Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Machine Design Reviewer PDF
Machine Design Reviewer PDF
(LECTURE)
Machine Design, Engineering Materials,
Revision 0
2012
Prepared By:
A. PRESSURE VESSELS
B. SHAFTS
C. KEYS
D. COUPLINGS
E. FLYWHEELS
F. SCREW FASTENINGS
G. POWER SCREWS
H. SPRING
I. BELTS
J. CHAINS
K. WIRE ROPES
L. SPUR GEARS
M. HELICAL GEARS
N. BEVEL GEARS
O. WORM GEARS
P. BRAKES
Q. CLUTCHES
R. BEARINGS
S. RIVETED JOINTS
T. WELDED JOINTS
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS
W. MANUFACTURING PROCESS
A. PRESSURE VESSEL - LECTURE
pDi
σt =
2t
pDi
σl =
4t
Where
σt = circumferential stress, psi
σl = longitudinal stress, psi
p = internal pressure, psi
Di = internal diameter, in.
t = wall thickness, in
1
A. PRESSURE VESSEL - LECTURE
2. Thick-Wall Cylinder
Thick-wall cylinder – is one whose plate thickness is large compared to the diameter of the vessel. The ratio
t/Di is greater than 0.1.
2.1 Lame’s formula
Tangential stress, σt.
pi ri2 − po ro2 + ri 2ro2 (pi − po ) r 2
σt =
ro2 − ri2
Radial stress, σr,
pi ri 2 − po ro2 − ri2 ro2 (pi − po ) r 2
σr =
ro2 − ri2
Where:
ro = outer radius of cylinder, in.
ri = inner radius of cylinder, in.
pi, po = internal and external pressure, respectively, psi
t = wall thickness, ro – ri
σt = tangential stress, psi
σr = radial stress, psi
σt =
( )
pi ro2 + ri 2 − 2po ro2
ro2 − ri2
2
A. PRESSURE VESSEL - LECTURE
σt =
(
2pi ri2 − po ro2 + ri 2 )
ro2 − ri2
Maximum shear stress at the inside surface.
ro2 (pi − po )
τ=
ro2 − ri2
Tangential and radial stress with zero value for the external pressure.
pi ri 2 ro2
σt = 1 +
ro2 − ri 2 r 2
pi ri2 ro2
σr = 1 −
ro2 − ri 2 r 2
Maximum tangential and radial stress with zero value for the external pressure.
σ t (max ) =
(
pi ro2 − ri2 )
ro2 − ri2
σ r (max ) = −p i
3
A. PRESSURE VESSEL - LECTURE
4
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
1. Definition
A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to another. The
power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential force and the resultant torque (or twisting moment)
setup within the shaft permits the power to be transferred to various machines linked up to the shaft.
2. Types of shafts
2.1 Axle – is a stationary member carrying rotating wheels, pulleys, etc.
2.2 Transmission shafts – transmit power between the source and the absorbing power.
2.3 Machine shafts – a shaft which is an integral part of the machine itself. The crank shaft is an example of
machine shaft.
2.4 LIneshaft, or mainshaft is one driven by a primemover.
2.5 Countershafts, jackshafts, or headshafts – are shafts intermediate between a line shaft and a driven
machine.
2.6 Spindles – are short shafts on machines.
3. Stresses in Shafts
3.1 Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (i.e. due to torsional load).
3.2 Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon machine elements like gears,
pulleys etc. as well as due to the weight of the shaft itself.
3.3 Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.
4. Design of shafts
4.1 Strength
4.1.1 Shafts subjected to twisting moment only.
4.1.2 Shafts subjected to bending moment only.
4.1.3 Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments.
4.1.4 Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and bending loads.
4.2 Rigidity
4.2.1 Torsional rigidity
4.2.2 Lateral rigidity
T τ
=
J r
1
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
M σb
=
I y
7.1 Maximum shear theory or Guest’s theory. It is used for ductile materials such as mild steel.
7.2 Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory. It is used for brittle materials such as cast iron.
2
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
2 2
32M 16T
τ max =
1
2
πd
3
πd
16
+ 4 3 = 3
πd
[ M +T ]
2 2
π
×τ max × d 3 = M 2 + T 2
16
σ b (max ) =
132 2
( 2
2 M + M + T
π d3
)
π
32
1
× σ b(max ) × d 3 = M + M 2 + T 2
2
( )
1
( )
The expression M + M 2 + T 2 is known as equivalent bending moment and is denoted by Me .
2
Te = (K mM )2 + (Kt T )2
1
Me = K m M + (K mM )2 + (K t T )2
2
3
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
1 σ e σ es 2
2 2
= +
N σ n 0.5σ n
1 σ e σ es
2 2 2
= +
N σ n 0.577σ n
9. Shaft Subjected to Axial Load in addition to Combined Torsion and Bending Loads
Resultant Stress
M⋅y F
σ1 = +
I A
10. Design of Shafts on the basis of Rigidity
10.1 Torsional rigidity
T ⋅L
θ=
J ⋅G
10.2 Lateral rigidity
From strength of materials
4
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
d 2y M
=
dx 2 EI
11. Shaft Design by PSME Code/Machinery’s Handbook
Allowable stresses:
27.6 MPa (4000 psi) for main power-transmitting shafts.
41.5 MPa (6000 psi) for lineshafts carrying pulleys.
58.7 MPa (8500 psi) for small, short shafts, counter shafts, etc.
IP Units
Torque
63,000P
T=
N
Diameter of solid shaft
5.1T
D=3
σs
321,000P
D=3
Nσ s
SI Units
Torque
9.55 ×10 6 P
T=
N
6
10 P
T=
ω
Diameter of solid shaft
5.1T
D=3
σs
48.7 ×106 P
D=3
Nσ s
5.1×106 P
D=3
ωσ s
11.1 For main power-transmitting shafts.
D 3N
P= in IP units
80
D 3N
P= in SI units
1.755 ×106
Where P = power transmitted, hp or kW
N = angular velocity of the shaft in revolutions per minute (rpm).
D = diameter of the haft, in or mm.
11.2 For lineshafts carrying pulleys.
D 3N
P= in IP units
53.5
5
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
D 3N
P= in SI units
1.1738 ×10 6
11.3 For small, short shafts.
D 3N
P= in IP units
38
D 3N
P= in SI units
0.837 ×10 6
12. Shaft Design by Machinery’s Handbook
12.1 Torsional deflection
According to some authorities, the allowable twist in steel transmission shafting should not
exceed 0.08 degree per foot length of the shaft. The diameter D(in.) of a shaft that will permit a
maximum angular deflection of 0.08 degree per foot of length for a given torque T (in-lb) or for a
given horsepower P can be determined from the formulas:
D = 0.294 T
P
D = 4. 6 4
N
Using metric SI units and assuming an allowable twist in steel transmission shafting of 0.26
degree per meter length,
D = 2.264 T
P
D = 125.74
N
Another rule that has been generally used in mill practice limits the deflection to 1 degree in a
length equal to 20 times the shaft diameter. For a given torque or horsepower, the diameter of
a shaft having this maximum deflection is given by:
D = 0.13 T
P
D = 4. 03
N
12.2 For steel line shafting, it is considered good practice to limit the linear deflection to a maximum
of 0.010 inch per foot of length. The maximum distance in feet between bearings, for average
conditions, in order to avoid excessive linear deflection, is determined by the formulas:
L = 8.953 D 2 for shafting subject to no bending action except its own weight
L = 5.23 D 2 for shafting subject to bending action of pulleys, etc.
in which D = diameter of shaft in inches and L = maximum distance between bearings in feet.
Pulleys should be placed as close to the bearings as possible.
- end -
6
C. KEYS - LECTURE
1. Definitions
Key - is a piece of mild steel inserted between the shaft and hub of the pulley to connect these together in
order to prevent relative motion between them. It is always inserted parallel to the axis of the shaft.
Keyway - is a slot or recess in a shaft and hub of the pulley to accommodate a key.
2. Types of Keys
Flat key – is rectangular in section with the smaller dimension placed in a radial direction and they may or
may not be tapered.
Saddle key – is tapered and are either hollow with a radius of curvature slightly smaller than the shaft radius,
or flat in which case they are assembled on a flat on the shaft. It is used without keyway on the shaft.
Flat saddle key – is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and is flat on the shaft.
1
C. KEYS - LECTURE
Hollow saddle key – is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and the bottom of the key is shaped to
fit the curved surface of the shaft.
Woodruff key – is a key which fits into a semi-cylindrical seat on the shaft.
Feather key – is a key that allows the hub to move along the shaft but prevents rotation on the shaft.
Kennedy key – is a tapered square key, with or without gib heads, assembled with the diagonal dimension
virtually in a circumferential direction. It is also called tangential key.
2
C. KEYS - LECTURE
Rollpin – is a key driven or pressed into a hole that is small enough to close the slit, assembled in radial
direction.
Splines – is a key made integral with the shaft which fits in the keyways broached in the hub.
3
C. KEYS - LECTURE
4. Proportions of key
The usual proportions of the square key are
D
w =t =
4
Typical hub lengths fall between 1.25D and 2.4D.
For the same material and w = t = D/4, σ c = 2τ , L = 1.1571D.
- End -
4
D. COUPLINGS - LECTURE
1. Definition
Shaft couplings are used in machinery for several purposes, the most common of which are the following:
a. To provide for the connection of shafts of units that are manufactured separately such as a motor and
generator and to provide for disconnection for repairs or alternations.
b. To provide for misalignment of the shafts or to introduce mechanical flexibility.
c. To reduce the transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another.
d. To introduce protection against overloads.
e. To alter the vibration characteristics of rotating units.
Note : A coupling is termed as a device used to make permanent or semi-permanent connection where as a
clutch permits rapid connection or disconnection at the will of the operator.
2.1.2 Compression coupling utilizes two split cones which are drawn together by the bolts in order to
produce a wedging action which tightens the parts of the coupling and the shafts.
1
D. COUPLINGS - LECTURE
2
D. COUPLINGS - LECTURE
Torque
P FD
T= =
2π n 2
Where
F = total transmitted load on bolts
D = diameter of bolt circle
d = bolt diameter
t = thickness
n1 = number of bolts
Fb = Force per bolts
F
Fb =
n1
Shear stress in bolts
F 4F
τ = b = b2
As π d
Compressive stress
F
σc = b
td
- End -
3
E. FLYWHEELS - LECTURE
1. Definition of Flywheel
A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir which stores energy during the period when the
supply of energy is more than the requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement of
energy is more than supply.
A flywheel is a rotating member that acts as a storage reservoir for energy when work is not
“consumed” at as fast a rate as the power is supplied.
2. Kinetic Energy, KE
Iω 2 mv s2
KE = =
2 2
∆KE =
( =
) ( =
) (
I ω12 − ω 22 mk 2 ω12 − ω 22 m v s21 − v s22)
2 2 2
Where:
I = mk2 = moment of inertia
m = mass of flywheel = W/g
r = radius of gyration
ω1 = maximum angular velocity, rad/sec = 2pn1/60
ω2 = minimum angular velocity, rad/sec = 2pn2/60
vs1 = maximum speed = πDn1
vs2 = minimum speed = πDn2
3. Coefficient of fluctuation, Cf
Maximum fluctuation of speed - the difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle.
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed - the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed.
ω − ω 2 n1 − n2 v s1 − v s 2
Cf = 1 = =
ω n vs
2(ω1 − ω 2 ) 2(n1 − n2 ) 2(v s1 − v s 2 )
Cf = = =
ω1 + ω 2 n1 + n2 v s1 + v s 2
1
E. FLYWHEELS - LECTURE
4. Weight of Flywheel, W
Engineers frequently neglect the effect of the hub and arms.
W = πDbtρ
Where
D = mean diameter
b = width of flywheel
t = thickness of flywheel
ρ = density of flywheel = 72,00 kg/m3 for cast-iron = 7,860 kg/m3 for steel
Also
g∆KE
W=
C f v s2
5. Stress in flywheel
σ = ρ v s2
Rules of thumb from experience specify the conventional limits of operation; 6000 fpm for cast iron and
10,000 fpm for cast steel.
- End -
2
F. SCREW FASTENINGS - LECTURE
1. Screw Fastenings
Screw fastening – is composed by a bolt and nut.
Screw thread - is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface.
2. Definitions
Major diameter – is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. The screw is specified by this
diameter. It is also known as outside or nominal diameter.
Minor diameter – is the smallest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. It is known as core or root
diameter.
Pitch diameter – is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, on a cylindrical screw thread, the surface of which would
pass through the thread at such points as to make equal the width thread and the width of the spaces between the
threads. It is also called an effective diameter. It is the mean diameter of major and minor diameters.
Pitch – is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the next. This is measured in an
axial direction between corresponding points in the same axial plane.
1
Pitch =
No. of threads per unit length of screw
Lead – is the distance between two corresponding points on the same helix. It may also be defined as the distance
which a screw thread advances axially in one rotation of the nut. Lead is equal to the pitch in case of single start
thread, it is twice the pitch in double start, thrice the pitch in triple start and so on.
Crest – is the top surface of the thread.
Root – is the bottom surface created by the two adjacent flanks of the thread.
Depth of thread – is the perpendicular distance between the crest and root.
Flank – it the surface joining the crest and root.
Angle of thread – is the angle included by the flanks of the thread.
Slope – it is half the pitch of the thread.
1
F. SCREW FASTENINGS - LECTURE
Acme thread.
2
F. SCREW FASTENINGS - LECTURE
3
F. SCREW FASTENINGS - LECTURE
7. Locking Devices
a. Jam nut or lock nut
b. Castle nut
c. Sawn
d. Penn, ring or grooved nut
e. Locking with pin
f. Locking with plate
g. Spring lock washer
8. Design Stress:
σy 3
σd = (As )12 D < in
6 4
σ d = 0.4σ y D > in
3
4
Where
σy = yield strength of material, ksi
σd = design tensile strength, ksi
As = stress area, in2
D = nominal diameter, in.
9. Tightening stress, initial tension & tightening torque
kb
∆Fb = Fe
k b + kc
AE
kc = c c
L
AbE b
kb =
L
Bolts:
kb
Ft = Fi + Fe
kb + kc
Ft
σt =
As
Tube or connected parts:
kc
Fc = Fi − Fe
k b + kc
Fc
σc =
Ac
For zero stress in the tube
k +k
Fo = b c Fi
kc
5
F. SCREW FASTENINGS - LECTURE
The following empirical formula was established for the working strength of bolts used for packed joints or joints
where the elasticity of a gasket is greater than the elasticity of the studs or bolts.
( )
W = σ t 0.55D 2 − 0.25D lbs
where
W = working strength of bolt or permissible load, in pounds, after allowance is made for initial load due to
tightening;
σt = allowable working stress in tension, pounds per square inch; and
D = nominal outside diameter of stud or bolt, inches.
Where:
P = horsepower transmitted, hp6.
T = torque, in-lb
D = shaft diameter, in
n = speed, rpm
d = set-screw diameter
- end -
6
G. POWER SCREWS - LECTURE
1. Definition
Power screws (Translation screws) – are used to move machine parts against resisting forces, for instance, in a
screw-operated tensile-testing machine, jack, press, or lead screw of a lathe.
From Faires,
h = 0.5p
2.3 Buttress threads.
From Faires,
h = 0.663p
1
G. POWER SCREWS - LECTURE
Pitch
1
Pc = P =
No. of threads per inch
Lead Angle
Lead
λ = tan−1
π Dm
1
Dm = (Size + Dr )
2
Where Dm is the mean thread diameter
2
G. POWER SCREWS - LECTURE
ideal effort
e=
actual effort
Efficiency of square thread considering only the screw friction.
tan λ tan λ (1 − f tan λ )
e= =
tan(β + λ ) tan λ + f
Efficiency of square thread considering screw friction and collar friction
tan λ tan λ (1 − f tan λ )
e= =
tan(β + λ ) fD
tan λ + f + c c (1 − f tan λ )
Dm
Where Dc = Ro + Ri
Efficiency of acme thread considering screw friction and collar friction
tan λ (cosφ − f tan λ )
e=
fD
tan λ cosφ + f cos φ + c c (cos φ − f tan λ )
Dm
6. Condition for self-locking screw
The condition for self-locking of a square thread is that β must be greater than λ, or that tan β (the coefficient of
friction) must be greater than tan λ (the tangent of the lead angle).
Self-locking Screw, β > λ
Torque to lower the load
WDm
T= tan(β − λ )
2
- End -
3
H. SPRING - LECTURE
1. Definition
SPRING – is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded and to recover its original shape
when the load is removed.
2. Application:
2.1 To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in car springs, railway buffers, air-craft
landing gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers.
2.2 To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring-loaded valves.
2.3 To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams and followers.
2.4 To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators.
2.5 To store energy, as in watches, toys, etc.
Closely coiled – when the spring is coiled so close that the plane containing each turn is nearly at right angles to
the axis of the helix and the wire is subjected to torsion. Helix angle is usually less than 10 degrees.
Open coiled – is coiled in such a way that there is a gap between the two consecutive turns, as a result of which
the helix angle is large.
3.2 Conical and volute springs – are used in special applications where a telescoping spring or a spring with a spring
rate that increases with the load is desired. The conical spring is wound with a uniform pitch whereas the volute
springs are wound in the form of paraboloid with constant pitch and lead angles.
1
H. SPRING - LECTURE
3.3 Torsional springs – are springs that may be of helical or spiral type.
Helical type – may be used only in applications where the load tends to wing up the spring and are used in
various electrical mechanisms.
Spiral type – is used where the load tends to increase the number of coils and when made of flat strip are used
in watches and clocks.
3.4 Laminated or leaf springs (flat spring or carriage spring) – consist of a number of flat plates (known as leaves) of
varying lengths held together by means of clamps and bolts.
2
H. SPRING - LECTURE
3.5 Disc or Belleville springs – consist of a number of conical discs held together against slipping by a central bolt or
tube. These springs are used in applications where high spring rates and compact spring units are required.
3.6 Special purpose springs – these springs are air or liquid springs, rubber springs, ring springs etc.
The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires containing 0.60 to 0.70 per cent carbon and 0.60
to 1.0 per cent manganese. Music wire is used for small springs. Non-ferrous materials like phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper, monel metal, brass etc., may be used in special cases to increase fatigue resistance and corrosion
resistance.
The helical springs are either cold formed or hot formed depending upon the size of the wire. Wires of small sizes
(less than 10 mm diameter) are usually wound cold whereas larger size wires are wound hot. The strength of the
wires varies with size, smaller size wires have greater strength and less ductility, due to the greater degree of cold
working.
Severe service – means rapid continuous loading where the rate of minimum to maximum load (or stress) is one-half
or less, as in automotive valve springs.
Average service – includes the same stress range as in severe service but with only intermittent operation, as in
engine governor springs and automobile suspension springs.
Light service – includes springs subjected to loads that are static or very infrequently varied, as in safety valve
springs.
5.1 Solid length – is the product of total number of coils and the diameter of the wire.
5.2 Free length – is the length of the spring in the free or unloaded condition. It is equal to the solid length plus the
maximum deflection or compression of the spring and the clearance between the adjacent coils (when fully
compressed).
3
H. SPRING - LECTURE
5.3 Spring index – is defined as the ratio of the mean diameter of the coil to the diameter of the wire.
Spring index, C = D d
Where D = Mean diameter of the coil, and
d = Diameter of the wire.
5.4 Spring rate (stiffness or spring constant or spring scale) – is defined as the load required per unit deflection of
the spring.
Spring rate, k = F δ
Where F = Load,and
δ = Deflection of the spring.
5.5 Pitch – is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in uncompressed state.
Inactive coils – part of the coil which is in contact with the seat and does not contribute to spring action.
Active turns – turns which impart spring action.
4
H. SPRING - LECTURE
5
H. SPRING - LECTURE
8F ⋅ D 8F ⋅ C
τ =K× 3
=K×
πd π d2
4C − 1 0.615
Where K = + = Wahl’s stress factor
4C − 4 C
K = K S KC
6
H. SPRING - LECTURE
Angular deflection
D
F × (π D ⋅ n )
T ⋅l 2 16F ⋅ D 2 ⋅ n
θ= = =
J⋅G π G ⋅d 4
× d 4G
32
Axial deflection
16F ⋅ D 2 ⋅ n D 8F ⋅ D 3 ⋅ n 8F ⋅ C 3 ⋅ n W 2 1 1
δ= × = = v = mv 2 = Fδ
G ⋅d 4 2 G ⋅d4 G ⋅d 2g 2 2
1
W (h + δ ) = Fδ
2 1 1 1 1
= + + +L
k k1 k2 k3
14. Spring in Parallel
k = k1 + k2 + k3 + L
- end -
7
I. BELTS - LECTURE
1. Definition
The belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys which rotate at the same speed
or at different speeds.
2. Types of Belts
2.1 Flat belt - is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a moderate amount of power is to be
transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more than 8 metres apart.
2.2 V- belt - is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted,
from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are very near to each other.
2.3 Circular belt or rope - is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a great amount of power is to be
transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are more than 8 metres apart.
1
I. BELTS - LECTURE
F1 = σbt
12 ρv s2 e fθ − 1
F1 − F2 = bt σ − fθ
e
32 .2
Where:
F1 = is the maximum tension or the force on the approaching belt, lb.
F2 = is the force on the receding side, lb.
Fc = is the load on the belt due to the centrifugal force. Lb
σ = design stress,psi.
ρ = density of belt, lb/cu. in. for design, use ρ = 0.035 for leather and ρ = 0.045 lb for flat tuber belting.
vs = speed in fps.
f = coefficient of friction.
θ = angle of contact’
6. Coefficient of Friction
For normal design conditions for flat belts use the following:
Leather on iron or steel, f = 0.3
Leather on paper pulley, f = 0.5
8. Belt speed.
Experience suggest that the most economical designs are obtained for a belt speed of 4000 to 4500 fpm, but of
course, any particular application may require some other speed.
2
I. BELTS - LECTURE
9. Length of Belts
9.1 Open Belt Drive.
L ≈ 2C + 1.57(D2 + D1 ) +
(D2 − D1 )2
4C
Where;
C is the center distance,
D2 is the diameter of the larger pulley,
D1 is the diameter of the smaller pulley
L ≈ 2C + 1.57(D2 + D1 ) +
(D2 + D1 )2
4C
Where;
C is the center distance,
D2 is the diameter of the larger pulley,
D1 is the diameter of the smaller pulley
R+r
θ = π + 2sin −1 radians
C
Where:
R = the radius (D2 = diameter) of the larger pulley,
r = the radius (D1 = diameter) of the smaller pulley,
C = the distance between pulley centers, and
θ = the angle of contact in radians.
In general, design equation used the minimum value of fθ, which is the smaller pulley when the pulleys are of the
same materials.
13. Rated Capacity of Leather Belts (ALBA Tables or Table 17.1 and Table 17.2 by V.M. Faires).
Which is the nominal horsepower that the belt is to transmit (or the nameplate horsepower for an electric
motor),and
b in. is the belt width
Cm is the correction factor for the type of drive; except for electric motors, use Cm = 1;
Cp is the correction factor for the size of the smallest pulley; the smaller the pulleys, the greater is the
flexure
Cf is the correction factor for the environmental conditions, and more than one of these factors may be
apply; thus a vertical drive in a dusty atmosphere and subjected to shock loads would correspond to a
total factor of Cf = (0.83)(0.74)(0.71).
4
I. BELTS - LECTURE
15. V-Belts.
V-belt is mostly used in factories and workshops where a great amount of power is to be transmitted from one
pulley to another when the two pulleys are very near to each other.
16. Standard Multiple V-Belt Dimension
5
I. BELTS - LECTURE
Where,
Kθ = arc-of-contact factor (Table 17.5, Faires or Table 3.8, PSME Code 2008 pg. 25).
KL = length correction factor (Table 17.5, Faires or Table 3.5.7, PSME Code 2008 pg. 24).
- End -
6
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
1. General
The chains are made up of number of rigid links which are hinged together by pin joints in order to provide the
necessary flexibility for wrapping round the driving and driven wheels. These wheels have projecting teeth of special
profile and fit into the corresponding recesses in the links of the chain as shown in Figure 1. The toothed wheels are
known as sprocket wheels or simply sprockets. The sprockets and the chain are thus constrained to move together
without slipping and ensures perfect velocity ratio.
These chains are used for transmission of power, when the distance between the centers of shafts is short.
These chains have provision for efficient lubrication.
1
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
2
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
Chain
25 35 41 40 50 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 240
no.
Pitch ¼ 3/8 ½ ½ 5/8 ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 1¾ 2 2¼ 2½ 3
3
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
6. Types of Lubrication.
Type I – manual lubrication – oil is applied periodically with a brush or spout can, preferably at least once every 8
hours of operation, (vmax = 300 fpm).
Type II – drip lubrication – oil drops are directed between the link plate edges from a drip lubricator, (vmax = 1300
fpm).
Type III – bath or disc lubrication – with bath lubrication the lower strand of chain runs through a sump of oil in the
drive housing. The oil level should reach the pitch line of the chain at its lowest point while operating. With disc
lubrication, the chain operates above the oil level. The disc picks up oil from the sump and deposits it onto the chain,
usually by means of trough. (vmax = 2300 fpm).
Type IV – oil stream lubrication – the lubricant is usually supplied by a circulating pump capable of supplying each
chain drive with a continuous stream of oil.
4
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
The center distance for chain drives may of course be relatively short, but a minimum wrap of 120o is desirable;
this condition is inevitably met when mw < 3. An average good center distance would be D2 + D1/2, where D2 is the
pitch diameter of the larger sprocket, D1 of the smaller. The approximate length of chain is
N2 + N1 (N 2 − N1 )2
L ≈ 2C + + pitches ,
2 40C
Where C is in pitches. The length should be an even number of pitches to avoid using an offset link. This is the
usual matter of adjusting chain length, center distance, and sprocket sizes so that everything fits.
- End -
6
K. WIRE ROPES - LECTURE
1. Definitions.
1.1 Wire Ropes – are made from cold-drawn wires that are first wrapped into strands; the strands are then
wrapped into helices about a core or central elements, which is usually hemp or pulp.
1.2 Regular Lay – in which the wires and strands are twisted in opposite directions.
1.3 Lang Lay – in which the wires and strands are twisted in the same direction.
1.4 Non-preformed – the wires and strands are bent into place, resulting in high stresses in straight, unloaded rope.
1.5 Preformed – the individual strands having been mechanically shaped ahead of time into the helical configuration
they have in the rope.
2.1 6 x7 – being made of heavy wire, provides maximum resistance to abrasion and wear. Used for haulages, rigging,
guard rails.
2.2 6 x 19 – being a compromise of flexibility and wear resistance, is one of the most popular types. Uses, including
all various cross sections: scraper and shovel cables, draglines, logging ropes, haulage, hoists.
2.3 6 x 37 – is an extra-flexible rope and therefore useful where abrasion is not severe and where relatively sharp
bends must be tolerated. Used for winch lines, hawsers, overhead cranes, and hoists.
2
K. WIRE ROPES - LECTURE
Ds = sheave diameter, in
p = bearing pressure per square inch of projected area of the rope on the sheave.
p/σu = values taken from Figure 17.30 (Faires).
3
K. WIRE ROPES - LECTURE
Maximum value of the ratio of the forces (at the point of limiting friction), with negligible centrifugal effects.
F1
= e fθ
F2
Values of f:
Iron or steel sheave: greasy rope, 0.07; wet rope, 0.085; dry rope, 0.12
Wood-lined sheave: greasy rope, 0.14; wet rope, 0.17; dry rope, 0.235
Rubber- or leather-lined sheave: greasy rope, 0.205; wet rope, 0.4; dry rope, 0.495
4
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
1. Gears
Gears – are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth. The gear drive is
therefore positive, which gives it an advantage in motion-transmission performance over friction drives such as
friction wheels and belts.
2. Definitions
Spur gears – are toothed wheels whose tooth elements are straight and parallel to the shaft axis; they are used to
transmit motion and power between parallel shafts.
Pitch circle - It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same motion as the actual gear.
Pitch circle diameter - It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually specified by the pitch circle
diameter. It is also called as pitch diameter.
Pitch surface – It is the surface of the rolling discs which the meshing gears have replaced at the pitch circle.
Addendum – It is the radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum – It is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the root circle, that is, to the bottom of the tooth space.
Addendum circle – It is the circle that bounds at the outer ends of the teeth. It is also called outside circle.
Dedendum circle – It is the circle that bounds the bottoms of the teeth. It is also called root circle.
Whole depth (Total depth) – It is the radial distance between the addendum and the dedendum circle of a gear. It
is equal to the sum of the addendum and dedendum.
Working depth – It is radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance circle. It is equal to the sum of the
addendum of the two meshing gears.
Clearance – It is the radial distance between the working-depth circle and the root circle; it is the dedendum minus
the mating addendum.
Tooth thickness – It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.
Tooth space – It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.
Backlash - It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as measured on the pitch circle.
1
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
Face of the tooth – It is surface of the tooth between the pitch cylinder and the addendum cylinder.
Flank – is the surface of the tooth between the pitch and root cylinders.
Profile – It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth.
Fillet radius – It is the radius that connects the root circle to the profile of the tooth.
Path of contact – It is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from the beginning to the end of
engagement.
Length of the path of contact – It is the length of the common normal cut-off by the addendum circles of the wheel
and pinion.
Arc of contact – It is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to the end of engagement of a
given pair of teeth.
Arc of approach – It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning of the engagement to the pitch point.
Arc of recess – It is the portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to the end of the engagement of a pair of
teeth.
Angle of action – is the angle through which the gear turns from the time a particular pair of teeth come into contact
until they go out of contact.
Angle of approach – is the angle through which the gear turns from the time a particular pair of teeth come in to
come into contact until they are in contact at the pitch point.
Angle of recess – is the angle through which the gear turns from the time a given pair of teeth are in contact at the
pitch point until they pass out of mesh.
2
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
Velocity ratio, mw –is the angular velocity of the driver divided by the angular velocity of the driven gear.
Gear ratio, mg – is the number of teeth in the gear divided by the number of teeth in the pinion.
Contact ratio, mc – the ratio of the length of arc of contact to the circular pitch.
Degree of involute – is used to define the base circle for a particular pitch circle.
Pressure angle or angle of obliquity – It is the angle between the common normal to two gear teeth at the point of
contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. It is usually denoted by φ. The standard pressure angles are 14
1/2° and 20°.
3. Pitch
Pitch – is a measure of the spacing, and usually also of the size, of the tooth.
Circular pitch, Pc – is the distance in inches measured along the pitch circle from a point on one tooth to the
corresponding point on an adjacent tooth.
πD
Pc =
Ng
3
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
Diametral pitch, Pd – is the ratio of the number of teeth per inch of pitch diameter.
Ng
Pd =
D
Module – It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in mm to the number of teeth. It is usually denoted by mo.
D
mo =
Ng
Base pitch, Pb – (involute gearing only) – is the distance in inches measured along the base circle from a point on one
tooth to the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth. It is also the distance between parallel profiles on adjacent
teeth measured along the generating line.
π Db π D cosφ
Pb = = = Pc osφ
Ng Ng
Where,
Db = the diameter of the base circle.
D = the pitch diameter.
Pitch angle – is the angle subtended by an arc on the pitch circle equal in length to the circular pitch.
4. Center Distance
1
C = (Dp + Dg )
2
Where,
Dp = diameter of pinion
Dg = diameter of gear
5. Pitch-line speed
π Dp np π Dg ng
vm = =
12 12
Where,
np = speed of pinion, rpm
ng = speed of gear, rpm
Dp = diameter of pinion, in
Dg = diameter of gear, in
vm = pitch-line speed, fpm
4
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
np
Speed ratio =
ng
Np
Gear ratio =
Ng
Where,
Np = number of teeth in the pinion
Ng = number of teeth in the gear
Stub-tooth system
Item Formula
Working depth 1.6/Pd
Addendum, a 0.8/Pd
Dedendum, d 1/Pd = Pc/π
Clearance (min.) 0.2/Pd
Whole Depth 1.8/Pd
Pressure angle 20o
8. Transmitted Load
Transmitted load – is the average transmitted load on the teeth.
33,000hp
Ft = in English units.
vm
Or
Power
Ft =
Pitch − line speed
5
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
6
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
σ 2 sinφ 1 1
K g = +
1.4 E p E g
2Dg 2Ng 2 mg
Q= = =
Dg + Dp Ng + N p mg + 1
Where;
σ = surface endurance strength, psi
Dp = diameter of pinion, in
b = face width, in
Kg = is a material factor
Fw ≥ Fd
σ 2 sinφ 1 1
K g = +
1.4 E p E g
2Dg 2Ng 2 mg
Q= = =
Dg − Dp Ng − N p mg − 1
7
M. HELICAL GEARS - LECTURE
1. Definitions
Helical gears – are toothed wheels whose tooth elements are cut in the form of a helix about an axis of rotation and
are used to connect parallel shafts.
Herringbone gears – are double helical gears consisting of right-hand and left-hand helices to absorb the axial thrust
within the gear and are used to connect parallel shafts.
Crossed helical gears – helical gears mounted on non-parallel shafts.
Helix angle, ψ – is the angle between a tangent to the pitch helix and an intersecting axial element of the pitch
cylinder.
Base helix angle, ψ b – is the angle between a tangent to the base helix and an element of the base cylinder (which
contains the base circles).
Face contact ratio – is the advance of the tooth in the line of face width divided by the circular pitch.
Face width, b:
b ≥ 2Pa, bmin = 1.15Pa
Where Pa is the axial pitch.
3. Pitches
The pitch of a helical gear is the pitch in the diametral (transverse) plane, Pc for circular pitch, Pd for diametral pitch.
Normal circular pitch, Pcn – is the distance between the teeth measured on the pitch surface along a normal to the
helix.
π D cosψ P Nt
Pcn = Pc cosψ = and Pdn = d =
Nt cosψ D cosψ
Where Pdn Is the normal diametral pitch and Nt is the number of teeth.
Axial pitch, Pa – is the distance between corresponding points on adjacent teeth measured in an axial direction.
P πD π
Pa = c = =
tanψ Nt tanψ Pd tanψ
Fd = Ft +
( )
0.05v m Ft + Cb cos 2 ψ
lb
+ (F + Cb cos ψ ) 2 12
0.05v m t
1. Definition.
Bevel Gears – are used to connect intersecting shafts, usually but not necessarily at 90o.
2. Terms used in Bevel Gears
Cone center – It is the apex of the pitch cone. It may be defined as that point where the axes of two mating gears
intersect each other.
Pitch angle – It is the angle made by the pitch line with the axis of the shaft.
Cone distance – It is the length of the pitch cone element. It is also called as a pitch cone radius.
Addendum angle – It is the angle subtended by the addendum of the tooth at the cone centre.
Dedendum angle – It is the angle subtended by the dedendum of the tooth at the cone centre.
Face angle – It is the angle subtended by the face of the tooth at the cone center. The face angle is equal to the pitch
angle plus addendum angle.
Root angle – It is the angle subtended by the root of the tooth at the cone center. It is equal to the pitch angle minus
dedendum angle.
Back (or normal) cone – It is an imaginary cone, perpendicular to the pitch cone at the end of the tooth.
1
N. BEVEL GEARS - LECTURE
Back cone distance – It is the length of the back cone. It is also called back cone radius.
Backing – It is the distance of the pitch point from the back of the boss, parallel to the pitch point of the gear.
Crown height – It is the distance of the crown point from the cone centre, parallel to the axis of the gear.
Mounting height – It is the distance of the back of the boss from the cone centre.
Outside or addendum cone diameter – It is the maximum diameter of the teeth of the gear. It is equal to the
diameter of the blank from which the gear can be cut.
Spiral bevel gears – are those having curved oblique teeth on which contact begins gradually and continues
smoothly from end to end.
Zerol bevel gears – whose teeth are curved but lie in the same direction as the teeth of straight bevel gears.
Hypoid gears – resembles spiral bevel gears except that the shaft axes are offset, not intersecting. Instead of pitch
cone, the pitch surface is a hyperboloid.
Miter gears – are pair of bevel gears of the same size that are on shafts intersecting at right angles. They are equal in
pitch angle.
Angular gears – are bevel gears mounted on intersecting shafts at angles of other than 90o.
Crown gear s – are bevel gears in which the pitch angle is 90o; that is the pitch cone has become a plane.
5. Pitch angle γ.
2
N. BEVEL GEARS - LECTURE
(
Where, rb L = rp rg , L = rp2 + rg2 )
12
3
N. BEVEL GEARS - LECTURE
50 + v 1m2
VF =
50
For bevel,
12
78 + v1m2
VF =
78
4
O. WORM GEARS - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Worm gears – are widely used for transmitting power at high velocity ratios between non-intersecting shafts that
are generally, but not necessarily, at right angles.
Lead – It is the linear distance through which a point on a thread moves ahead in one revolution of the worm. For
single start threads, lead is equal to the axial pitch, but for multiple start threads, lead is equal to the product of axial
pitch and number of starts.
Lead angle – It is the angle between the tangent to the thread helix on the pitch cylinder and the plane normal to
the axis of the worm.
Tooth pressure angle – It is measured in a plane containing the axis of the worm and is equal to one-half the thread
profile angle.
Normal pitch – It is the distance measured along the normal to the threads between two corresponding points on
two adjacent threads of the worm.
Helix angle – It is the angle between the tangent to the thread helix on the pitch cylinder and the axis of the worm.
Velocity ratio – It is the ratio of the speed of worm in r.p.m. to the speed of the worm gear in r.p.m.
1
O. WORM GEARS - LECTURE
Pa = Pc
Pcn = Pa cos λ = Pc cos λ
Lead L
tan λ = =
π Dw π Dw
λ +ψ w = 90o
λg +ψ = 90o
If the shaft angle is 90o.
λ = ψ , λg = ψ w
L = Nt Pa
Ng Dg cos λ Dg
mw = = =
Nt Dw sin λ Dw tan λ
Where
Pa = axial pitch
Pc = circular pitch
Pcn = normal pitch
λ = lead angle of the worm thread
ψw = helix angle of the worm thread
λg = lead angle of the gear
ψ = helix angle of the gear
Dw = diameter of the worm
Dg = diameter of the gear
L = lead
Nt = number of threads (or starts) on the worm
Ng = number of teeth on the gear
mw = velocity ratio
2
O. WORM GEARS - LECTURE
33,000hp
Ft =
v mg
Where,
Ft – is the transmitted load, lb.
hp – is the output power.
vmg – is the pitch-line speed of the gear, fpm.
3
P. BRAKES - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Brakes – are friction devices used to regulate the motion of bodies (slowing them down, holding their speed
constant, holding them at rest, etc.
Single block or shoe brake – consists of a block or shoe which is pressed against the rim of a revolving brake wheel
drum.
Double Block or Shoe Brake – consists of two brake blocks applied at the opposite ends of a diameter of the wheel
which eliminate or reduces the unbalanced force on the shaft.
Band brake – consists of a flexible band of leather, one or more ropes, or a steel lined with friction material, which
embraces a part of the circumference of the drum.
Simple band brake – in which one end of the band is attached to a fixed pin or fulcrum of the lever while the other
end is attached to the lever at a distance from the fulcrum.
Differential band brake – in which the tension in the band assists in applying the brake.
2. Types of Brakes
The brakes, according to the means used for transforming the energy by the braking element, are classified as :
1. Hydraulic brakes e.g. pumps or hydrodynamic brake and fluid agitator,
2. Electric brakes e.g. generators and eddy current brakes, and
3. Mechanical brakes.
The mechanical brakes, according to the direction of acting force, may be divided into the following two groups :
a. Radial brakes. In these brakes, the force acting on the brake drum is in radial direction. The radial brakes
may be sub-divided into external brakes and internal brakes. According to the shape of the friction element,
these brakes may be block or shoe brakes and band brakes.
b. Axial brakes. In these brakes, the force acting on the brake drum is in axial direction. The axial brakes may
be disc brakes and cone brakes. The analysis of these brakes is similar to clutches.
1
P. BRAKES - LECTURE
The braking torque for a pivoted block or shoe brake (i.e. when 2θ > 60°) is given by
D 4 sinθ
T = fP
2 2θ + sin 2θ
Tangential frictional force,
4 sinθ
F = fP
2θ + sin 2θ
From the equilibrium of forces
A(a + b ) − Pb − Fc = 0
f ′AD(a + b )
T=
2(b + f ′c )
Where,
P = operating force on block in radial direction.
D = diameter of wheel.
T = torque on wheel.
θ = one-half angle of contact surface of block
b = width of wheel
f = coefficient of friction for materials of block and wheel
f’ = equivalent coefficient of friction
p = pressure between block and wheel
A = applied force to produce a particular braking force F.
2Ta
A=
(
D(a + b) e fθ − 1 )
For clockwise rotation, F2 > F1. Exchange location of F1 and F2 in the figure.
3
Q. CLUTCHES - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Clutch – is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that the driven shaft may be
started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft.
Clutch – is a friction devices used to connect shafts (speeding up the driven bodies to the same angular velocity as
the driving shaft).
2. Types of clutches
2.1 Positive clutches – are used when a positive drive is required.
Jaw clutch – permits one shaft to drive another through a direct contact of interlocking jaws. It consists of two
halves, one of which is permanently fastened to driving shaft by a sunk key. The other half of the clutch is
movable and it is free to slide axially on the driven shaft, but it is prevented from turning relatively to its shaft by
means of feather key.
2.2 Friction clutches – has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts and machines which must
be started and stopped frequently.
1
Q. CLUTCHES - LECTURE
2
Q. CLUTCHES - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Bearing – a machine element which support another moving machine element. It permits a relative motion between
the contact surfaces of the members, while carrying the load.
2. Classification of Bearings
2.1 Depending upon the direction of load to be supported
2.1.1 Radial bearings – where the load acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the moving element.
2.1.2 Thrust bearings - where the load acts along the axis of rotation.
2.2 Depending upon the nature of contact.
2.2.1 Sliding contact bearings – where the sliding takes place along the surfaces of contact between the
moving element and the fixed element.
2.2.2 Rolling contact bearings – where the steel balls or rollers are interposed between the moving and fixed
elements. The balls offer rolling friction at two points for each ball or roller.
4. Properties of Lubricants
4.1 Viscosity - is the measure of degree of fluidity of a liquid. It is a physical property by virtue of which an oil is able
to form, retain and offer resistance to shearing a buffer film-under heat and pressure.
The viscosity of the lubricant is measured by Saybolt universal viscometer. It determines the time required for a
standard volume of oil at a certain temperature to flow under a certain head through a tube of standard
diameter and length. The time so determined in seconds is the Saybolt universal viscosity. In order to convert
Saybolt universal viscosity in seconds to absolute viscosity (centipoise), the following formula may be used:
1
R. BEARINGS - LECTURE
180
Z = SG 0.22 S −
S
Where
Z = is the absolute viscosity at temperature t, centipoises
S = Saybolt Universal viscosity, sec
SG = specific gravity at temperature t
Viscosity conversion:
6.9 x 106 centipoises = 1 reyn = 1 lb-sec/in2.
4.2 Specific gravity (SG) – this property has no relation to lubricating value but is useful in changing the kinematic
viscosity to absolute viscosity. Mathematically
Absolute viscosity in centipoises = SG x kinematic viscosity in centistokes
SGt = SG60 − 0.00035(t − 60)
Where:
SGt = specific gravity at temperature t
SG60 = specific gravity at temperature 60 F
t = temperature of oil
4.3 Viscosity index – is used to denote the degree of variation of viscosity with temperature.
4.4 Flash point – is the lowest temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapor to support a momentary flash
without actually setting fire to the oil when a flame is brought within 6 mm at the surface of the oil.
4.5 Fire point – is the temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapor to burn it continuously when ignited.
4.6 Pour point or freezing point – is the temperature at which oil will cease to flow when cooled.
5.6 Attitude or eccentricity ratio, ε. It is the ratio of the eccentricity to the radial clearance.
e c −h h 2h
ε = = r o =1− o =1− o
cr cr cr cd
5.7 Short and long bearing.
If the ratio of the length to the diameter of the journal (i.e. L / d) is less than 1, then the bearing is said to be
short bearing. On the other hand, if L / d is greater than 1, then the bearing is known as long bearing.
6. Dimensional Analysis
ho µn r
2
= φ s = φ (S )
cr p c r
Coefficient of friction
D r µn r
2
f = f = φ s = φ (S )
cd cr p cr
Where,
φ = is used to mean a function of
ho = minimum fim thickness, in.
cr = radial clearance, in.
cd = diametral clearance, in.
µ = absolute viscosity, reyns or lb-sec/in2.
ns = angular speed of the journal, rps
r = journal radius, in.
D = journal diameter, in.
p = unit load or bearing pressure, psi = W / (LD) = W (2rL).
L = bearing length, in.
W = bearing load, lb.
S = Sommerfield number or bearing characteristic number, dimensionless.
2 2
µns r µns D
S= =
p cr p cd
7. Petroff’s Equation.
µAv µπDLvips 4 µπ 2r 3Lns
T f = Fr = r= r= in − lb.
h cd 2 cr
3
R. BEARINGS - LECTURE
The ball and roller bearings consist of an inner race which is mounted on the shaft or journal and an outer race
which is carried by the housing or casing.
4
R. BEARINGS - LECTURE
Where,
Fx – is the radial load
Fz – is the thrust load
Cr – is a rotation factor (Cr = 1 for inner race rotating, Cr = 1.2 for outer race rotating).
Ct – is a thrust factor.
Q - is from Table 12.2 of Faires.
5
S. RIVETED JOINTS - LECTURE
1. Definition
A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical portion of the rivet is called shank or body
and lower portion of shank is known as tail. The rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates
such as in structural work, ship building, bridges, tanks and boiler shells. The riveted joints are widely used for
joining light metals.
2. Types of Riveted Joints, depending upon the way in which the plates are connected.
2.1 Lap Joint - is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two plates are then riveted together.
2.2 Butt joint - is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting (i.e. touching) each other and a cover
plate (i.e. strap) is placed either on one side or on both sides of the main plates. The cover plate is then riveted
together with the main plates.
2.2.1 Single strap butt joint - the edges of the main plates butt against each other and only one cover plate is
placed on one side of the main plates and then riveted together.
2.2.2 Double strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against each other and two cover plates are
placed on both sides of the main plates and then riveted together.
3. Types of riveted , joints depending upon the number of rows of the rivets.
3.1 Single riveted joint is that in which there is a single row of rivets in a lap joint and there is a single row of rivets
on each side in a butt joint.
3.2 Double riveted joint is that in which there are two rows of rivets in a lap joint and there are two rows of rivets on
each side in a butt joint.
1
S. RIVETED JOINTS - LECTURE
2
S. RIVETED JOINTS - LECTURE
Tearing resistance or pull required to tear off the plate per pitch length,
Pt = Atσ t = (p − d )t σ t
Where,
p = Pitch of the rivets,
d = Diameter of the rivet hole,
t = Thickness of the plate, and
σt = Permissible tensile stress for the plate material.
6.3 Shearing of the rivets.
3
S. RIVETED JOINTS - LECTURE
Shearing resistance or pull required to shear off the rivet per pitch length,
π
Ps = n × × d 2 ×τ in single shear
4
π
Ps = n × 2 × × d 2 ×τ in double shear
4
Where,
d = Diameter of the rivet hole,
τ = Safe permissible shear stress for the rivet material, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length.
6.4 Crushing of the plate or rivets.
Crushing resistance or pull required to crush the rivet per pitch length,
Pc = n × d × t × σ c
4
T. WELDED JOINTS - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Welded joint – is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of the edges of the two parts to be joined
together, with or without the application of pressure and a filler material.
Welding – is extensively used in fabrication as an alternative method for casting or forging and as a replacement for
bolted and riveted joints. It is also used as a repair medium e.g. to reunite metal at a crack, to build up a small part
that has broken off such as gear tooth or to repair a worn surface such as a bearing surface.
2. Welding Processes
2.1 Fusion Welding – where the parts to be jointed are held in position while the molten metal is supplied to the
joint. The molten metal may come from the parts themselves (i.e. parent metal) or filler metals which normally
have the composition of the parent metal. The joint surface become plastic or even molten because of the heat
from the molten filler metal or other source. Thus, when the molten metal solidifies or fuses, the joint is formed.
2.1.1 Thermit Welding – where a mixture of iron oxide and aluminium called thermit is ignited and the iron
oxide is reduced to molten iron. The molten iron is poured into a mould made around the joint and fuses
with the parts to be welded.
2.1.2 Gas Welding – is made by applying the flame of an oxy-acetylene or hydrogen gas from a welding torch
upon the surfaces of the prepared joint. The intense heat at the white cone of the flame heats up the
local surfaces to fusion point while the operator manipulates a welding rod to supply the metal for the
weld. A flux is being used to remove the slag.
2.1.3 Electric Arc Welding – where the work is prepared in the same manner as for gas welding. In this case
the filler metal is supplied by metal welding electrode. The operator, with his eyes and face protected,
strikes an arc by touching the work of base metal with the electrode. The base metal in the path of the
arc stream is melted, forming a pool of molten metal, which seems to be forced out of the pool by the
blast from the arc. A small depression is formed in the base metal and the molten metal is deposited
around the edge of this depression, which is called the arc crater. The slag is brushed off after the joint
has cooled.
2.1.3.1 Un-shielded arc welding - When a large electrode or filler rod is used for welding.
2.1.3.2 Shielded arc welding – the welding rods coated with solid material are used.
2.2 Forge Welding - the parts to be jointed are first heated to a proper temperature in a furnace or forge and then
hammered. This method of welding is rarely used now-a-days. An electric-resistance welding is an example of
forge welding.
1
T. WELDED JOINTS - LECTURE
2
T. WELDED JOINTS - LECTURE
Case 1
Case 2
τ 1 Jc Feρ ′
Fe = or τ 1 =
ρ′ Jc
AL2
Jc = + Ar 2
12
Where,
Jc = polar moment of inertia of a long slender area with respect to C.
r = is the distance between the axis O of a weld line and the axis C.
A = is the throat area = tL
F
τ2 =
A
3
T. WELDED JOINTS - LECTURE
By cosine law
τ max = (τ 12 + τ 22 + 2τ 1τ 2 cosθ )
12
4M 4M 5.66M
σ1 = = =
2
( o
π tD π b cos 45 D 2
)
π bD 2
Edge joint – is made along the edges of two or more parallel, or nearly parallel, plates.
Plug weld – is obtained when the holes are filled or partially filled by weld metal fusing with the second plate.
Spot weld – are resistance welds, usually round, in the same form as the electrodes that press the sheets together;
used on thin material only.
Tack weld – is an intermittent weld, lightly done to hold members in position for assembly purposes or for the
principal welding.
9. Other Definitions.
9.1 Arc Welding – is done either with a carbon electrode on steel (tungsten electrode on non-ferrous) or with a
metal electrode.
9.2 Submerged arc welding – where the arc is covered with a welding composition, and bare electrode wire is fed
automatically.
9.3 Atomic-hydrogen process – where the energy form the arc is used to break the hydrogen molecules into atoms
rather than to melt the metal.
9.4 Fusion welds – because the metals are joined by fusion.
9.5 Resistance welding – depends upon the resistance to the flow of electricity at the points to be joined.
9.6 Spot welding – where two electrodes press the sheets of metal together, and at the spot where the pressure is
exerted, the resistance to the flow of current causes a heating which, together with the pressure results in a
weld.
9.7 Seam welding – a resistance welding process where two copper rollers are used as electrodes and if two sheets
of metal are passed between the rollers, a seam is welded where the rollers press the sheets together.
4
T. WELDED JOINTS - LECTURE
9.8 Gas welding – where a hot flame and a metal rod are used. The oxyacetylene process uses acetylene burned in
oxygen.
5
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
1. Materials in Manufacturing
1. Metals used in manufacturing are usually alloys, which are composed of two or more elements, with at least one
being a metallic element.
Two Basic Groups of Metals
1.1.1 Ferrous metals – are based on iron; the group includes steel and cast iron.
1.1.2 Steel – can be defined as an iron-carbon alloy containing 0.02% - 2.11% carbon. Its composition often
includes other alloying elements as well, such as manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum, to
enhance the properties of the metal.
1.1.3 Cast-iron – is a n alloy of iron and carbon (2% - 4%) used in casting (primarily sand casting). Silicon is also
present in the alloy (in amounts from 0.5% to 3%), and other elements are often added also, to obtain
desirable properties in the cast part.
2. Nonferrous metals – include the other metallic elements and their alloys. The nonferrous metals include the
pure metals and alloys of aluminum, copper, gold, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin, titanium, zinc, and other
metals.
3. Ceramics - is defined as a compound containing metallic (or semimetallic) and nonmetallic elements. Typical
nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Examples are clay. Silica, alumina, silicon carbide,
alumina, tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, titanium nitride, and boron nitride.
4. Polymer – is a compound formed of repeating structural units called mers, whose atoms share electrons to form
very large molecule. Polymers usually consist of carbon plus one or more other elements such as hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine.
Three categories of Polymers.
4.1 Thermoplastic polymers – can be subjected to multiple heating and cooling cycles without substantially
altering the molecular structure of the polymer. Common thermoplastics include polyethylene, polystyrene,
polyvinylchloride, and nylon.
4.2 Thermosetting polymers – chemically transform (cure) into a rigid structure upon cooling from a heated
plastic condition. Members of this type include phenollics, amino resins, and epoxies.
4.3 Elastomers – are polymers that exhibit significant elastic behavior. They include natural rubber, neoprene,
silicone, and polyurethane.
5. Composites – is a material consisting of two or more phases that are processed separately and then bonded
together to achieve properties superior to those of its constituents.
2. Definitions.
Age hardening or precipitation hardening – occurs in some metals, notable certain stainless steel, aluminum, and
copper alloys, at ambient temperature after solution heat treatment, the process being one of a constituent
precipitating from a solid solution.
Alloy – is a substance with metallic properties, composed of two or more elements of which at least one is a metal.
Alloying elements in steel – are usually considered to be the metallic elements added for the purpose of modifying
the properties.
Anisotropy – is the characteristic of exhibiting different properties when tested in different directions (as tensile
strength “with the grain” or “across the grain”.
Charpy test – is one in which a specimen, supported at both ends as a simple beam, is broken by the impact of a
falling pendulum.
1
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
Cold working – is the process of deforming a metal plastically at a temperature below the recrystallization
temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening.
Damping capacity – is the ability of a material to absorb or damp vibrations, which is a process of absorbing kinetic
energy of vibration owing to hysteresis.
Decarburization – is a loss of carbon from the surface of steel, occurring during hot rolling, forging, and heat
treating, when surrounding medium reacts with the carbon (as oxygen and carbon combining).
Ductility – is that property that permits permanent deformation before fracture in tension.
Elasticity – is the ability of a material to be deformed and to return to the original shape. Stress is proportional to
strain only during an elastic deformation.
Embrittlement – involves the loss of ductility because of a physical or chemical change of the material.
Free carbon – is that part of the carbon content of steel or iron that is in the form of graphite or temper carbon.
Izod test – is a test in which a specimen, supported at one end as a cantilever beam, is broken by the impact of a
falling pendulum.
Killed steel – is steel that has been deoxidized with a strong deoxidizing agent, such as silicon or aluminum, in order
to eliminate a reaction between the carbon and oxygen during solidification.
Machinability – is a material’s susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling or hammering.
Mechanical properties – are those that have to do with stress and strain.
Percentage elongation – is the extension in the vicinity of the fracture of a tensile specimen, expressed as a
percentage of the original gage length, as 20% in 2 in.
Percentage reduction of area – is the smallest area at the point of rupture of a tensile specimen divided by the
original area.
Physical properties – exclude mechanical properties and are other physical properties such as density, conductivity,
coefficient of thermal expansion.
2
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
Poisson’s ratio – is the ratio of the lateral strain (contraction) to the longitudinal strain (extension) when the element
is loaded with a longitudinal tensile force.
Precipitation heat treatment – brings about the precipitation of a constituent from a supersaturated solid solution
by holding the body at an elevated temperature, also called artificial aging.
Aging – precipitation occurring a ambient temperature.
Proof stress – is that stress which causes a specified permanent deformation of a material, usually 0.01% or less.
Relaxation – associated with creep, is the decreasing stress at a constant strain; important for metals in high-
temperature service.
Residual stresses – are those not due to applied loads or temperature gradients.
Solution heat treatment – is the process of holding an alloy at a suitably high temperature long enough to permit
one or more constituents to pass into solid solution and then cooling fast enough to hold the constituents as a
supersaturated solution.
Stiffness – is the ability to resist deformation. It is measured by the elasticity in the elastic range; the higher the
modulus the stiffer is the material.
Strain hardening – is increasing the hardness and strength by plastic deformation at temperature lower that the
recrystallization range.
Temper – is a condition produced in a non-ferrous metal by mechanical or thermal treatment; for example,
annealed temper (soft), hard temper, spring temper.
Transverse strength – refers to the results of a transverse bend test, the specimen being mounted as a simple beam;
also called rupture modulus.
Wrought steel – is steel that has been hammered, rolled, or drawn in the process of manufacture; it may be plain
carbon or alloy steel..
Aging (and age hardening) – is a change in a metal by which its structure recovers from an unstable or metastable
condition that has been produced by quenching or cold working.
3
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
Annealing – is a heating and slow cooling of a solid metal, usually done to soften it.
Graphitizing and annealing process – causes the combined carbon to transform wholly or in part into graphitic or
free carbon; it is applied to cast iron, sometimes to high-carbon steel.
Hardening – is the heating of certain steels above the transformation range and then quenching, for the purpose of
increasing the hardness. In general case, hardening is any process of increasing the hardness of a metal.
Malleablizing – is an annealing process whereby combined carbon in white cast iron is transformed wholly or in part
to temper carbomn.
Normalizing – is the heating of an iron-base alloy to some 100 F above the transformation range with subsequent
cooling to below that range in still air at room temperature. The purpose is to produce a uniform structure.
Spheroidizing – is any heating and cooling of steel that produces a rounded or globular form of carbide.
Stress relieving (thermal) – is the heating of a metal body to a suitable temperature (generally just below the
transformation range for steel, say 1100 – 1200 F) and holding it at that temperature for a suitable time (1 to 3
hours for steel) for the purpose of reducing internal residual stresses. The internal stresses may be present because
the body has been cast, quenched, normalized, machined, cold worked, or welded.
Tempering – is a reheating of hardened or normalized steel to a temperature below the transformation range,
followed by any desired rate of cooling.
Transformation range (for ferrous metal) is the temperature interval during which austenite is formed during
heating; it is also the temperature interval during which austenite disappears during cooling.
4. Hardness
Hardness – is a measure of its resistance to indentation.
Brinell hardness number (BHN) – is determined by a standard pressure (3000 kg. standard, 500 kg. for soft metals)
applied to a 10-mm ball which presses for 10 sec. or more on surface of the material being tested. The load in
kilograms divided by the area of the surface of the indentation in square millimeters is the BHN. Ultimate tensile
stress of steel is approximately 500 x BHN psi.
Rockwell tester – is faster than the Brinell and widely used commercially, utilized several different indenters and, in
effect measures the depth of the penetration by the indenter. Rockwell scales – Rockwell B, Rockwell C, Rockwell A,
Rockwell D, and Rockwell A.
Rockwell superficial tester – is a different machine used for a piece of material too thin for the standard tester.
Rockwell Scales – Rockwell N and Rockwell T.
4
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
Vickers tester – has a square-base, diamond pyramid indenter, and the VIckets number Is the load in kilograms
divided by the impressed area in square millimeters.
Shore scleroscope number – is obtained by letting a freely falling hammer with a diamond point strike the object to
be tested and measuring the height of rebound. This height is the Shore number.
Steel SAE
Plain carbon 10XX
Free cutting 11XX
Manganese 13XX
Boron 14XX
Nickel 2XXX
Nickel-chromium 3XXX
Heat and corrosion resistant 303XX
Molybdenum 4XXX
Molybdenum-chromium 41XX
Molybdenum-chromium-nickel 43XX
Molybdenum-nickel 46XX
Molybdenum-chromium-nickel 47XX
Molybdenum-nickel 48XX
Chromium 5XXX
Heat and corrosion resistant 514XX and 515XX
Chromium-vanadium 6XXX
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum 8XXX
Silicon-manganese 92XX
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum (except 92XX) 9XXX
5
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
6. Alloy Steel
Wrought alloy steel – is steel that contains significant quantities of recognized alloying metals, the most common
being aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, silicon, titanium,
tungsten, and vanadium.
Alloys – are used to improve the hardenability of steel, to reduce distortion from heat treatment, to increase
toughness, ductility, and tensile strength, and to improve low-temperature or high-temperature properties.
Classification of alloys.
1. Low-alloy structural steels (not heat treated).
2. Low-carbon alloy steels (0.10 – 0.25% C)
3. Medium-carbon alloy steels (0.25 – 0.50% C)
4. High-carbon alloy steels (0.50 – 0.70% C)
5. High alloy steels, such as stainless steels
7. Hardenability
Hardenability – is the capacity of steel to through-harden when cooled from above its transformation range.
8. Case Hardening
Case Hardening of iron base alloys – is a process of surface hardening whereby the surface or case is substantially
harder than the core or inside metal. Case hardening is done by carburizing, cyaniding, nitriding, carbonitriding,
induction hardening, and flame hardening.
1. Carburizing – is a process of adding carbon to the surface steel by exposing it to hot carbonaceous solids, liquids,
or gases – above the transformation temperature.
8.1.1 Pack (or box) carburizing – the part is heated in contact with solid carburizing compounds of various
constituents, including charcoal, burned bone, charred leather, tar, and barium, sodium, and
calcium carbonates, especially barium carbonate and charcoal.
8.1.2 Gas carburizing – the part is heated in carburizing gases, such as methane, ethane, propane, and CO.
8.1.3 Liquid carburizing – the part is immersed in a molten salt bath that imparts a case similar to that
obtained with gas or pack carburizing except that the case is thinner.
2. Cyaniding – is accomplished by immersing the part in a hot (about 1550 F) liquid salt bath, sodium cyanide
(NaCN) being a common medium in both processes.
6
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
3. Nitriding – the machined and heat-treated part is placed in a nitrogenous environment, commonly ammonia
gas.
4. Carbonitriding – is a process of case hardening steel by the simultaneous absorption of carbon and nitrogen
from a surrounding hot gaseous atmosphere, followed by either quenching or slow cooling, as required.
5. Induction Hardening – consist of heating a thin surface layer, preferably of annealed or normalized steel, above
the transformation range by electrical induction and then cooling, as required, in water, oil, air, or gas.
6. Flame Hardening – is a process of heating the surface of an iron-base alloy, which is preferably annealed or
normalized, and then quenching it.
9. Work Hardening
Work hardening – is the result of a metal being stresses at some point into its plastic range, usually ordinary
temperatures (certainly below recrystallization temperature).
7
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
19. Plastics
Thermosetting – which undergo chemical change and harden on being heated, usually under pressure.
Thermoplastic – which soften as the temperature rises and remain soft in the heated state.
8
V. MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Machine shop practice – consists of certain mechanical principles that are a part of all machine shop work
everywhere such as the principle of cutting tools, cutting speeds and feeds, actions of gears, screws, cams, etc.,
applied in the construction of certain machines and tools and in the various machine operations; that is the method
of holding and doing work.
Machine shop – is a room or space with sidings and roofs where metal parts are cut to size required and put
together to form mechanical units or machine.
1
V. MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE - LECTURE
3.4 Hydraulic Presses – a machine tools which consists of a ram which is being actuated by the pressure of a
hydraulic fluid, which is used in various operations such as bending, drawing, forced fitting, or diassembling of
parts.
5. Cutting Time
Length of cut
Cutting time =
Cutting speed
For power hacksaw:
Cutting speed = Strokes per min× Feed per stroke
For band saw:
Cutting speed = Cutting speed × No. of teeth per inch × Feed per tooth
For drilling and power hacksaw:
Cutting speed = Revolution per min× Feed per revolution
- End -
2
W. MANUFACTURING PROCESS - LECTURE
3. Processes
3.1 Brazing – a group of welding operation in which a non-ferrous filler metal melts at a temperature below that
of the metal joined but is heated above 425 C.
3.2 Blow Molding – is used primarily to produce thin-walled hollow containers from thermoplastic resin.
3.3 Cold drawing – is a common method for reducing the size of wire, bar, tubing, and other shapes and is a
different operation than the drawing (or deep drawing) of sheet metal.
3.4 Electro-forming – is one of the special processes for forming metals. Parts are produced by electrolytic
deposition of metal upon conductive removable mold or matrix.
3.5 Explosive-forming – an excellent method of utilizing energy at a high rate, since the gas pressure and rate of
detonation can be carefully controlled.
3.6 Electroplating – is done on all the common metals and even on many metal after their surfaces have been
prepared.
1
W. MANUFACTURING PROCESS - LECTURE
3.7 Extrusion – is done intermittently by a plunger in a cylinder, but the common continuous method are the
material drop from a hopper into a heated cylinder in which it is pushed along and out through the opening
in the die by screw.
3.8 Forging
3.8.1 Hammer forging – a hot work piece is placed on an anvil and struck repeatedly by a hammer.
3.8.2 Drop forging – the operation of forming parts hot on drop hammer with impression or cavity dies.
3.8.3 Press forging – is done in presses rather than with hammer.
3.8.4 Upset forging – also called hot reading and machine forging, consist of applying lengthwise pressure to a
hot bar held between grooved dies to enlarge some section or sections, usually the end.
3.8.5 Roll forging – where two rolls are arranged on parallel shafts for roll forging. These roll segments have
one or more sets of grooves. A piece of stock is placed between the rolls, which in turn squeeze the
stock in one set of grooves.
3.9 Galvanizing – a process by which zinc coating is applied to a wide variety of steel product to provide
protection against protection.
3.9.1 Hot dip galvanizing – dipping or passing the steel product through a bath of molten zinc.
3.9.2 Cold electro galvanizing – process of providing any metal with zinc coating by means of an electric
current.
3.10 Grinding, Polishing – a process of finishing various materials for either safety, operational, or aesthetic
appearances.
3.11 Metallizing – where the equipment for metal spraying consist of a pistol-shaped spray gun through which
the metal, in the form of wire is fed to a blowpipe flame which melt it, the molten metal thus produced
being sprayed by a steam of compressed air surrounding the flame.
3.12 Magnetic Forming – is another example of the direct conversion of electrical energy into useful work. The
process involved charging the voltage is supplied by a high voltage source into a bank of capacitors
connected in parallel.
3.13 Plastic processes – the processes employed in plastic technology are compression moulding, transfer
moulding, injection moulding, extrusion, calendaring, blow moulding, film forming, thermal forming,
vacuum forming, laminating and resin technology processes.
3.14 Plasma-Arc – a gas is heated by a tungsten arc to such a high temperature that it becomes ionized and acts
as a conductor of electricity.
3.15 Riveting – mechanical means of permanently fastening parts together to rivet two parts.
3.16 Sintering – application of heat, which must be kept at a temperature below the melting point of the metal
powder, in the production of commercial products from metallic powders by pressure or atomic forces, and
resulting in the bonding of fine particles together, thus improving the strength and other properties of the
finished product.
3.17 Soldering – uniting of two pieces of metal by means of a different metal which is applied between the two in
a molten state.
3.18 Thermo-forming – consist of heating a thermo-plastic sheet until it softens and then forcing it to conform to
some mold either by differential air pressure or mechanical means,
3.19 Ultrasonic machining – a mechanical process was designed to effectively machine hard brittle materials.
3.20 Wire drawing – where wire is made by cold drawing hot rolled wire rod through one or more dies to
decrease it size and increase the physical properties.
2
W. MANUFACTURING PROCESS - LECTURE
3
W. MANUFACTURING PROCESS - LECTURE
6. Destructive Testing
Destructive testing - a process where materials can be randomly tested by actual destruction of a work piece for
examination.
6.1 Tensile test – a test specimen is cut-out from the work piece and stretched to failure.
6.2 Bending test – a test specimen is cut-out from the work piece and bended 90 deg to 180 deg.
6.3 Sectioning – the weld joint is cut by hacksaw along the centerline of the weld to allow visual examination of
the weld.
7. Non-Destructive Testing
Non-Destructive Testing – a process wherein weld examination is done without destroying the material.
7.1 Dye Penetrant Examination – this determine surface cracks and porosities which may not be readily seen.
7.2 Hardness Testing – a method of determining the hardness of the weld more particularly the heat affected
zone.
7.3 Magnetic Particle Testing – uses electrical current to create a magnetic field in a specimen with the magnetic
particles (iron powders) indicating where the field is broken by discontinuities such as cracks in the material.
7.4 Radiographic Examination – employs radioactive isotopes such as Cobalt-60, Iridium-192, Thulium-170, or
Cesium-137 and radiographic films.
7.5 X-ray Examination – essentially the same with radiographic examination except only on the source of
radiation. This utilized electricity powered X-ray machine that generate ionizing radiation.
7.6 Ultrasonic Examination – utilizes ultrasounds that penetrate most common materials. The time of rebound
of ultrasounds from the probe which is pressed on one side of the material to the other side or any
discontinuity is converted to unit of linear measure.
8. Air Pollution Control Equipment for collecting particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, mists, etc.)
8.1 Inertial separators – used for collecting medium and coarse size particulates.
8.2 Centrifugal separators – where the tangential inflow tube or cyclone separators are normally suitable for
medium size (15 to 40 microns) and coarse size particulates while the axial flow inversion type or multiple
cyclone separators are effective in collecting particulates in the 5 to 15 microns range.
8.3 Rinsing or wet collection device – these devices include spray-type, cyclone type, orifice-type, mechanical
venture-type, jet-type, and packed tower scrubbers.
8.4 Filtration devices – have a high collection efficiency for sub-micron size particulates.
8.5 Electrostatic precipitators – suitable for the collection of a wide variety of dust and fumes.
8.6 Gravitational precipitators – used as pre-cleaners to remove coarse and abrasive particulates to protect and
augment the main dust collectors.
9. Air Pollution Control Equipment for the collection of a wide gaseous and vapor emission.
9.1 Adsorption equipment – the absorbent selectively capture or remove gases or liquids from dirty gas streams
even at very small concentrations.
9.2 Absorption equipment – by using selective liquids solvents, one or more constituents of a gas stream can be
removed or covered.
9.3 Afterburners – combustion converts the combustible constituents of a gas stream into carbon and water.
9.4 Vapor condensers – by extracting heat or increasing pressure, vapor condensation is achieved.
4
W. MANUFACTURING PROCESS - LECTURE