Wave propagation methods Wave propagation methods:

WS 05-06 • Seismics

Jan van der Kruk • Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Georadar,

Surface Penetrating Radar, Bodenradar usw.

Date Subject
27-10-2005 Introduction, Date Topic
Gravity 08-12-2005 Wave propagation: Seismics and GPR
Gravity: exercise interfaces, R + T coefficients, Huygens Principle,
03-11-2005 Magnetic 15-12-2006 Geometrical analysis: Reflection Refraction,
Gravity: exercise
Amplitudes
Magnetic: exercise
22-01-2006 Recording of measured data, Acquisition, sources and receivers
10-11-2005 Electrical methods: resistivity of Rocks
Electrical methods: resistivity mapping and sounding
Seismogram, Resolution, processing scheme, preprocessing
Electrical methods: exercise 12-01-2006 Amplitude correction, Frequency filter, Deconvolution
17-11-2005 Electrical methods: resistivity imaging Velocity analysis
Electrical methods: resistivity imaging 19-01-2006 Normal Move-Out (NMO) correction, Stacking
Electrical methods: exercise Wavenumber-frequency (kf) transformation, tau-p transformation
24-11-2005 Electrical methods: Induced Polarization
26-01-2006 Migration
Electrical methods: Self Potential
Electrical methods: exercises
02-02-2006 Interpretation
01-12-2005 Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Vertical Seismic profiling (VSP)
Electromagnetic: Exercise 09-02-2006 New developments

Seismics GPR
Localising of density- and velocity Localising of dielectric- and
contrasts as well as estimation of the conductivity contrasts as well as
seismic parameters in the deep estimation of the electrical parameters
subsurface ( 10 m- 5km) using in the shallow subsurface (< 50 m)
lowfrequency (~3-1000 Hz) seismic using highfrequency (~50-5000 MHz)
waves. electromagnetic waves.

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 Field of application
Aim Depth of penetration

dynamite geophones
Oil/Gas Exploration of layers 100 m - 5 km

Engineering Groundwater 10-500 m

geophysics Pollution
Archaeological
Earth crust Composition of Earth -60 km Seismic vibrator
seismic Crust/Geodynamics
Measurements Echo sounder, ~0m
in water High resolution seismic <100 m Seismic
Georadar (GPR) Shallow investigation of earth 0.5-10 m Acquisition
on land

Receivers Source Receivers

Time

hydrophones

source
Seismic
Acquisition
on see

Source

Geophone and hydrophones

Seismic
Measurements with Measurements with
acquisition on vertical geophones horizontal geophones
the seabottom

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 Historical overview Seismics 1933 Use of multiple geophones per group
1914 Mintrop’s mechanical seismograph 1936 Rieber sonograph; first reproducible recording
1917 Fessenden patent on seismic method 1939 Use of closed loops to check misties
1921 Seismic reflection work by Geological Engineering Co. 1942 Record sections
1923 Refraction exploration by Seismos in Mexico and Texas Mixing
1925 Fan-shooting method 1944 Large-scale marine surveying
Electrical refraction seismograph Use of large patterns
Radio used for communications and/or time-break 1947 Marine shooting with Shoran
1926 Reflection correlation method 1950 Common-midpoint method
1927 First well velocity survey 1951 Medium-range radio navigation
1929 Reflection dip shooting 1952 Analog magnetic recording
1931 Reversed refraction profiling 1953 Vibroseis recording
Use of uphole phone Weight-dropping
Truck-mounted drill 1954 Continuous velocity logging
1932 Automatic gain control 1955 Moveable magnetic heads
Interchangeable filters
Sheriff and Geldart, 1995 Sheriff and Geldart, 1995

1956 Central data processing

1961 Analog deconvolution and velocity filtering 1984 Amplitude variation with offset
1963 Digital data recording Determining porosity from amplitude
1965 Air-gun seismic source DMO (dip-moveout) processing
1967 Depth controllers on marine streamer 1985 Interpretation workstations
1968 Binary gain 1986 Towing multiple streamers
1969 Velocity analysis 1988 S-wave exploration
1971 Instaneous floating-point amplifier Autopicking of 3-D volumes
1972 Surface-consistent statics 1989 Dip and azimuth displays
Bright spot as hydrocarbon indicator 1990 Acoustic positioning of streamers
1974 Digitization in the field GPS satellite positioning
1975 Seismic stratigraphy
1976 Three-dimensional surveying
Image-ray migration (depth migration)

Sheriff and Geldart, 1995 Sheriff and Geldart, 1995

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Historical overview: GPR
• First Patent in Germany in 1910!
• Ice- and Permafrostexploration in 1950
Literature
Seismics
Hatton, L., Worthington, M.H. and Makin, J. (1986). Seismic data processing
Sheriff, E.G. and Geldart, L.P. (1995). Exploration Seismology,
Yilmaz, Ö. (1987). Seismic data processing.
Yilmaz Ö. (2001). Seismic data Analysis: Processing, Inversion, and Interpretation
of seismic data. SEG Tulsa, OK, 2027 pp.

• Application of the method in the Apollo Interpretation seismic Data:

Emery, D. and Myers (eds.) (1996). Sequence Stratigraphy
Moonflights in the 70’s McQuilin, R. et al. (1986). An introduction to seismic interpretation.
• Since the end of the 80’s: many commercial Geophysics in general

Systems available Kearey, P. and Brooks, M. (2002). An introduction to geophysical prospecting.

Reynolds, J.M. (1998). An introduction to applied and environmental geophysics.
Butler, D. K. (2005) Near-surface Geophysics. SEG Tulsa, 732 pp.

Reflection Seismic
Overview
Fundamentals
Introduction
Waves: Propagation Velocity and Amplitudes Measurement Data processing
Seismogram
Measurement systems
Source Receiver Raw data
Sources, receivers, Acquisition strategies      
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Data processing
“Pre-processing”
Filter und Deconvolution
Velocity analysis and Stacking
Migration
Interpretation
geology seismic Section

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 Seismic wave propagation
receivers
source

reflector

Snapshots of wavefield propagation Snapshots of wavefield propagation

Source Source

Snapshots of wavefield propagation Snapshots of wavefield propagation

Source Source

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 Different kind of waves
Examples of different waves
• Longitudinal waves • Transversal waves
(P-waves) (S-waves)

12 3 4 5 1 2 34 5

Elektromagnetic spectrum AM, FM, Georadar, Visible, X-ray

100 106 1019 Hz

Earthquake, audible + seismic Acoustic spectrum
Frequency

Body waves:

Seismic Waves

body waves
P-waves (longitudinal, compressional)

S-waves (shear, transverse)

SV-wave
SH-wave

Surface waves
Newton’s law
Rayleigh-waves
P(z) Uz P(z+∆z)

P is the acoustic pressure

Love-waves
Uz is the displacement

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 Newton’s law Newton’s law

P(z) Uz P(z+∆z) P(z) Uz P(z+∆z)

2
P(z+∆z) - P(z) = -ρ ∆z d 2 Uz ∂P = ∂2
dt -ρ 2Uz
∂z ∂t
ρ is the massdensity

Hooke’s law Hooke’s law

Uz(z) P Uz(z+∆z) Uz(z) P Uz(z+∆z)

Uz(z+∆z) - Uz (z) = -κ ∆z P ∂ U = -κ P
∂z z
κ is the compressibility

Acoustic Expressions Acoustic expressions

with source term
∂ ∂2 ∂ ∂2
Newton’s law:
P + ρ 2 Uz= 0 P +ρ 2 Uz= 0
∂z ∂t ∂z ∂t

Hooke’s law: ∂ U +κP=0 ∂ U + κ P = q δ(z)

∂z z ∂z z
δ(z) is the Dirac function

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 Acoustic Wave equation Electromagnetic Wave
Expressions with source term
∂2 1 ∂2 P = -w(t) δ(z)
P ∂H
∂z2 c2 ∂t2 Faraday’s law: ∇ × Ε + µ0 =0
∂t
w(t) = ρ ∂ 2 q(t) sourcesignal ∂E
2

∂t Ampere’s law: − ∇× H + ε0 = −J
+ Maxwell’s correction:
∂t
c = (ρκ)-1/2 wavespeed

Electromagnetic Wave equation

Maxwell:
(reduced to 1 Dimension)
This velocity is so nearly that of light, that it
seems we have strong reason to conclude
∂ 2 Ex 1 ∂ 2 Ex
that light itself…is an electromagnetic − = w(t )δ ( z )
disturbance in the form of waves ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2
propagated through the electromagnetic
field according to electromagnetic laws. w(t) = µ ∂ J(t) sourcesignal
∂t
c = (εµ)-1/2 wavespeed

Coupled time varying Conduction Currents:

electric and magnetic field Energy dissipation J = σE
E field
creates Current J E field
Current J creates creates
H field H field

∇× H = J
∂E ∂H
J = σE + ε 0 ∇ × Ε = −µ
∂t ∂t

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Displacement currents :
Plane wave solution for wave equation
Storage of Energy J = ε 0 ∂E
∂t ∂2F 1 ∂2F
− = w(t )δ ( z )
∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2
F ( z , t ) = F0 exp( j (ωt − k r z + jαz ))
= F0 exp(− αz ) ⋅ exp( j (ωt − k r z ))
This is the expression of an exponential damped wave
propagating with a speed
ω
v=
kr

Traveltime analysis Seismics:

All processing steps that have to do with • f ~ 10-1000 Hz
traveltime analysis can be applied for all
• v ~ 200 - 5000 m/s
wave propagation methods when the correct
velocities are used • λ ~ 0.2 - 500 m
• Range >20 λ
As soon as amplitudes and polarizations are
playing an important role for the measurements,
one has to adapt the processing steps according
• Geophysical Method with the
to the method applied. second best resolution!

Georadar: Propagation of seismic waves

• f ~ 50 MHz - 5 GHz
• v ~ 0.05 - 0.15 m/ns
• λ ~ 1 m – 1 cm
• Range: 0 - 50 λ

• Geophysical Method with the

highest resolution!

(Roth et al., 1998)

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 Object detection using WAVES: Object detection using WAVES

Source Receiver
B O

Geometrical Wave propagation

Wavefronts versus Rays
Source Source Receiver
• Wavefronts indicate the boundary of the material
which already moves and the material which is
still undisturbed.

• Rays are plotted perpendicular with respect to the

wavefronts and describe the dominant propagation
of the seismic energy between two locations
Rays are perpendicular to the wavefronts,

Propagation of seismic waves

Interface: reflection

α1 α2
v1 Angle of incidence =
v2 angle of reflection
α1 = α 2

(Roth et al., 1998)

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 Interface: Refraction Special case: critical angle

α1 α1 α2 = 90°
sin(α1 ) v1
v1 = v1
sin(α 2 ) v2 sin(α1 ) v
v2 v2 = sin(α1 ) = 1
sin(90o ) v2
α2 α2
v2 > v1

α2 v2 < v1

Beyond critical angle: total reflection!

Interface: Conversion from P wave to S wave

Snell’s law
vp vs
1 1
α1 α1

vp vs
2 2
α2 α2
β1
sin(α1 ) vP1
α1 =
sin( β1 ) vS 1 α3
vp
3
vs
3 α3
vp1,vs1
vp2,vs2
sin(α1 ) vP1
β2 =
sin( β 2 ) vS 2 sin(α1 ) sin( β1 ) sin(α 2 ) sin( β 2 ) sin( β n )
= = = = = p = constant
v P1 vS 1 vP 2 vS 2 vSn

p = Slowness

P wave reflection coefficients at normal

incidence

P P Z = v ρ = acoustic Impedance

R
vP1 , ρ1 Reflection coefficient
T vP2, ρ2 Z 2 − Z1 vP 2 ρ 2 − vP1 ρ1
R= =
Z 2 + Z1 vP 2 ρ 2 + vP1 ρ1

Refraction caused by location dependent Transmission coefficient

propagation velocity
R+T=1 2 Z1 2vP1 ρ1
T= =
Z 2 + Z1 vP 2 ρ 2 + vP1 ρ1
Seismics

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 S wave reflection coefficients at normal
incidence Energy considerations for P-waves

E ER
SV Reflection coefficient
SV E = ER + ET
R v ρ −v ρ v1, ρ1
vP1 , ρ1 R = S1 1 S 2 2
vP2, ρ2
vS 1 ρ1 + vS 2 ρ 2
T v2, ρ2
Transmission coefficient 4 Z1Z 2
ET =
ET ( Z 2 + Z1 ) 2
2vS 1 ρ1
T= E = Energy
vS 1 ρ1 + vS 2 ρ 2 ( Z 2 − Z1 ) 2
T = 1+R ER = Reflected energy ER =
( Z 2 + Z1 )2
ET = Transmitted energy
Seismics Seismics

Fresnel’s equations at normal

incidence Transmission- and Reflection coefficients
µ = Electromagnetic
E Z= Impedance
E ER
E ε + iσ / ω E = ER + ET
R
ε1 Reflection coefficient ε1

ε2 ε2
T
Z 2 − Z1 ε − ε2
R= = 1
Z 2 + Z1 ε1 + ε 2 4 Z1Z 2
ET =
ET ( Z 2 + Z1 ) 2
Transmission coefficient
E = Energy
2Z 2 2 ε1 ( Z 2 − Z1 ) 2
T=1+R T= = ER = Reflected energy ER =
Z 2 + Z1 ( Z 2 + Z1 )2
ε1 + ε 2 ET = Transmitted energy
GPR GPR

Interface: Conversion from P wave to S wave

β1 S1
P1 P1
α1 α1

v p1, v s1

v p2, v s2
α2
P2
β2
S2

sin(α1 ) sin(α 2 ) sin( β1 ) sin( β 2 ) sin(α n ) sin( β n )

= = = = = = p = constant
v P1 vP 2 vS 1 vS 2 vPn vSn

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