal of road splash,
while those mounted high on the nose of a truck or trailer
are in somewhat cleaner atmosphere. If the condenser
is mounted beneath a trailer facing in the direction of
travel, a mud guard should be provided. The type of tube
and fin construction affects the allowable fin spacing,
but in general, fin spacing of no more than 8 fins to the
inch is recommended, although some manufacturers are
now using fin spacing as high as 10 and 12 per inch.
Since the unit will operate for extended periods when
the vehicle is parked, ram air from the movement of the
vehicle cannot be considered in designing for adequate
air flow, but the condenser fan should be located so that
the ram air affect aids rather than opposes condenser
air flow. It also should be born in mind that often many
trucks or trailers will be operating side by side at a load-
ing dock, and the air flow pattern should be such that
one unit will not discharge hot air directly into the intake
of the unit on the next vehicle.
Since the space available for condenser face area is
limited in transport refrigeration applications, the con-
denser tube circuiting should be designed for maximum
efficiency.
Low head pressure during cold weather can result in
lubrication failure of compressors. With trucks operating
or parked outside or in unheated garages in the winter
months, this condition can frequently occur. A decreased
pressure differential across the expansion valve will
reduce the refrigerant flow, resulting in decreased
refrigerant velocity and lower evaporator pressures,
permitting oil to trap in the evaporator. Frequently the
feed will be decreased to the point that short-cycling
of the compressor results. The use of a reverse acting
pressure control for cycling the condenser fan, or some
other type of pressure stabilizing device to maintain
reasonable head pressure is highly recommended.
20-4
RECEIVER
Because of field installation and repair, all units should
be equipped either with a receiver or an adequately
sized condenser so that the refrigerant charge is not
critical. Valves should be provided so that the system
can be pumped down. A positive liquid level indicator
on the receiver will aid in preventing over-charging, and
high and low test cocks have been used satisfactorily
for this purpose. The size of the receiver should be held
to the minimum required for safe pump down.
It is recommended that a charging valve be provided in
the liquid line. While not essential, it is a fact that most
servicemen will charge liquid rather than vapor into a
system, and a charging valve makes this possible without
damage to the compressor.
On units in operation over-the-road, powered either from
the truck engine or a separate engine power source, the
receiver may be subjected to temperatures higher than
the condensing temperature because of the heat given
off by the engine. This can result in abnormally high
condensing pressures because of liquid refrigerant being
forced back into the condenser, excessive refrigerant
charge requirements, and flashing of liquid refrigerant
in the liquid line. If excessive heating of the receiver can
occur, provisions should be made for ventilation of the
receiver compartment with ambient air, or the receiver
should be insulated.
PURGING AIR IN A SYSTEM
Occasionally due to improper installation or maintenance
procedures, a unit will not be completely evacuated,
or air will be allowed to enter the system after evacu-
ation. The noncondensable gases will exert their own
pressures in addition to refrigerant pressure, and will
result in head pressures considerably above the normal
condensing pressure.
Aside from the loss of capacity resulting from the higher
head pressure, the presence of air in the system will
greatly increase the rate of corrosion and can lead to
possible carbon formation, copper plating, and/or mo-
tor failure.
If it is discovered that air has been allowed to contami-
nate the system, the refrigerant should be removed, and
the entire unit completely evacuated with an efficient
vacuum pump.
LIQUID LINE FILTER-DRIER
On all transport refrigeration systems, because of the
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
uncertainties of installation and service, a liquid line
filter-drier is essential. It is recommended that the filter-
drier be oversized by at least 50% for the refrigerant
charge because of the many opportunities during field
maintenance for moisture to enter the system. It should
have flare connections for easy replacement.
HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger should be considered mandatory on
all units. It improves the performance, insures liquid
refrigerant at the expansion valve, and helps assure the
return of dry gas. Normally it should be located inside
the refrigerated space to avoid loss of capacity, but it
can be located externally if insulated.
LIQUID LINE SOLENOID VALVE
When, because of the design of the system, the refrig-
erant charge cannot be held to a level which can be
safely handled by the compressor should refrigerant
migration occur, a normally closed liquid line solenoid
may be required. On 3 HP systems with refrigerant
charges exceeding 15 pounds, and on 5 HP systems
with refrigerant charges exceeding 20 pounds, a liquid
line solenoid is recommended, and some manufactur-
ers make liquid line solenoids mandatory on all units 1
½ HP and larger.
The valve should be wired in parallel with the compres-
sor so that it will be closed when the system is not in
operation. It should be installed between the receiver
and the expansion valve, and should have a filter-drier
or strainer mounted just upstream from it in the liquid
line. A soft-seated valve, of non-stick coating or similar
material, is preferred for better control during over-the-
road operation.
SUCTION LINE ACCUMULATOR
A suction line accumulator is considered mandatory
on all systems 2 HP and larger in size, and is recom-
mended for all units. The purpose of the accumulator
is to intercept any liquid refrigerant which might flood
through the system before it reaches the compressor,
particularly on start-up or on hot gas defrost cycles.
Because crankcase heaters or a pumpdown cycle are
not always operative on transport units, the accumula-
tor is the best protection that can be provided for the
compressor.
Provisions for positive oil return to the crankcase must
be provided, but a direct gravity flow is not acceptable
since this would allow liquid refrigerant to drain to the
crankcase during shutdown periods. Capacity of the
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
accumulator usually should be a minimum of 50% of
the system charge, but the required size will vary with
system design. Tests are recommended during the de-
sign phase of any new unit to determine the minimum
capacity for proper compressor protection.
An external source of heat is desirable to accelerate
the boiling of the liquid refrigerant in the accumulator so
that it may return to the compressor as gas. Mounting
in the condenser air stream or near the compressor will
normally be satisfactory.
CRANKCASE HEATERS
Because of the interruptible power source inherent in
transport refrigeration, it is difficult to insure continuous
operation of the heaters. A continuous drain on the truck
battery would not be acceptable.
Crankcase heaters will help when connected to a continu-
ous power source, but cannot be relied on for complete
protection against damage from liquid migration.
PUMPDOWN CYCLE
A pumpdown cycle is the best means of protecting the
compressor from refrigerant damage, particularly if an
excessively large charge cannot be avoided. As in the
case of crankcase heaters, the fact that power may
not always be available makes a pumpdown system
unreliable. It is quite possible that the power to the unit
might be shut off at any moment with the unit in opera-
tion and refrigerant in the coils. If pumpdown control is
used, special operating precautions should be taken to
insure complete pumpdown before the electric power
is disconnected.
FORCED AIR EVAPORATOR COILS
Air velocities across the coil should not exceed 500-600
FPM in order to avoid blowing water from the coil onto
the load. Care should be taken to insure even air distri-
bution across the coil, since uneven airflow can cause
uneven loading of the refrigerant circuits. Fin spacing
exceeding 6 per inch is not recommended because of
the rapid build-up of frost on the fins. However, some
users and manufacturers recommend spacing as low
as 3 or 4 fins per inch, while others report satisfactory
experience with spacings as high as 8 per inch provided
proper defrost controls are used.
Delivered air velocity should be adequate to insure
good air circulation in the vehicle. Noise level is not a
design limitation in a van, so velocities up to 1,500 FPM
or higher can be used.
20-5
Internal volume of the refrigerant tubes should be kept
to a minimum to keep the refrigerant volume as low as
possible. Since pressure drop at low temperatures is
critical so far as capacity is concerned, multiple refriger-
ant circuits with fairly short runs are preferred. Pressure
drop in the evaporator should be no more than 1 to 2
psig. At the same time, it is essential that velocities of
refrigerant in the evaporator be high enough to avoid oil
trapping. 5/8” evaporator tubes are acceptable, but ½” are
preferred, and 3/8” tubing has been used successfully.
Vertical headers should have a bottom outlet to allow
gravity oil draining.
An evaporator face guard should be provided to protect
the fins and tubing from cargo damage. Ample air inlet
area should be provided, with access from both sides
and the bottom if possible, to prevent blocking of air to
the evaporator by cargo stacked in the vehicle.
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES
Because of the wide range of load conditions and the
premium on pulldown time in the transport field, it has
been common practice for some manufacturers to
oversize expansion valves used on transport units,
particularly on units equipped with blower evaporator
coils. If the expansion valve is oversized too greatly,
surging of the refrigerant feed will result with possible
floodback and erratic operation. If this occurs, a smaller
valve must be used.
A liquid charged type valve is essential to retain control,
since the head may frequently be colder than the sens-
ing bulb. Vapor charged expansion valves should not
be used on transport refrigeration systems.
Valve superheat should be preset by the valve manu-
facturer and field adjustment should be discouraged.
However, valves in need of adjustment should be set
to provide 5°F. to 10°F. superheat at the evaporator.
Too high a superheat setting will result in starving the
evaporator and poor oil return. Too low a superheat set-
ting will permit liquid floodback to the compressor.
Pressure limiting type valves are sometimes used to
limit the compressor load according to the allowable
suction pressure. Since oil return to the compressor is
extremely slow during the pulldown period due to the
throttling action of this type of valve, MOP valves are
generally not recommended for transport applications,
and a crankcase pressure regulating valve is recom-
mended if the compressor load must be limited.
It should be born in mind that the pressure across the
valve affects its maximum capacity and its rate of feed.
20-6
Therefore, the valve operation and the amount of su-
perheat may be materially affected by changes of head
pressure caused by changes in the ambient temperature.
Some means of stabilizing head pressure is desirable
to provide a uniform expansion valve feed.
DEFROST SYSTEMS
A defrost system, either electrical, reverse cycle, or
hot gas, is essential for satisfactory operation of any
low temperature transport unit equipped with forced air
evaporators. If trucks are to be used as weekend stor-
age containers at temperatures close to 32°F., return air
as a defrosting medium may result in load temperature
fluctuations.
An electrical defrost system is feasible when the unit is
operating from an engine generator set or from a station-
ary electrical supply. The reverse cycle defrost using a
four-way valve is exceedingly fast and effective, but may
be sensitive to any foreign material in the system. Hot
gas defrost using the heat of compression is effective
only if some means of maintaining head pressure on
the compressor is available, or if refrigerant condensing
in the evaporator can be re-evaporated. Partial flooding
of the condenser has been used, but this results in car-
rying a very large charge of refrigerant in the system.
Some proprietary systems using heat from the engine
cooling water or heat from the engine exhaust have
been used with success.
Drain pan heaters are required on low temperature instal-
lations to prevent the build up of ice in the drain pan. To
prevent the defrost heat from entering the cargo space,
the evaporator fan should be stopped during defrost, or
a damper installed in the air outlet.
Automatic start of the defrost cycle is recommended to
avoid excessive accumulation of frost on the evaporator,
and automatic termination should be provided to avoid
returning overheated gas to the compressor. Since vibra-
tion will cause maintenance problems on time clocks, a
control responsive to fan air pressure is frequently used
for defrost initiation, and a temperature responsive con-
trol for defrost termination. Another method of automatic
defrost control that has been used satisfactorily is a two
element control sensing return air and coil tempera-
tures, and operating on the differential between the two
temperatures.
A suction accumulator is considered mandatory with any
system using a hot gas or reverse cycle defrost system.
The use of steam or hot water for cleaning or defrost
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
purposes should be avoided unless a suction accumula-
tor of adequate size is used to intercept the liquid driven
out of the plates or evaporator by the heat.
THERMOSTAT
If the unit is controlled by a thermostat, a snap action
type is essential to prevent chattering of the contacts. It
is recommended that enclosed type switches be sealed
against moisture. A calibrated adjustment with a set tem-
perature indicator is highly desirable. The construction
of the control should be such that it will withstand road
shock and vibration. A liquid charged sensing bulb is
desirable for fast response and accuracy of control.
HIGH-LOW PRESSURE CONTROL
A combination high and low pressure control is recom-
mended for all systems. If a thermostat is used for unit
control, and a pumpdown system is not used, a low pres-
sure control of the manual reset type should be wired in
series with the thermostat to serve as a safety cut-off in
the event of loss of refrigerant charge or other abnormal
conditions resulting in low suction pressures.
When used for low temperature unit operational control,
the low pressure control should be provided with a low
differential for accurate control. For accuracy, refrigera-
tion gauges must be used in setting cut-in and cut-out
points, since the indicator on the face of the control is
not sufficiently accurate for control purposes.
Motor-compressors with single phase motors having
inherent protection, 2 HP and smaller, can be operated
directly on a pressure control, but larger HP compres-
sors usually require a contactor since oil pressure safety
controls require a pilot circuit, as they cannot carry the
running current.
EUTECTIC PLATE APPLICATIONS
Eutectic plate applications are subject to both oil logging
in the evaporator and liquid floodback to the compressor
on start-up unless care is taken in system layout and
installation. Since either of these conditions can result
in compressor failure, adequate steps must be taken
to protect the compressor.
In order to avoid trapping oil, high refrigerant velocity
must be maintained through the evaporator tubing. Since
the velocity is dependent on the volume of refrigerant
in circulation, plates should be connected in series as
required to provide an adequate refrigeration load for
each expansion valve circuit.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
The following table may be used as a guide in deter-
mining the minimum eutectic plate surface that must be
connected to one expansion valve to insure velocities
sufficient to return oil to the compressor. The recommen-
dations are based on refrigerant evaporating tempera-
tures 15°F. below the plate eutectic temperature, place
manufacturers’ catalog data and recommendations,
and a leaving gas velocity of 1,500 FPM. For easy field
calculation, the eutectic plate surface shown is for one
side of the plate only, e.g. a 24” x 60” plate would have
10 square feet of surface.
Recommended Plate Surface
For Each Expansion Valve Circuit
Low Temperature Medium Temperature
Tubing Plates Below Plates Above
Diameter 0°F. Eutectic 0°F. Eutectic
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
5/8” O.D. 12 sq. ft. 32 sq. ft. 15 sq. ft. 32 sq. ft.
3/4” O.D. 17 sq. ft. 40 sq. ft. 22 sq. ft. 40 sq. ft.
7/8” O.D. 35 sq. ft. 50 sq. ft. 40 sq. ft. 50 sq. ft.
Basically the circuiting and valving of a truck plate
system should be designed so that velocities in each
refrigeration circuit will be above a given minimum (for
adequate oil return) and below a given maximum (for a
pressure drop that does not cause excessive capacity
penalty). It is recommended that circuits approaching
the maximum should be used whenever possible.
For example, if in a given truck for low temperature
use, plates with below 0°F. eutectic solution were used,
circuits might be selected as follows:
Given:
2 - 24” x 120” plates @ 20 sq. ft. each
2 - 24” x 60” plates @ 10 sq. ft. each
1 - 30” x 60” plate @ 12.5 sq. ft.
5/8” O.D. Tubing
Circuit
A 1 - 24” x 120” plate 20 sq. ft.
B 1 - 24” x 120” plate 20 sq. ft.
C-Series (1 - 30” x 60” plate 12.5 sq. ft.
( 2 - 24” x 60” plates 20 sq. ft.
20-7
3/4” O.D. Tubing
Circuit
A-Series ( 1 - 30” x 60” plate 12.5 sq. ft.
( 2 - 24” x 60” plates 20 sq. ft.
B-Series 2 - 24” x 120” plates 40 sq. ft.
7/8” O.D. Tubing
Circuit
A-Series ( 1 - 30” x 60” plate 12.5 sq. ft.
( 2 - 24” x 60” plates 20 sq. ft.
B-Series 2 - 24” x 120” plates 40 sq. ft.
Normally the eutectic plates are selected by the system
designer for the particular truck and application require-
ment. In order to keep the refrigerant charge within ac-
ceptable limits, it is important that both the total number
of plates and the plate internal refrigerant volume be
kept to a absolute minimum required to accomplish the
desired refrigeration.
Because of the large refrigerant charge required for
plates, and the variable nature of the load imposed on the
compressor, plate circuits are subject to extreme varia-
tions in refrigerant velocity. It has been our experience
that proper velocities are of much greater importance
than low pressure drop in determining the heat transfer
rate between the refrigerant and the eutectic solution.
Many users, following normal commercial refrigeration
practice where it is assumed that refrigerant charges
are low and velocities are consistently high, have placed
an undue importance on low pressure drop in selecting
and circuiting plates, and as a result have unknowingly
created lubrication problems in their systems while gain-
ing little or nothing in capacity performance. In many
instances capacity has actually been reduced due to
loss of proper refrigerant control.
A common misconception is that the use of separate
expansion valves on each plate will give increased ca-
pacity and more rapid pulldown. This is not necessarily
so. The use of more expansion valves will result in a
lower pressure drop through the refrigerant circuit which
might aid capacity slightly, but in most cases the resulting
improper control actually decreases capacity.
On two plates, for example, the use of two expansion
valves would result in two sections of tubing being used
as drier area in order to obtain the necessary superheat
for proper operation of the expansion valves. If only one
expansion valve were used, only one length of tubing
20-8
for this superheating function would be required, and
the effective refrigeration area would be increased. The
use of one expansion valve on multiple plates results
in a much higher velocity, and as a result the scrubbing
action of the refrigerant on the walls of the tube causes a
much higher rate of heat transfer. Our experience would
indicate, particularly at low evaporating temperatures,
that very possibly multiple plates operating on one
expansion valve will have more capacity and a better
pulldown than the same plates operating with individual
expansion valves.
A similar misconception is that the use of larger O.D.
tubing in plates will result in a lower pressure drop and
therefore increase capacity. As in the case of expan-
sion valves, the use of smaller tubing, although possibly
resulting in a slightly higher pressure drop, will greatly
increase refrigerant velocity, increase the heat transfer
rate as a result, and again our experience indicates on
low temperature plates that capacity may actually be
increased because of the smaller tubing. The smaller tub-
ing requires a smaller refrigerant charge, and therefore
also decreases the problem of refrigerant migration.
Expansion valves on plate circuits should be no larger
than 1 ton size, and ½ ton valves will give better control
on smaller circuits in the medium temperature range. The
piping and thermal sensing bulbs should be located so
that each valve operates independently and is not influ-
enced by the return line controlled by another valve.
Field experience indicates that due to the throttling action
of an MOP valve after shut-down or defrost periods, oil
may not be returned to the crankcase at a fast enough
rate to maintain compressor lubrication in the event oil
is lost from the compressor on start-up due to liquid re-
frigerant foaming in the crankcase. Therefore, pressure
limiting type expansion valves are not recommended
for plate circuits.
Because of the amount of oil trapped in the plates dur-
ing operation, additional oil normally must be added
to the compressor during the initial pulldown cycle, or
after the unit reaches its normal operating conditions.
Sufficient oil should be added to maintain the oil level
at approximately the ¾ full level of the compressor oil
sight glass.
As the eutectic solution becomes frozen, the boiling
action of the refrigerant slows, and a higher percentage
of liquid refrigerant lies in the bottom of the evapora-
tor tubing. When the unit cycles off, or the power is
disconnected, the plates may be partially filled with
liquid refrigerant and oil. At some later time when the
compressor is again started, the liquid will flood back
to the compressor.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
To protect against liquid floodback, a suction accumu-
lator is mandatory on units of 2 HP and larger, and is
recommended on all transport units. If a crankcase
pressure regulating valve is used, the accumulator
should be located if possible between the CPR valve
and the compressor in order to provide the maximum
protection.
A liquid line solenoid valve can be helpful in minimizing
migration from the condenser and receiver to the evapo-
rator and compressor during periods when the unit is
not in operation. If the system refrigerant charge is not
excessive, a liquid line solenoid may not be required,
but some manufacturers feel they should be mandatory
on all plate systems 1 ½ HP in size and larger.
All plate applications should be equipped with the follow-
ing:
a. Properly sized expansion valves.
b. A liquid to suction heat exchanger for maximum
efficiency.
c. A liquid line filter-drier.
d. A combination sight glass and moisture indicator
for easy maintenance.
e. An oil pressure safety control on all compressors
having oil pumps.
f. A reverse acting pressure control to stop the con-
denser fan in order to maintain satisfactory compres-
sor head pressure during cold weather operation.
g. Suction line accumulator (2 HP and larger).
One of the major problems is low temperature eutectic
plate applications is the practice of the operator or
serviceman of reducing the low pressure cut-out below
the operating limits of the refrigeration system, possibly
to such a low setting that the resulting refrigerant ve-
locities are too low to return oil to the compressor. This
practice has been stimulated by the demand for lower
and lower ice cream temperatures, and the serviceman
often fails to realize the hazard he is creating. The in-
creased compression ratio is not a problem in a properly
designed compressor so long as adequate lubrication
is maintained. But once the eutectic solution is frozen,
the decrease in evaporator load causes the compres-
sor suction pressure to drop rapidly, and at extremely
low suction pressures, compressor capacity falls off
rapidly. From -25°F. to -40°F. the capacity may decrease
by 50% in the best R-12 low temperature compressor,
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
and from -25°F. to -50°F. the reduction in capacity may
be as high as 75%. As a result, there may no longer be
adequate refrigerant velocity in the evaporator circuit
to return oil to the crankcase. At such low capacities,
the expansion valve may no longer be able to properly
control the liquid refrigerant feed.
Repeated extended periods of operation below the
operating range of the system are almost certain to
result in eventual compressor failure. There is no cure
for this situation except adequate education of the user.
To provide proper protection for the compressor the low
pressure control should be set to cut out at approximately
10°F. below the normal evaporating temperature.
For example, a system equipped with plates containing
-8°F. or -9°F. eutectic solution will normally operate with
a refrigerant evaporating temperature of approximately
-25°F., and the low pressure cut-out should be set at
the equivalent of -35°F. or 8” of vacuum on R-12 refrig-
erant, and 5 psig on R-502. If the system is controlled
by a thermostat sensing the truck air temperature, the
thermostat should be set no lower than the plate eutectic
temperature.
The user must realize that a compressor’s application
is limited by the rest of the system. Because of the
inherent problems of oil return presented by the shape
and mounting characteristics necessitated in truck ap-
plications, and the large amounts of tubing which must
be used in plate construction, the minimum satisfactory
evaporating temperature for both R-12 and R-502 is
approximately -40°F. Low pressure controls on all
plate systems must be set to cut out at or above
the equivalent pressure setting; for R-12, 11” of
vacuum, and for R-502, 5 psig.
In order to maintain the evaporating temperature within
acceptable limits, it is essential that the combination of
condensing unit and plates be properly balanced. The
selection of too small a condensing unit may result in a
freezing rate that is too slow. But of equal and possibly
greater importance, the selection of too large a condens-
ing unit may result in an excessively large temperature
difference between the plate eutectic temperature and
the refrigerant evaporating temperature. This condi-
tion most frequently occurs when a large condensing
unit is selected in order to achieve a quick pulldown,
or to shorten the time necessary to freeze the eutectic
solution. Since the minimum satisfactory evaporating
temperature is approximately -40°F., the condensing
unit should be selected so that the normal operating
evaporating temperature on low temperature plates is
not below -30°F. to -35°F.
20-9
REFRIGERANT PIPING
Normal good piping practice should be followed in
installing refrigerant lines for split systems. A silver
solder alloy should be used for making connections
to the compressor and for long runs of tubbing where
vibration may be a problem, and a high temperature
silver solder alloy only must be used on compressor
discharge lines. For other connections, 95/5 solder
is acceptable, and makes possible easier field repair.
50/50 solder should not be used since it does not have
sufficient strength for transport usage. Acid core type
solder should not be used.
VIBRATION
The greatest single hazard of transport refrigeration
usage is damage from vibration and shock. Although
shock tests on the nose of trailers have recorded very
high shock levels, the great majority of all failures from
this source are due to the cumulative effect of small
vibrations. Any line, capillary tube, or structural member
that is subjected to continuous sharp vibration, or that
rattles against a neighboring member in operation is
almost certain to fail within a fairly short period of time. It
cannot be stressed too strongly that normal commercial
construction of condensing units and evaporators for
the usual commercial application is not adequate for
over the road usage.
Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. manufactures a
line of condensing units specially designed for transport
usage. The frames are ruggedly constructed, and all
components are mounted to minimize vibration.
When compressors are installed in a system manufac-
turer’s condensing unit, care must be taken to see than
the compressor is bolted down firmly. Neoprene or other
resilient shock mounts may be used, but spring mounting
is not acceptable. Internally spring mounted compres-
sors are not suitable for transport applications due to
the danger of internal damage from severe shocks, and
continuous spring movement.
Vibration eliminators should be mounted in the com-
pressor discharge and suction lines. A very common
fault is the installation of a vibration absorber between
two sections of rigid piping, in which case the vibration
absorber may be as rigid as the piping. Metal vibration
eliminators should never be mounted in such a fashion
that they are subjected to stress in either compression
or extension. An improperly installed vibration elimina-
tor can actually cause line failure. Flexible refrigerant
lines such as Aeroquip, Stratoflex, or Anchor which
are specifically designed for use with the appropriate
20-10
refrigerant may be used in place of metallic vibration
absorbers. Metallic vibration absorbers should have
joints adequately sealed to prevent condensation from
freezing and damaging the joints.
Welding is preferable to bolting in fastening structural
members. Sheet metal screws, and other metal fas-
teners not securely held by lock washers or lock nuts
are not dependable. All wiring and piping should be
protected with grommets where passing through sheet
metal holes.
Evaporator and condenser tube sheets, when used for
mounting, should be of solid, one piece construction,
and may require heavier gauge construction than used in
normal commercial practice for strength purposes. Coil
tube sheets should be manufactured with collars, as raw
edge holes can cut the tubing due to vibration.
ELECTRICAL PRECAUTIONS
Electrical failures are a common field maintenance prob-
lem due to the wet environment, shock and vibration,
and the possibility of improper power from an engine
generator set.
For the safety of operating and maintenance personnel,
the electrical system should be grounded to the
frame, and the frame in turn grounded by means of
a chain or metal link to the ground if a generator set
is mounted on the vehicle. All components should be
grounded from one to the other, such as the generator
set to condensing section to evaporator section. Cables
to remote sources of power should carry an extra
wire for grounding purposes at the supply plug.
At the time of manufacturer, each system should be
given a high potential test to insure against electrical
flaws in the wiring. All relays and terminals should be
protected against the weather, and all wiring should be
covered with protective loom to guard against abrasion.
All switches should be of the sealed type, recommended
by the manufacturer for use in wet environments. Plug
type line connectors should be of the waterproof type.
Electrical cables connecting split units should have a
watertight cable cover, or should be run in conduit. All
wiring should be fastened securely to prevent chafing,
and should be clearly identified by wire marking and/or
following the color code specified by the National Elec-
trical Code.
Adequately sized extension cords, plugs, and recep-
tacles must be used to avoid excessive voltage drop.
Voltage at the compressor terminals must be within 10%
of the nameplate rating, even under starting conditions.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Many single phase starting problems on small delivery
trucks can be traced to the fact that power is supplied
to the compressor from household type wiring circuits
through long extension cords, neither of which are sized
properly for the electrical load. Single phase open type
motors which are used for belt driving a compressor
during over-the-road operation must be equipped with
a relay to break the capacitor circuit, rather than a
centrifugal switch. The variable speed operation expe-
rienced during truck operation may cause a centrifugal
switch to fail because of excessive wear at low operat-
ing speeds. All start capacitors must be equipped with
bleed resistors to permit the capacitor charge to bleed
off rapidly, preventing arcing and overheating of the
relay contacts.
When units are operated from several power sources,
be sure all plugs and receptacles are wired in the
same sequence, so that the compressor rotation
will not be reversed.
INSTALLATION
A large number of field failures that now occur could
be prevented by proper installation practice. To assure
trouble free operation, every effort should be made to
carry out the following minimum procedures.
1. Read the manufacturer’s instructions.
2. Be sure that structural or reinforced members are
provided to mount the units.
3. Thoroughly clean all copper lines before assembling.
Do not use steel wool for cleaning since the metal
slivers may cause electrical problems in the com-
pressor. If the tubing is not precleaned and capped,
pull a rag saturated with refrigerant oil through the
tube and blow out with nitrogen prior to connecting
lines to the evaporator and condenser.
4. Use only a suitable silver solder alloy or 95/5 solder
in making soldered joints.
5. When brazing lines, circulate inert gas such as dry
nitrogen through the line to prevent oxidation.
6. Install piping in the wall or floor of the vehicle, or
provide an adequate guard.
7. After the lines are installed, pressurize to 150 psig,
and leak test. The use of an electronic leak detector
is recommended for greater sensitivity. As a final
check, the system should be sealed for 12 hours
after pulling a deep vacuum. If the vacuum will not
hold, the system should be rechecked for leaks,
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
repaired, and retested to insure that it is ready for
evacuation and charging.
8. Use a good high vacuum pump to evacuate the
system and leave the pump on the system for a
minimum of 4 hours. Evacuate to less than 1,500
microns, and break the vacuum with refrigerant to
5 psig. Repeat the evacuation process, and break
with refrigerant as before. Evacuate a final time to
500 microns or less and the system is ready for
charging.
WARNING: To prevent motor damage do not
use the motor-compressor to evacuate the
system. A motor-compressor should never be
started or operated while the system is under
a deep vacuum, or serious damage may result
because of the reduced dielectric strength of
the atmosphere within the motor chamber.
9. Charge the unit with refrigerant, either vapor through
the suction valve, or preferably liquid through a liquid
line charging valve if provided. The compressor
must never be charged with liquid refrigerant
through the suction side.
10. If using an engine-generator as a power source,
start the engine and check the generator output
voltage to be sure it is correct.
11. Check the voltage at the compressor terminals, start
the unit, check the amperage draw of the compres-
sor, and the rotation of the fans to be sure the unit
is phased properly.
12. Observe the discharge and suction pressures. If an
abnormal pressure develops, stop the unit immedi-
ately and check to see what is causing the difficulty.
Take corrective action if required.
13. Observe the refrigerant oil level and check the oil
pressure, if the compressor is equipped with a posi-
tive displacement oil pump. If the oil level becomes
dangerously low during the pulldown period, add oil
to the compressor. After the unit reaches normal
operating conditions, add oil if necessary to bring the
level to a point ¾ full in the crankcase sight glass.
14. Check all manual and automatic controls.
15. After a minimum of two hours of operation, make
another leak test.
16. After the unit has reached the proper operating
conditions, and all controls have been checked,
run the unit overnight on automatic control to be
20-11
 sure operation is satisfactory. Check oil level in the
compressor, and add oil if necessary.
17. When unit is delivered to the customer, be sure that
operating personnel have proper written instruc-
tions on operating and maintenance procedures.
The responsible sales personnel should verbally
explain the operation of the unit to the user, and
wiring diagrams and operating instructions should be
permanently carried on the vehicle, either by means
of a decal or in an envelope properly protected form
loss or damage.
FIELD TROUBLESHOOTING ON TRANSPORT
UNITS
The great majority of all low temperature compressor
failures in transport refrigeration can be traced to lubrica-
tion problems. No compressor can operate satisfactorily
unless oil logging and liquid floodback can either be
prevented or safely controlled by safeguard devices in
the refrigeration system.
The following check-off list covers possible corrective
action on units experiencing field difficulties. For a more
detailed discussion of each item, refer to the appropri-
ate section in this manual. The need for any particular
modification would of course depend on the individual
application.
1. Eutectic plate circuiting for high refrigerant
velocity
It is essential for proper oil return to the compressor
that high refrigerant velocities be maintained through
the evaporator circuits. For a rough rule of thumb
on plates with 7/8” or ¾” O.D. tubing, there should
be no less than 3 small or 2 large plates in series
on one expansion valve. On plates with 5/8” O.D.
tubing, there should be no less than 2 small or one
large plate on one expansion valve.
2. Expansion valves on eutectic plates
Expansion valves should be no larger than 1 ton
capacity in size, liquid or cross charged, and inter-
nally equalized.
3. Refrigerant Charge
The refrigerant charge must be held to a minimum
to avoid refrigerant migration problems. Use a sight
glass to check for a liquid seal at the expansion
valve at low temperature operating conditions.
20-12
4. Liquid Line Solenoid Valve
If excessive refrigerant migration to eutectic plates
is occurring during over-the-road operation, a liquid
line solenoid valve may be required to properly
control large refrigerant charges.
5. Suction Line Accumulator
A suction line accumulator is the best protection that
can be provided to guard against liquid floodback.
It should be mandatory on all truck applications
2 HP and larger. For maximum efficiency, it should
be installed close to the compressor, and if a CPR
valve is used, between the compressor and the
CPR valve. The accumulator must have provisions
for positive oil return.
6. Head Pressure Control
In winter operation, head pressures may drop so
low that inadequate feeding of the expansion valve
may result, and the evaporator may be starved. A
reverse acting high pressure control should be used
to cycle the condenser fan if head pressure drop
below 80 psig on R-12 operation, or 125 psig on
R-502 operation, unless other acceptable means
of controlling head pressure are provided.
7. Oil Level in Crankcase
When the compressors without oil pumps are
used on truck applications, the oil level should
be maintained high in the compressor sight
glass to assure a reserve of lubricating oil for
periods of erratic oil return. The user should be
warned that the compressor may not be getting
adequate lubrication if the oil level drops below
the bottom of the sight glass. Only a naphthenic
oil should be used which has a viscosity of 150,
a pour point of -35°F. and a floc point of -70°F.
This oil has proven satisfactory for all low tem-
perature applications.
8. Oil Pressure Safety Control
On all compressors having positive displacement
type oil pumps, an oil pressure safety control is
required.
9. High Pressure Cut-Out
Several manufacturers have produced units with
no high pressure control. Failure of the condenser
fan motor may result in excessive head pressures,
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 and subsequent compressor failure. A high pressure
control is essential.
10. Liquid Line Filter-Drier and Heat Exchanger
These should be standard on all units.
11. Low Pressure Control Setting
A major educational effort is required to point out to
the user the dangers of by-passing the low pressure
cut-out, or setting it at dangerously low levels.
When eutectic plates are completely frozen, the
compressor suction pressure falls very rapidly, with
a consequent sharp drop in compressor capacity,
and resulting lubrication difficulties, since velocity
in the plates may no longer be sufficient to return
oil to the compressor. Users, particularly ice cream
distributors, frequently try to reduce the van body
temperature to the lowest temperature possible as
an added safety factor for the day’s operation.
Since the system is normally not designed for the
extremely low evaporating temperatures at which
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
the compressor can operate under such conditions,
the compressor pays the penalty. The user must
realize that a compressor’s application is limited
by the rest of the system. Because of the inherent
problems of oil return presented by the shape and
mounting characteristics necessitated in truck ap-
plications, and the large amounts of tubing which
must be used in plate construction, the minimum
satisfactory evaporating temperature for both R-12
and R-502 is approximately -40°F. Low pressure
controls on transport systems must be set to
cut out at or above 11” of vacuum on R-12, and
5 psig on R-502.
12. Location of Truck while System is Operating
Trucks must be parked on a reasonably level surface
while the refrigeration unit is in operation. Short pe-
riods of operation on an incline such as experienced
in over-the-road operation are not a problem, but
long periods of operation while the truck is parked
on a steep incline or on the side of a hill may rob
the compressor of lubrication if the oil level flows
away from the pick up point of the oil flinger or oil
pump.
20-13
 Section 21
CAPACITY CONTROL
On many refrigeration and air conditioning systems,
the refrigeration load will vary over a wide range. This
many be due to differences in product load, ambient
temperature, usage, occupancy, or other factors. In
such cases compressor capacity control is a necessity
for satisfactory system performance.
The simplest form of capacity control is “on-off” opera-
tion of the compressor. This works acceptably with small
compressors, but for larger compressors, it is seldom
satisfactory, because of fluctuations in the controlled
temperature. Under light load conditions it can result in
compressor short cycling. On refrigeration applications
where ice formation is not a problem, users frequently
reduce the low pressure cut-out setting to a point beyond
the design limits of the system in order to prevent short
cycling. As a result, the compressor may operate for
long periods at extremely low evaporating temperatures.
Both of these conditions can cause compressor damage
and ultimate failure.
Two different types of unloading are used on Copeland®
brand compressors, internal and external.
INTERNAL CAPACITY CONTROL VALVES
A schematic illustration of the Copeland® brand internal
unloading valve is shown in Figure 101.
In the normal operating position with the solenoid valve
de-energized, the needle valve is seated on the lower
port, and the unloading plunger chamber is exposed
to suction pressure through the suction pressure port.
Since the face of the plunger is open to the suction
chamber, the gas pressures across the plunger are
equalized, and the plunger is held in the open position
by the spring.
When the solenoid valve is energized, the needle valve
is seated on the upper port, and the unloading plunger
chamber is exposed to discharge pressure through
the discharge pressure port. The differential between
discharge and suction pressure forces the plunger
down, sealing the suction port in the valve plate, thus
preventing the entrance of suction vapor into the un-
loaded cylinders.
With the suction port sealed, the cylinder pumps down
into a vacuum until it reaches a point where no pump-
ing action occurs.
21-1
EXTERNAL CAPACITY CONTROL VALVES
For Copeland® brand three cylinder compressors, a
solenoid operated external bypass valve is used for
unloading, as shown in Figure 101.
Copelametic® compressors with external capacity con-
trol have a bypass valve so arranged that the unloaded
cylinder is isolated from the discharge pressure created
by the unloaded cylinders. The bypass valve connects
the discharge ports of the unloaded cylinder to the com-
pressor suction chamber. Since the piston and cylinder
do not work other than pumping vapor through the by-
pass circuit, and handle only suction vapor, the problem
of cylinder overheating while unloaded is practically
eliminated. At the same time, the power consumption
of the compressor motor is greatly reduced because of
the reduction in work performed.
Because of the decreased volume of suction vapor
returning to the compressor from the system and avail-
able for motor cooling, the operating range of unloaded
compressors must be restricted. In general, Copeland®
brand compressors with capacity control are recom-
mended only for high temperature applications, but in
some instances they can be satisfactorily applied in the
medium temperature range. Because of the danger of
overheating the compressor motor on low temperature
systems, either cycling the compressor or hot gas bypass
is recommended.
HOT GAS BYPASS
Compressor capacity modulation by means of hot gas
bypass is recommended where normal compressor
cycling or the use of unloaders may not be satisfactory.
Basically this is a system of bypassing the condenser with
compressor discharge gas to prevent the compressor
suction pressure from falling below a desired setting.
All hot gas bypass valves operate on a similar principle.
They open in response to a decrease in downstream
pressure, and modulate from fully open to fully closed
over a given range. Introduction of the hot, high pres-
sure gas into the low pressure side of the system at a
metered rate prevents the compressor from lowering
the suction pressure further.
The control setting of the valve can be varied over a
wide range by means of an adjusting screw. Because of
the reduced power consumption at lower suction pres-
sures, the hot gas valve should be adjusted to bypass at
(continued on p. 21-3)
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 21-2
the minimum suction pressure within the compressor’s
operating limits which will result in acceptable system
performance.
If a refrigeration system is properly designed and in-
stalled, field experience indicates that maintenance
may be greatly reduced if the compressor operates
continuously within the system’s design limitations as
opposed to frequent cycling. Electrical problems are
minimized, compressor lubrication is improved, and
liquid refrigerant migration is avoided.
Therefore, on systems with multiple evaporators where
the refrigeration load is continuous, but may vary over
a wide range, hot gas bypass may not only provide a
convenient means of capacity control, it may also result
in more satisfactory and more economical operation.
BYPASS INTO EVAPORATOR INLET
On single evaporator, close connected systems, it is
frequently possible to introduce the hot gas into the
evaporator inlet immediately after the expansion valve.
Distributors are available with side openings for hot gas
inlet. Bypassing at the evaporator inlet has the effect
of creating an artificial cooling load. Since the regular
system thermostatic expansion valve will meter its feed
as required to maintain its superheat setting, the refriger-
ant gas returns to the compressor at normal operating
temperatures, and no motor heating problem is involved.
High velocities are maintained in the evaporator, so oil
21-3
return is aided. Because of these advantages, this type
of control is the simplest, least costly and most satisfac-
tory bypass system. This type of bypass is illustrated
in Figure 102.
BYPASS INTO SUCTION LINE
Where multiple evaporators are connected to one
compressor, or where the condensing unit is remote
from the evaporator it may be necessary to bypass hot
gas into the refrigerant suction line. Suction pressures
can be controlled satisfactorily with this method, but a
desuperheating expansion valve is required to meter
liquid refrigerant into the suction line in order to keep
the temperature of the refrigerant gas returning to the
compressor within allowable limits. It is necessary to
thoroughly mix the bypassed hot gas, the liquid refrig-
erant, and the return gas from the evaporator so that
the mixture entering the compressor is at the correct
temperature. A mixing chamber is recommended for
this purpose, and a suction line accumulator can serve
as an excellent mixing chamber while at the same time
protecting the compressor from liquid floodback. See
Figure 103 for typical installation.
Another commonly used method of mixing is to arrange
the piping so that a mixture of discharge gas and liquid
refrigerant is introduced into the suction line at some
distance form the compressor, in a suction header if
possible. Figure 104 illustrates this mixing method.
(continued on p. 21-5)
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved. 21-4
SOLENOID VALVES FOR POSITIVE SHUT-OFF
AND PUMPDOWN CYCLE
In order to allow the system to pumpdown, a solenoid
valve must be installed ahead of the hot gas bypass
valve. Since the hot gas valve opens on a decrease of
downstream pressure, it will be open any time the sys-
tem pressure is reduced below its setting. If the system
control is such that this solenoid valve is closed during
the normal cooling cycle, it may also prevent possible
loss of capacity due to leakage.
A solenoid valve is also recommended ahead of the
desuperheating expansion valve to prevent leakage and
allow pumpdown. Both of the solenoid valves should be
of the normally closed type, and wired so they are de-
energized when the compressor is not operating.
DESUPERHEATING EXPANSION VALVE
If a desuperheating expansion valve is required, it
should be of adequate size to reduce the temperature
of the discharge gas to the proper level under maximum
bypass conditions. The temperature sensing bulb of the
expansion valve must be located so that it can sense the
temperature of the gas returning to the compressor after
the introduction of the hot gas and the desuperheating
liquid. Suction gas entering the compressor should be no
higher than 65°F. under low temperature load conditions,
or 90°F. under high temperature load conditions.
21-5
On low temperature applications where hot gas bypass
is used to prevent the compressor suction pressure
from falling below safe operating levels, valves with
unusually high superheat settings may be required. For
example, suppose a control was desired to prevent a
system using R-502 from operating below -35°F. The
temperature of the gas returning to the compressor
must be prevented from exceeding 65°F. Therefore,
when the desuperheating expansion valve is feeding,
it will sense on one side of its diaphragm, the system
pressure equivalent to -35°F. or 6.7 psig, and in order
to maintain 65°F. return gas, it will require a superheat
setting of 65°F. plus 35°F. or 100°F. Expansion valves
with special charges are available from expansion
valve manufacturers with superheat settings over ex-
tremely wide ranges, although these will not normally
be available in a local wholesaler’s stock. Contact the
expansion valve manufacturer’s local representative
for assistance in selecting valves with nonstandard
superheat settings.
TYPICAL MULTIPLE-EVAPORATOR ­
CONTROL SYSTEM
A typical hot gas bypass control system with three
evaporators is illustrated in Figure 103 together with
a schematic electric control system for cycling control
of the compressor. The double pole thermostats close
on a demand for refrigeration, and as long as any one
evaporator is demanding cooling the compressor oper-
ates, and the hot gas bypass valve modulates flow as
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
necessary to prevent the suction pressure from falling
below a fixed set point.
If all evaporators are satisfied, all of the thermostats are
open, and all liquid line solenoid valves and the hot gas
solenoid valve are de-energized, and therefore closed.
The compressor will then cycle off on low pressure
control until a thermostat again closes.
In order to protect the compressor against danger from
liquid flooding in the event of a trip of a compressor safety
device, provision must be made in the wiring circuit to
de-energize the hot gas and the desuperheating liquid
line solenoid valves if the compressor is inoperative.
On a pumpdown system, this can be accomplished by
means of a solenoid valve control relay as shown in
Figure 103.
If continuous compressor operation is desired, single
pole thermostats can be used, and the hot gas and
desuperheating liquid line solenoid valves should be
connected directly to the load side of the compressor
contactor. In the event all three evaporators are satisfied,
the compressor will operate on 100% hot gas bypass
until cooling is again required.
Compressors equipped with inherent protection can
cycle on the inherent protection can cycle on the inher-
ent protector independently of the contractor. To avoid
flooding the compressor with liquid refrigerant in the
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
event the inherent protector should trip, the hot gas
solenoid valve and the liquid line solenoid valve should
be connected through a current sensing relay such as
the Penn R-10A, as shown in Figure 105.
POWER CONSUMPTION WITH HOT GAS BYPASS
Since the power consumption as well as the capacity
of a compressor is reduced with a decrease in com-
pressor suction pressure, the control system should
be such that the system is allowed to reach its lowest
satisfactory operating suction pressure before hot gas
is bypassed. Where major reductions in capacity are
required, operating economy may be best achieved by
handling the load with two compressors. One can be
cycled for a 50% reduction in both capacity and power,
while the capacity of the compressor remaining on the
line is modulated by hot gas control.
It is not necessarily true that continuous compressor
operation with hot gas bypass will result in a higher
power bill than cycling operation for a given load.
Almost all utilities make a monthly demand charge
based on peak loads. Since the peak motor demand
occurs when locked rotor current is drawn on start-up,
the utility demand charge may reflect motor starting
requirements rather than the true running load. With
continuous operation, once the motors are on the line,
starting peaks may be eliminated and the reduction in the
demand charge may offset the increased running power
consumption.
21-6
 Section 22
LIQUID REFRIGERANT CONTROL IN REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
One of the major causes of compressor failure is dam-
age caused by liquid refrigerant entering the compressor
crankcase in excessive quantities. Since improper control
of liquid refrigerant can often cause a loss of lubrication
in the compressor, most such compressor failures have
been classified as lubrication failures, and many people
fail to realize that the problem actually originates with
the refrigerant.
A well designed, efficient compressor for refrigeration,
air conditioning and heat pump duty is primarily a va-
por pump designed to handle a reasonable quantity of
liquid refrigerant and oil. To design and build a pump to
handle more liquid would require a serious compromise
in one or more of the following: size, weight, capacity,
efficiency, noise, and cost.
Regardless of design there are limits to the amount of
liquid a compressor can handle, and these limits depend
on factors such as internal volume of the crankcase, oil
charge, type of system and controls, and normal operat-
ing conditions. Proper control of liquid refrigerant is an
application problem, and is largely beyond the control
of the compressor manufacturer.
The potential hazard increases with the size of the re-
frigerant charge and usually the cause of damage can
be traced to one or more of the following:
1. Excessive refrigerant charge.
2. Frosted evaporator.
3. Dirty or plugged evaporator filters.
4. Failure of evaporator fan or fan motor.
5. Incorrect capillary tubes.
6. Incorrect selection or adjustment of expansion
valves.
7. Refrigerant migration.
REFRIGERANT - OIL RELATIONSHIP
In order to correctly analyze system malfunctions,
and to determine if a system is properly protected, a
clear understanding of the refrigerant-oil relationship is
essential.
One of the basic characteristics of a refrigerant and oil
mixture in a sealed system is the fact that refrigerant is
22-1
attracted by oil and will vaporize and migrate through
the system to the compressor crankcase even though
no pressure difference exists to cause the movement.
On reaching the crankcase the refrigerant will condense
into a liquid, and this migration will continue until the
oil is saturated with liquid refrigerant. The amount of
refrigerant that the oil will attract is primarily dependent
on pressure and temperature, increasing rapidly as the
pressure increases and approaching a maximum at
saturated pressures and temperatures in the normal
room temperature range.
When the pressure on a saturated mixture of refrigerant
and oil is suddenly reduced, as happens in the compres-
sor crankcase on start-up, the amount of liquid refrigerant
required to saturate the oil is drastically reduced, and
the remainder of the liquid refrigerant flashes into vapor,
causing violent boiling of the refrigerant and oil mixture.
This causes the typical foaming often observed in the
compressor crankcase at start-up, which can drive all of
the oil out of the crankcase in less than a minute. (Not
all foaming is the result of refrigerant in the crankcase
- agitation of the oil will also cause some foaming.)
One condition that is somewhat surprising when first
encountered by field personnel is the fact that the intro-
duction of excessive liquid refrigerant into the compressor
crankcase can cause a loss of oil pressure and a trip of
the oil pressure safety control even though the level of
the refrigerant and oil mixture may be observed high in
the compressor crankcase sight glass. The high percent-
age of liquid refrigerant entering the crankcase not only
reduces the lubricating quality of the oil, but on entering
the oil pump intake may flash into vapor, blocking the
entrance of adequate oil to maintain oil pump pressure,
and this condition can continue until the percentage of
refrigerant in the crankcase is reduced to a level which
can be tolerated by the oil pump.
Liquid refrigerant problems can take several different
forms, each having its own distinct characteristics.
REFRIGERANT MIGRATION
Refrigerant migration is the term used to describe the
accumulation of liquid refrigerant in the compressor
crankcase during periods when the compressor is
not operating. It can occur whenever the compressor
becomes colder than the evaporator, since a pressure
differential then exists to force refrigerant flow to the
colder area. Although this type of migration is most
pronounced in colder weather, it can also exist even at
relatively high ambient temperatures with remote type
condensing units for air conditioning and heat pump
applications.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Anytime the system is shut down and is not operative
for several hours, migration to the crankcase can occur
regardless of pressure due to the attraction of the oil
for refrigerant.
If excessive liquid refrigerant has migrated to the com-
pressor crankcase, severe liquid slugging may occur on
start-up, and frequently compressor damage such as
broken valves, damaged pistons, bearing failures due
to loss of oil from the crankcase, and bearing washout
(refrigerant washing oil from the bearings) can occur.
LIQUID REFRIGERANT FLOODING
If an expansion valve should malfunction, or in the
event of an evaporator fan failure or clogged air filters,
liquid refrigerant may flood through the evaporator and
return through the suction line to the compressor as
liquid rather than vapor. During the running cycle, liquid
flooding can cause excessive wear of the moving parts
because of the dilution of the oil, loss of oil pressure
resulting in trips of the oil pressure safety control, and
loss of oil from the crankcase. During the “off” cycle
after running in this condition, migration of refrigerant
to the crankcase can occur rapidly, resulting in liquid
slugging when restarting.
LIQUID REFRIGERANT SLUGGING
Liquid slugging is the term used to describe the passage
of liquid refrigerant through the compressor suction
and discharge valves. It is evidenced by a loud metallic
clatter inside the compressor, possibly accompanied by
extreme vibration of the compressor.
Slugging can result in broken valves, blown head gas-
kets, broken connecting rods, broken crankshafts, and
other major compressor damage.
Slugging frequently occurs on start-up when liquid
refrigerant has migrated to the crankcase. On some
units, because of the piping configuration or the loca-
tion of components, liquid refrigerant can collect in the
suction line or evaporator during the off cycle, returning
to the compressor as solid liquid with extreme velocity
on start-up. The velocity and weight of the liquid slug
may be of sufficient magnitude to override any internal
anti-slug protective devices of the compressor.
TRIPPING OF OIL ­
PRESSURE SAFETY CONTROL
One of the most common field complaints arising from
a liquid flooding condition is that of a trip of the oil
pressure safety control after a defrost period on a low
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
temperature unit. The system design on many units
allows refrigerant to condense in the evaporator and
suction line during the defrost period, and on start-up
this refrigerant floods back to the compressor crankcase,
causing a loss of oil pressure and recurring trips of the
oil pressure safety control.
One trip or a few trips of the oil pressure safety control
may not result in serious damage to the compressor,
but repeated short periods of operation without proper
lubrication are almost certain to result in ultimate com-
pressor failure. Trips of the oil pressure safety control
under such circumstances are frequently viewed by the
serviceman as nuisance trips, but it cannot be stressed
too strongly that they are warning trips, indicating the
compressor has been running without oil pressure for 2
minutes, and that prompt remedial action is required.
RECOMMENDED CORRECTIVE ACTION
The potential hazard to a refrigeration or air conditioning
system is in almost direct proportion to the size of the
refrigerant charge. It is difficult to determine the maximum
safe refrigerant charge of any system without actually
testing the system with its compressor and other major
components. The compressor manufacturer can deter-
mine the maximum amount of liquid the compressor will
tolerate in the crankcase without endangering the working
parts, but has no way of knowing how much of the total
system charge will actually be in the compressor under
the most extreme conditions. The maximum amount of
liquid a compressor can tolerate depends on its design,
internal volume, and oil charge. Where liquid migration,
flooding, or slugging can occur, corrective action should
be taken, the type normally being dictated by the system
design and the type of liquid problem.
1. Minimize Refrigerant Charge
The best compressor protection against all forms
of liquid refrigerant problems is to keep the charge
within the compressor limits. Even if this is not pos-
sible, the charge should be kept as low as reasonably
possible.
Use the smallest practical size tubing in condensers,
evaporators, and connecting lines. Receivers should
be as small as possible.
Charge with the minimum amount of refrigerant re-
quired for proper operation. Beware of bubbles showing
in the sight glass caused by small liquid lines and low
head pressures. This can lead to serious overcharg-
ing.
22-2
2. Pumpdown Cycle
The most positive and dependable means of properly
controlling liquid refrigerant, particularly if the charge
is large, is by means of a pumpdown cycle. By clos-
ing a liquid line solenoid valve, the refrigerant can
be pumped into the condenser and receiver, and the
compressor operation controlled by means of a low
pressure control. The refrigerant can thus be isolated
during periods when the compressor is not in opera-
tion, and migration to the compressor crankcase is
prevented. A recycling type of pumpdown control is
recommended to provide protection against possible
refrigerant leakage through control devices during
the off cycle. With the so-called one time pumpdown,
or non-recycling type of control, sufficient leakage
may occur during long off periods to endanger the
compressor.
Although the pumpdown cycle is the best possible
protection against migration, it will not protect against
flooding during operation.
3. Crankcase Heaters
On some systems, operating requirements, cost, or
customer preference may make the use of a pump-
down cycle undesirable, and crankcase heaters are
frequently used to retard migration.
The function of a crankcase heater is to maintain the
oil in the compressor at a temperature higher than
the coldest part of the system. Refrigerant enter-
ing the crankcase will then be vaporized and driven
back into the suction line. However, in order to avoid
overheating and carbonizing of the oil, the wattage
input of the crankcase heater must be limited, and
in ambient temperatures approaching 0°F., or when
exposed suction lines and cold winds impose an added
load, the crankcase heater may be overpowered, and
migration can still occur.
Crankcase heaters when used are normally energized
continuously, since its takes several hours to drive the
refrigerant from the crankcase once it has entered and
condensed in the oil. They are effective in combating
migration if conditions are not too severe, but they
will not protect against liquid floodback.
4. Suction Accumulators
On systems where liquid flooding is apt to occur, a
suction accumulator should be installed in the suction
line. Basically the accumulator is a vessel which serves
as a temporary storage container for liquid refrigerant
22-3
which has flooded through the system, with a provision
for metered return of the liquid to the compressor at
a rate which the compressor can safely tolerate.
Flooding typically can occur on heat pumps at the
time the cycle is switched from cooling to heating, or
from heating to cooling, and a suction accumulator
is mandatory on all heat pumps unless otherwise
approved by the Emerson Climate Technologies,
Inc. Application Engineering Department.
Systems utilizing hot gas defrost are also subject to
liquid flooding either at the start or termination of the
hot gas cycle. Compressors on low superheat ap-
plications such as liquid chillers and low temperature
display cases are susceptible to occasional flooding
from improper refrigerant control. Truck applications
experience extreme flooding conditions at start up
after long non-operating periods.
On two stage compressors the suction vapor is
returned directly to the low stage cylinders without
passing through the motor chamber, and a suction
accumulator should be used to protect the com-
pressor valves from liquid slugging.
Since each system will vary with respect to the total
refrigerant charge and the method of refrigerant con-
trol, the actual need for an accumulator and the size
required is to a large extent dictated by the individual
system requirement. If flooding can occur, an accumu-
lator must be provided with sufficient capacity to hold
the maximum amount of refrigerant flooding which can
occur at any one time, and this can be well over 50%
of the total system charge in some cases. If accurate
test data as to the amount of liquid floodback is not
available, then 50% of the system charge normally
can be used as a conservative design guide.
5. Oil Separators
Oil separators cannot cure oil return problems caused
by system design, nor can they remedy liquid refrig-
erant control problems. However, in the event that
system control problems cannot be remedied by other
means, oil separators may be helpful in reducing the
amount of oil circulated through the system, and can
often make possible safe operation through critical
periods until such time as system control can be re-
turned to normal conditions. For example, on ultra low
temperature applications or on flooded evaporators,
oil return may be dependent on defrost periods, and
the oil separator can help to maintain the oil level in
the compressor during the period between defrosts.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
 Section 23
ELECTRICAL CONTROL CIRCUITS
Electrical control circuits may be quite simple or extremely
complicated, depending on the control requirements of
the particular system. Most wiring diagrams furnished
with refrigeration equipment are of the pictorial type, and
show the wiring as nearly as possible in the manner in
which it is installed. Normally the different components
are shown, together with terminal designations and wire
colors. The pictorial diagram is essential as a guide to
proper wiring.
Schematic wiring diagrams are useful in analyzing and
explaining the performance of a control circuit, since
the schematic diagram shows the various parts of the
circuit in a functional manner only, thus reducing the
diagram to its simplest form.
Both types of diagram may be used to describe the
same control circuit.
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
TYPICAL LOCKOUT CONTROL CIRCUIT
A typical wiring diagram of a compressor control circuit
with part winding motor start, and a 10 minute lockout
circuit in the event of a compressor protector trip is
shown in Figure 106. The pictorial diagram is shown
in the upper half of the illustration, while the schematic
diagram is shown at the bottom.
In this circuit, which is designed for fully automatic op-
eration, fast cycling of the compressor from the opera-
tion of the motor protectors is eliminated by the use of
a 10 minute time delay in conjunction with double pole
impedance relay.
Basically an impedance relay is similar to a normal relay
except that the coil has been wound so as to create a
(continued on p. 23-3)
23-1
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
23-2 All rights reserved.
high resistance to current passage. If wired in parallel
with a circuit having lower resistance, the high imped-
ance (resistance) of the relay will shunt the current to
the alternate circuit and the impedance relay will be
inoperative. If the alternate circuit is opened and the
current must pass through the impedance relay, the relay
coil is energized and the relay operates. The voltage
drop across the impedance relay is so large that other
magnetic coils in series with the relay will not operate
because of the resulting low voltage.
In the control circuits shown, the coil of the impedance
relay is connected in parallel with the automatic pro-
tectors, and in series with the holding coil of the motor
starter or contactor. In the event of an overload on the
compressor, the stator thermostats or the overload
protectors open, and the control circuit current must
pass through the impedance relay coil, energizing the
impedance relay. Because of the high impedance of this
coil, the voltage to the holding coil of the motor starter
or contactor falls below the voltage required for opera-
tion, and the contactor or starter opens, removing the
compressor from the line. When the impedance relay
is energized, a single pole double through 10 minute
time delay relay is energized through a set of normally
open contacts on the impedance relay. A set of normally
closed contacts on the time delay relay break the control
circuit and prevent a normal circuit being re-established
through the automatic protectors while the time delay
relay is operative. A set of normally open contacts on
the time delay relay close when the relay is energized
to maintain a circuit to the time delay coil. After a 10
minute internal, a cam on the time delay relay trips,
automatically returning the circuit to normal operation.
In the event the stator thermostats have not reset, or the
overload condition again occurs, the circuit will continue
repeating the 10 minute lockout cycle.
CONTROL CIRCUIT FOR COMPRESSOR ­
PROTECTION AGAINST LIQUID REFRIGERANT
FLOODING
On systems with large refrigerant charges, compressor
damage can occasionally be caused by liquid refrigerant
flooding the compressor crankcase should the compres-
sor be non-operative due to a trip of a safety device.
This can occur even if the control circuit provides for a
continuous pumpdown cycle.
Typically this can happen if the compressor trips either
on the motor overload protectors or on the oil pressure
safety control. The compressor would then be non-
operative, but if the thermostat or other control device
is calling for cooling, the liquid line solenoid valve will
be open and liquid refrigerant will continue to feed into
the evaporator, eventually flooding through to the com-
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
pressor. When the safety device is either manually or
automatically reset and the compressor is restarted, the
crankcase will be filled with liquid refrigerant.
On larger horsepower compressors, this can be a seri-
ous problem, both because of the potential cost of the
possible damage to the compressor and the amount of
refrigerant involved. Flooding of the compressor under
non-operative conditions can be prevented by the use
of a reverse acting low pressure control as shown in
Figure 107.
The liquid line solenoid valve is controlled by the ther-
mostat, but to complete the circuit through the solenoid
valve, the contacts in the reverse acting low pressure
control must be closed. Since the dual pressure control
completes the compressor contactor circuit when the
suction pressure reaches 50 psig, the reverse acting
control will remain closed during normal system opera-
tion. However, should the compressor contactor circuit
be broken by any of the safety devices so that the
compressor could not start, the reverse acting control
will open on a rise in pressure when the evaporator
pressure rises above 90 psig. Opening of the reverse
acting control de-energizes the liquid line solenoid valve,
and stops the liquid refrigerant feed.
When the compressor is again restored to operation, the
suction pressure is reduced, the reverse acting control
again closes, and operation proceeds normally.
The pressure settings shown are tentative settings
for an R-22 air conditioning system, and actual set-
tings must be determined after reviewing the system’s
normal operating range. The important factor is that
the reverse acting low pressure control must be set to
open well above the setting at which the dual pressure
control closes.
CONTROL CIRCUITS TO PREVENT SHORT
CYCLING
Short cycling often occurs on air conditioning and re-
frigeration equipment due to a shortage of refrigerant,
leaking solenoid valves, incorrect pressure control set-
tings, thermostat chatter, or other causes. Short cycling
causes overheating of the compressor and contactor,
may cause nuisance tripping of the motor protectors,
and in some cases has resulted in welded contactor
points and motor failure.
Figure 108 shows a control circuit similar to the lockout
circuit discussed previously, with the addition of a pump-
down control circuit with a 45 second time delay to delay
starting after closing of the dual pressure control. When
the operational control is closed, the normally closed
(continued on p. 23-5)
23-3
 © 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
23-4 All rights reserved.
liquid line solenoid valve is energized. The resulting
flow of liquid refrigerant into the low pressure side of
the system increases the suction pressure, causing the
contacts of the low pressure control to make, energizing
the time delay relay.
After 45 seconds the time delay relay makes, complet-
ing the main control circuit “XY” through the compres-
sor contactor holding coil. In the event of an overload
in the compressor circuit, the 10 minute lockout circuit
functions as described previously. In the event the op-
erational control or dual pressure control chatter or close
immediately after opening, the time delay will prevent
re-energizing the circuit for 45 seconds.
CONTROL CIRCUITS FOR COMPRESSORS WITH
CAPACITY CONTROL VALVES
In control circuits operating at line voltage, the solenoid
valve and control can be connected to the load side of
the contactor as shown in Figure 109.
On large installations, the control circuit may have a
power source independent of the compressor power
supply. In such cases, the unloading solenoid valve and
control may be connected in parallel with the compres-
sor contactor coil as in Figure 110.
There are thousands of variations and types of control
circuits, and the above examples are shown merely to
illustrate typical circuits frequently encountered in refrig-
eration work. The basic circuits shown can be adapted as
necessary depending on the individual requirement.

To avoid damage to the compressor from refrigerant

migration, and to allow proper operation on pumpdown
systems, it is essential that capacity control solenoid
valves be de-energized when the compressor is not
operating.

© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved. 23-5
© 1969 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All rights reserved.
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