NAVIGATION 4

PREPARED BY:

Instructor

VALIDATED BY:

Co- Instructor

CHECKED BY:

ROWENA L. FLORES MA. Ed

ACADEMIC COORDINATOR

APPROVED BY:

CAPT. REYNNTE P. CONSUL

Department Head BSMT

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INTER - GLOBAL COLLEGE FOUNDATION, INC.

Brgy. Bocohan, Lucena City

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MARITIME TRANSPORTATION

Course Code: NAV 4

Course Title: Navigational Instrument with Compasses

The course covers navigation instruments such as, echo sounders, magnetic and gyro
compasses. It also deals with knowledge on electronic system of position fixing and navigation.
The principles and error of magnetic and gyro compasses, systems under control of the master
gyro and the knowledge of the operation and care of the main types of gyro – compasses are
included.

STCW COMPETENCE: 1. Plan and Conduct a passage and determine position.

2. Maintain a safe navigational watch.
KUP: 1. Ability to determine the ships position by use of electronic navigational aids.
2. Knowledge of bridge resource management principles including:

1. allocation, assignment and prioritization of resources

2. effective communication
3. assertiveness and leadership
4. obtaining and maintaining situational awareness navigational aids
5. consideration of team experience

3. Determine and allow for compasses errors

PRELIM COVERAGE
ELECTRONIC SYSTEM OF POSITION FIXING AND NAVIGATION

WEEK 1
 Basic principles of terrestrial navigation
WEEK 2
 Loran – C system
 Global navigation and satellite system

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WEEK 3
 Describe the basic principles of the GPS, GLONASS, GALILEO
WEEK 4
 Operates a typical GPS

MIDTERM COVERAGE
Integrated National System ( INS )

WEEK 5
 Integrated National System ( INS )
 Integrated Bridge System
WEEK 6 &WEEK 7
 Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System (BNWAS)
 Voyage Data Recorder (VDR)
WEEK 8
 Bridge Resource Management

SEMI – FINALS COVERAGE

WEEK 9
 Echo Sounder
WEEK 10
 The Magnetic Compass
WEEK 11 & WEEK 12
 The Gyro Compass
FINAL COVERAGE

WEEK 13 & WEEK 14

 Compass Correction
 Errors of the Compass and Azimuths
WEEK 15
 The principles and Errors of the Magnetic Compass
 The principles and Errors of the Gyro Compasses
WEEK 16
 System Under Control of the Master Gyro and Knowledge of the Operation and Care of
the Main Types of Gyro Compass

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Loran –C is hyperbolic radio navigation systems which allow s a receiver to determine its
position by listening to low frequency radio signals transmitted by fixed land- based radio
beacon. Loran- C combined to different techniques to provide a signal that was both long range
by highly accurate, traits that had formerly been at odds. The downside was the expense of the
equipment needed to interpret the signals, which meant that Loran – C was used primarily by
militaries after it was first introduced in 1957.

By the 1970s the electronics needed to implement Loran – C had been dramatically reduce due
to the introduction of solid state radio electronics, and especially the use of early
microcontrollers to interpret the signal. Low cost and easy to used Loran – C units become
common from the late 1970s especially in the early 1980s leading to the earlier LORAN system
being turn off in favour of installing more Loran – C station around the world. LORAN – C
became one of the most common and widely used navigation system for large area of North
America, Europe, Japan and the entire Atlantic and Pacific areas. The Soviet Union operated a
nearly identical system CHAYKA.

The introduction of civilian satellite navigation in the 1990s led to a very rapid drop off in LORAN
– C use. Discussion about the future of LORAN – C began in the 1990s, and several turn- off
dates were announced and then cancelled. In 2010 the US and Canadian system were shot
down, along with shared Loran – C / CHAYKA stations with Russia. Several other chains remain
active, and some have been upgraded for continue use.

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BASIC PRINCIPLE OF HYPERBOLIC RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

All hyperbolic radio navigation are system based on the principle that radio frequency energy is
propagated through space with a finite and known velocity. A measurement of the difference in
times of arrival of radio signals from two [points by a receiver provides an accurate measure of
the difference in the distance of the propagation paths involved. By definition, the locus of
points is a hyperbola. Measurement of constant time- differences and, hence, constant distance
difference places the receiver on a hyperbolic line of position.

The reference signals maybe transmitted and receive by any feasible means ( sound or radio )
but radio frequency energy is the only present means which provides accurate long range
information. Transmissions ranging from unmodulated continuous waves to short pulses maybe
used. The basic principle of position determination however remains the same. Since the
readout of hyperbolic navigation systems consists of time – difference reading from a particular
setoff ground stations, means must be provided to convert the time-difference readings to
geographic position.

Special chart, tables, or computer are utilized to interpret the measured time delays in terms of
lines of geographic position. Chart for general navigation have representative hyperbolic lines
corresponding to various time delays from the pairs of stations in addition to the ordinarily
latitude and longitude lines and other navigational data.

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CYTAC /LORAN-C

In 1952, work began under government contract on a long range, automatic, ground – reference
tactical system known as CYTAC. A pulse, hyperbolic navigation system operating in the 90- 110
kc/s band was an integral part of the CYTAC system. Equipment development was completed by
1955 and three transmitting stations were constructed at Forestport, N,Y Carolina Beach, N.C,.
and Carrabelle, Florida. Test with navigational component of the system throughout 1956
showed that automatic instrumentation could solve the RF cycle identification problem and
could measure time difference in a hyperbolic system with an average error of a few tenths of a
microsecond. The coverage area extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River and
the from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Monitor stations installed at widely separated
locations collected data during a year of testing. The average errors at six fixed monitor sites are
shown in Figure 3. The lines are “constant accuracy contours “ and were based on predictions
made prior to manufacture of the equipment. The result of the test demonstrated that the
system was not only capable of a high degree of precision, but also that the laws controlling its
accuracy were sufficiently well known to permit sounds predictions of accuracy prior to
installation. For operational reasons, the CYTAC concept (the control of tactical aircraft from a
ground reference system ) was abandoned. It’s used as a navigational aid was immediately
apparent.

FIGURE 3
ESTIMATED AND OBSERVE CYTAC FIX ERRORS

AREA COVERED CHAIN LOCATION OF TRANSMITTING STATIONS

Mediterranean Sea Italy
Turkey
Libya
Spain
Norwegian Sea Norway
Jan Mayen Island
Iceland

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Faeroes ( Master )
Bering Sea Attu
Sitkinak
St. Paul ( Master )
Pt. Spencer
Hawaii Island of Hawaii
Johnson Island ( Master )
Kure Island

HIGH POWER TRANSMITTING STATIONS AND AREA COVERAGE OF LORAN-C CHAINS

LORAN Overview

 1st Modern practical area navigation system for use in general aviation.
 Developed for maritime navigation. Early LORAN A’s were exclusively for marine use
 Still in use today although its used beyond 6-8 years from now is uncertain
 Certain LORAN –C receiver are approved for IFR Enroute and Terminal navigation but
not approaches.
 Most LORAN-C receivers are used for VFR navigation.

For all practical purposes ( for the pilot) LORAN-C provides the same type of nav. Data to the
pilot (ground track, desired track, ground speed, ETE).

LORAN- C THEORY

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 Operates in the LOW frequency electromagnetic energy radio bandwidth which follows
the curvature of the earth therefore making it suitable for longer ranges.
 The LORAN- C concept is based on groups or “chains”of stations around the world.
 Worldwide there are 28 chains.
 Each chains contains of one master station and 4-6 secondary stations in geographic
area ( ie. North U.S chains, Great lake U.S. chains, etc.)
 The master station of each chain broadcasts a continuous string of Low Frequency pulses
(measures in microseconds).
 The unique time between the start and stop of each pulse identifies the particular
chains.
 This time is known as the Group Repetition Interval or GRI.
 For instance the time between the start and stop of each pulse in in the northeast U.S.
chain is 99,600 microseconds or 9960 is identified as the great lake chains.
 The GRI is entered into the LORAN-C unit in the aircraft upon start up along with the
approximate LAT./ LONG. Position during the initialization process. This helps the unit
finds its position more quickly.
 The LORAN-C unit then searches for that master station and the two strongest secondary
signals.
 The master station pulse trigger a response from the secondary station. The receiver
correct for any time lag in pulse reply.
 The receiver then calculates the time it takes these signal to reach the aircraft and
essentially generates hyperbolic Lines Of position (LOP) from each station- known as a
hyperbolic lines of position since the lines look like a parabola.
 Two intersecting hyperbolas produce two possible points for the aircraft position.
 Using a second slave ( or secondary) station the receiver then pinpoint its position.
Entering the LAT./LONG. During initialization also aid in this process.

LORAN- C Limitations

 Area of coverage limited to chains which don’t give global coverage.

 The “sky wave”component of the signal bounces off the ionosphere causing
navigational errors when travelling greater than 1,000 NM from the farthest master or
secondary station- causes errors in position of up to 3 miles (greater in some cases
1,000 miles is significant as at ranges less than this, the ground wave is significantly
greater in strength than the sky waves, therefore the receiver is programmed to reject
weaker sky waves.

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LORAN-C Limitation- sky waves

 At distances of between 1,000 and 1,400 NM the ground and sky waves are
approximately the same strength making the signal seems the same to the receiver.

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 Since the sky waves takes longer to reach the receiver than the ground waves, this leads
to position error.
 Manufacturers deals with in one of two ways.
 Programming the receivers to reject all sky waves thereby reducing the effective range of
the unit (but maximizing the accuracy).
 Informing the user that nav. Data maybe inaccurate between 1,000 and 1,400 NM.
 At ranges greater than 1,400 NM, the receiver can be programmed to use the sky wave.
 As the air craft moves through precipitation, it generate static electricity which generates
electromagnetic “noise” around the air craft nearby interfering with the LORAN- C signal
causing the Signal Strength to Noise ratio( SNR ration ) to go unacceptable limits.
 SNR ration is function of precipitation intensity and distance from the station.

LORAN-C Accuracy

 LORAN accuracy is also best over water during the day.

 Conversely it is the least accurate over land masses at night (sky waves more intense at
night).
 Repeatable Accuracy- ability to return to pre-set position for LORAN- C is .01 NM or 60ft.
 Absolute Accuracy- ability of the receiver to determine its position independently is
generally within at least 3 NM for distances up to 2,800 NM.

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GLObal'naya
NAvigatsionnaya
Sputnikovaya
Sistema,

GLONASS (Russian: ГЛОНАСС, IPA: [ɡlɐˈnas]; Глобальная навигационная спутниковая

система; transliteration Globalnaya navigatsionnaya sputnikovaya sistema), or "Global
Navigation Satellite System", is a space-based satellite navigation system operating in
the radionavigation-satellite service and used by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. It
provides an alternative to GPS and is the second alternative navigational system in operation
with global coverage and of comparable precision.

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Manufacturers of GPS devices say that adding GLONASS made more satellites available to them,
meaning positions can be fixed more quickly and accurately, especially in built-up areas where
the view to some GPS satellites is obscured by buildings. Smartphones generally tend to use the
same chipsets and the versions used since 2015 receive GLONASS signals and positioning
information along with GPS.
Development of GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976. Beginning on 12 October 1982,
numerous rocket launches added satellites to the system until the constellation was completed
in 1995. After a decline in capacity during the late 1990s, in 2001, under Vladimir Putin's
presidency, the restoration of the system was made a top government priority and funding was
substantially increased. GLONASS is the most expensive program of the Russian Federal Space
Agency, consuming a third of its budget in 2010.
By 2010, GLONASS had achieved 100% coverage of Russia's territory and in October 2011, the
full orbital constellation of 24 satellites was restored, enabling full global coverage. The
GLONASS satellites' designs have undergone several upgrades, with the latest version
being GLONASS-K.

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A GLONASS Satellite

The first satellite-based radio navigation system developed in the Soviet Union was Tsiklon,
which had the purpose of providing ballistic missile submarines a method for accurate
positioning. 31 Tsiklon satellites were launched between 1967 and 1978. The main problem
with the system was that, although highly accurate for stationary or slow-moving ships, it
required several hours of observation by the receiving station to fix a position, making it

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unusable for many navigation purposes and for the guidance of the new generation of ballistic
missiles. In 1968–1969, a new navigation system, which would support not only the navy, but
also the air, land and space forces, was conceived. Formal requirements were completed in
1970; in 1976, the government made a decision to launch development of the "Unified Space
Navigation System GLONASS".
The task of designing GLONASS was given to a group of young specialists at NPO PM in the city
of Krasnoyarsk-26 (today called Zheleznogorsk). Under the leadership of Vladimir Cheremisin,
they developed different proposals, from which the institute's director Grigory
Chernyavsky selected the final one. The work was completed in the late 1970s; the system
consists of 24 satellites operating at an altitude of 20,000 kilometres (12,000 mi) in medium
circular orbit. It would be able to promptly fix the receiving station's position based on signals
from four satellites, and also reveal the object's speed and direction. The satellites would be
launched three at a time on the heavy-lift Proton rocket. Due to the large number of satellites
needed for the program, NPO PM delegated the manufacturing of the satellites to PO
Polyot in Omsk, which had better production capabilities.
Originally, GLONASS was designed to have an accuracy of 65 metres (213 ft), but in reality it had
an accuracy of 20 metres (66 ft) in the civilian signal and 10 metres (33 ft) in the military
signal. The first generation GLONASS satellites were 7.8 metres (26 ft) tall, had a width of 7.2
metres (24 ft), measured across their solar panels, and a mass of 1,260 kilograms (2,780 lb).

Achieving full orbital constellation

In the early 1980s, NPO PM received the first prototype satellites from PO Polyot for ground
tests. Many of the produced parts were of low quality and NPO PM Engineers had to perform
substantial redesigning, leading to a delay. On 12 October 1982, three satellites,
designated Kosmos-1413, Kosmos-1414, and Kosmos-1415 were launched aboard a Proton
rocket. As only one GLONASS satellite was ready in time for the launch instead of the expected
three, it was decided to launch it along with two mock-ups. The USA media reported the event
as a launch of one satellite and "two secret objects." For a long time, the USA could not find out
the nature of those "objects". The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) covered the
launch, describing GLONASS as a system "created to determine positioning of civil aviation
aircraft, navy transport and fishing-boats of the Soviet Union".
From 1982 to April 1991, the Soviet Union successfully launched a total of 43 GLONASS-related
satellites plus five test satellites. When the Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991, twelve GLONASS
satellites in two planes were operational; enough to allow limited use of the system (to cover
the entire territory of the Union, 18 satellites would have been necessary.) The Russian
Federation took over control of the constellation and continued its development. In 1993, the

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system, now consisting of 12 satellites, was formally declared operational and in December
1995 it was brought to a fully operational constellation of 24 satellites. This brought the
precision of GLONASS on a par with the USA GPS system, which had achieved full operation а
year earlier.

System Description

Comparison of GPS, GLONASS, GALILEO and COMPASS( medium earth orbit) satellite navigation
system orbits with the International Space Station, Hubble Space Telescope and Iridium
constellation orbits, Geostationary Earth Orbit and the nominal size of The Earth, The Moon’s
orbit is around nine times larger (in radius and length) than geostationary orbit.

GLONASS is a global satellite navigation system, providing real time position and velocity
determination for military and civilian users. The satellites are located in middle circular orbit at
19,100 kilometres (11,900 mi) altitude with a 64.8 degree inclination and a period of 11 hours
and 15 minutes. GLONASS' orbit makes it especially suited for usage in high latitudes (north or
south), where getting a GPS signal can be problematic. The constellation operates in three
orbital planes, with eight evenly spaced satellites on each. A fully operational constellation with
global coverage consists of 24 satellites, while 18 satellites are necessary for covering the
territory of Russia. To get a position fix the receiver must be in the range of at least four
satellites.

Galileo (satellite navigation)

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Galileo

Country/ies of European Union

origin

Operator(s) GSA, ESA

Type Civilian, commercial

Status Operational

Coverage Global

Accuracy 1 metre (public)

1 cm (encrypted)

Constellation size

Total satellites 30

Satellites in 11 operational + 4 under

orbit commissioning and 3 for testing or not
available (January 2017)

First launch 2011

Orbital characteristics

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Regime(s) 3x MEO planes

Orbital height 23,222 km (14,429 mi)

Galileo is the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that is currently being created by
the European Union (EU) through the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European GNSS
Agency (GSA), headquartered in Prague in the Czech Republic, with two ground operations
centres, Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich in Germany and Fucino in Italy. The €5 billion project is
named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an
independent high-precision positioning system so European nations do not have to rely on the
Russian GLONASS, Chinese BeiDou or US GPS systems, which could be disabled or degraded by
their operators at any time. The use of basic (lower-precision) Galileo services will be free and
open to everyone. The higher-precision capabilities will be available for paying commercial
users. Galileo is intended to provide horizontal and vertical position measurements within 1-
metre precision and better positioning services at high latitudes than other positioning systems.
Galileo is to provide a new global search and rescue (SAR) function as part of the MEOSAR
system. Satellites will be equipped with a transponder which will relay distress signals
from emergency beacons to the Rescue coordination centre, which will then initiate a rescue
operation. At the same time, the system is projected to provide a signal, the Return Link
Message (RLM), to the emergency beacon, informing them that their situation has been
detected and help is on the way. This latter feature is new and is considered a major upgrade
compared to the existing Cospas-Sarsat system, which does not provide feedback to the
user. Tests in February 2014 found that for Galileo's search and rescue function, operating as
part of the existing International Cospas-Sarsat Programme, 77% of simulated distress locations
can be pinpointed within 2 km, and 95% within 5 km.
In 1999, the different concepts of the three main contributors of ESA (Germany, France and
Italy) for Galileo were compared and reduced to one by a joint team of engineers from all three
countries. The first stage of the Galileo programme was agreed upon officially on 26 May 2003
by the European Union and the European Space Agency. The system is intended primarily for
civilian use, unlike the more military-orientated systems of the United States (GPS), Russia
(GLONASS), and China (Beidou-1/2, COMPASS). The European system will only be subject to
shut down for military purposes in extreme circumstances (like armed conflict). It will be
available at its full precision to both civil and military users.

Tension with the United States

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Galileo is intended to be an EU civilian GNSS that allows all users access to it.
Initially GPS reserved the highest quality signal for military use, and the signal available for
civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability). This changed with President Bill
Clinton signing a policy directive in 1996 to turn off Selective Availability. Since May 2000 the
same precision signal has been provided to both civilians and the military.
Since Galileo was designed to provide the highest possible precision (greater than GPS) to
anyone, the US was concerned that an enemy could use Galileo signals in military strikes against
the US and its allies (some weapons like missiles use GNSSs for guidance). The frequency
initially chosen for Galileo would have made it impossible for the US to block the Galileo signals
without also interfering with its own GPS signals. The US did not want to lose their GNSS
capability with GPS while denying enemies the use of GNSS. Some US officials became
especially concerned when Chinese interest in Galileo was reported.
An anonymous EU official claimed that the US officials implied that they might consider
shooting down Galileo satellites in the event of a major conflict in which Galileo was used in
attacks against American forces. The EU's stance is that Galileo is a neutral technology, available
to all countries and everyone. At first, EU officials did not want to change their original plans for
Galileo, but have since reached a compromise, that Galileo was to use a different frequency.
This allowed the blocking or jamming of either GNSS without affecting the other (jam Galileo
without affecting GPS, or jam GPS but not Galileo), giving the US a greater advantage in conflicts
in which it has the electronic warfare upper hand.

Cooperation with the United States

In June 2004, in a signed agreement with the United States, the European Union agreed to
switch to a modulation known as BOC(1,1) (Binary Offset Carrier 1.1) allowing the coexistence
of both GPS and Galileo, and the future combined use of both systems.
The European Union also agreed to address the "mutual concerns related to the protection of
allied and US national security capabilities."

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Global Positioning System

This article is about the American system. It is not to be confused with other similar systems
(GNSS), such as the Russian (GLONASS), Chinese (BeiDou-2) or European (Galileo).

Global Positioning System

Country/ies of origin United States

Operator(s) AFSPC

Type Military, civilian

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Status Operational

Coverage Global

Accuracy 5 meters

Constellation size

Total satellites 32

Satellites in orbit 31

First launch February 1978; 39 years ago

Total launches 72

Orbital characteristics

Regime(s) 6x MEO planes

Orbital height 20,180 km (12,540 mi)

Artist's conception of GPS Block II-F satellite in Earth orbit.

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Civilian GPS receivers ("GPS navigation device") in a marine application.

Automotive navigation system in a taxicab.

A U.S. Air Force Senior Airman runs through a checklist during Global Positioning System
satellite operations.

The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a space-based radionavigation
system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. It
is a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS
receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or
more GPS satellites. The GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil,
and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system,
maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

The GPS project was launched in the United States in 1973 to overcome the limitations of
previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of
classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of
Defense developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It became fully operational in
1995. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A.Getting of The Aerospace
Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with
inventing it.

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Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to
modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next
Generation Operational Control System (OCX).Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and
the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the
modernization effort, GPS III.
In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a
potential denial of access by the US government. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete
coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more
satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two
meters. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system, China's BeiDou
Navigation Satellite System and India's NAVIC.

A GPS satellite. The GPS constellation of satellite consists of at least 24 satellites- 21 primary
satellites and 3 orbiting spares. They orbit the earth at an altitude of 17,500 KM (10,900 miles)
at a speed of 1.9 miles per second between 60°N and 60°S latitude. Each satellite weighs 1900
lbs. And is 17 ft. (5.8 meters) wide with solar panels extended. The satellite orbit the earth twice
a day. This guarantees that signals from six of the satellites can be received from any point on
earth at almost at any time.

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The Global Positioning System (GPS) was designed for military application. Its primary purpose
was to allow soldier to keep track of their position and to assist in guiding weapons to their
targets. The satellites were built by Rockwell International and were launched by U.S. Air Force.
The entire system is funded by the U.S. government and controlled by the U.S. Department of
Defence. The total cost for implementing the system was over $12 billion.

 Official name of GPS is NAVigational Satellite Timing and Ranging Global Positioning
System (NAVSTAR GPS)
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)is a form of Global Navigational Satellite Sysytem
(GNSS)
 Only complete function one of its kind at this time
 First develop by the United States Department of Defence
 Consist of 2 dozen GPS satellites in medium earth orbit ( the region of space between
2000km and 35,786 km)

Operation Overview

 A GPS receiver can tell its own position by using the position data of its self, and
compares that data with 3 or more GPS satellites
 To get the distance to each satellite, the GPS transmit a signal to each satellites.
 The signal travels at known speed
 The system measures the time delay between the signal transmission and the signal
reception of the GPS signal
 The signal carry information about the satellite’s location.
 Determines the position of, and distance to, at least 3 satellites, to reduce error.
 The receiver computes position using trilateration.

Trilateration

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Segments of GPS

 GPS system are made up of 3 segments

 Space segment (SS)
 Control segment (CS)
 User segment (US)

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Space segment
 GPS satellites fly in circular orbit at an altitude of 20,200 km and with a period of 12 hr.
 Powered by solar cell, the satellites continuously orient themselves to point their solar
panels toward the sun and their antenna towards earth.
 Orbital planes are centered on the earth.

Each planes has a about 55° tilt relative to Earth’s equator in order to cover polar regions.

 There are currently 30 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS constellation.

 Redundancy is used by the additional satellites to improve the precision of GPS receiver
calculations.
 A non- uniform arrangement improves the reliability and availability of the system over
that of a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.
 This is possible due to the number of satellites in the air today

Control segment
 The CS consist of 3 entities:

 Master Control System

The master control station, located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Spring,
Colorado, is responsible for overall management of the remote monitoring and
transmission site.

Gps ephemeris is the tabulation of computed positions, velocities and derive right
ascension and declination of GPS satellites at specific times for eventual upload to GPS
satellite.

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 Monitoring station

6 monitoring stations are located at Falcon air force base in Colorado, Cape Canaveral,
Florida, Hawaii, Ascension Island In The Atlantic Ocean, Diego Garcia Atoll In The Indian
Ocean, And Kwajalein Island In South Pacific Ocean

Each of the monitor stations checks the exact altitude, position, speed and overall health
of the orbiting satellite.

 Ground antennas

Ground antennas monitors and track the satellite from the horizon to horizon.
They also transmit correction information to individual satellites.

GPS Monitoring Station

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User segment
The user’s GPS receiver is the US of the GPS system.
GPS receivers are generally composed of an antenna, turned to the frequencies transmitted by
the satellites, receiver- processors, and a highly- stable clock, commonly a crystal oscillator.
They can also include a display for showing location and speed information to the user.
A receiver is often described by its number of channels this signifies how many satellites it can
monitor simultaneously. As of recent, receivers usually have between twelve and twenty
channels.
 Military
 Search and rescue
 Disaster relief
 Surveying
 Marine, aeronautical and terrestrial navigation
 Remote controlled vehicle and robot guidance
 Satellite positioning and tracking
 Shipping
 Geographic information system
 Recreation

Determining GPS position

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Suppose the distance from satellite A to our position is 11,000 miles at this point we could be
located anywhere on the specified sphere.

 Next, let us take another measurement from a

second satellite, satellite B
 Now our position is narrowed down to the
intersection these two sphere

Taking another measurement from 3rd satellite narrows our position down even further, to the
two points.

These points are located where the 3 rd sphere cuts through the intersection of the 1 st two
spheres

So by ranging 3 satellites we can narrow our position to just two points in space.

Integrated Navigation System

Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving future navigation system planning. Integrated systems
take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display positioning information, and provide control

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signals required to maintain a vessel on a preset course. The navigator becomes a system manager,
choosing system presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.

A modern integrated control system aims to enable one watch-keeping officer to control the ship’s
navigation, her propulsion system and the cargo spaces. At its heart is a digital processing unit wich is
interfaces with multiple sensor.

A ship ‘s integrated navigational system

INS brings together data from multiple sources and forms part of the Integrated Bridge System,
which revolutionized the way boats navigate.

The increasing trends towards electronic display will be discussed as well how the leisure craft
that are fitted with AIS class B are displayed on modern ship bridges.

Recent advances in electronic navigation apparatus and circuits have provided suitable sensor
output which can be integrated into one master navigation unit.

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The input data required for a safe and economical navigation and for an integrated navigation
system are available from:

 Heading sensor, i.e. pulses from gyroscopic compass including the correction of gyro
errors.
 Velocity sensor, providing a pulse input from a duel axis speed log, with correction for
the difference in speed over ground (SOG) and speed through the water.
Sea water temperature and salinity sensors.
 Pitch and roll sensor, with an electronic inclinometer compensating for changes in the
indicate speed.

Ships sensor

Heading sensor

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A heading sensor that incorporates innovative

electromagnetic compass technology for
highly accurate and suitable readouts of a ship’s heading.

Pitch and roll sensor: dynamic roll and pitch accuracy to 0.25

 Depth sensor (i.e. output from echo sounder displayed on the VDU)
 Satellite navigation receiver. Output of a single or dual channel receiver is used to up to
date the DR position.
 GPS- global positioning system
 Radar process data from both 3 or 10 (s and x band) anti- collision radars is of vital
importance for the safe passage of a vessel (ARPA)
 Auto-pilot- with a rudder movement indicator
 Satcom

Marine RADAR

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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or
velocity of objects. The radar dish or antenna transmit pulses of radio waves or microwaves
which bounces off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave’s energy to
a dish or antenna which is usually. Radar was developed secretly for military use by several
nations in the period before and during World War II. The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by
the United States Navy as
an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging. The
term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, losing all
capitalization.

 In addition to these sensors the integrated navigation system may also include an
anemometer, barometer, VDU with sufficient memory engine and fuel sensor, cargo
sensors, various alarm systems. Likewise, a display of weather forecast and warnings as
well as of reports to navigators are available via satellite. Port information may be
included, too.

Anemometer

 An anemometer is a device used for measuring the speed of wind, and is also a
common weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos,
which means wind, and is used to describe any wind speed measurement instrument
used in meteorology. The first known description of an anemometer was given by Leon
Battista Alberti in 1450.

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Barometer

Ship fluid level (pressure, temperature, draft) monitoring system (cargo, ballast)

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Tank-level sensor

Electronic chart display

Ship’s satellite weather display

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Navtex/ weather fax machine

*integrated navigation system* control system* propulsion system* cargo system* digital
processing unit* sensor* electronic circuit* sensor output* pulse input* master navigation
unit* speed over ground* speed through water* inclinometer* alarm system* visual display
unit* satnav receiver* display* GPS global positioning system* omega/loran receiver*
coverage* decca* RDF* anti- collision radar

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Integrated Bridge System (IBS)

An Integrated Bridge System (IBS) is a combination of systems, which are interconnected to
allow a centralized monitoring of various navigational tools. IBS allows acquiring and control of
sensor information of a number of operations such as passage execution, communication,
machinery control, and safety and security.

Integrated bridge system (IBS) is a kind of navigation management system which links other
systems to provide all the details pertaining to ship’s navigation at one place. It is to note that
not all types of ships have the same type of IBS. The system would vary according to the design
of the ship’s bridge, various types of equipment used by the ship, and general layout of the
equipment of the bridge.

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According to SOLAS, the Integrated Bridge System should be arranged in such a way that failure
of one subsystem does not cause failure of any other sub system. It should also be possible to
operate each other equipment attached to the IBS individually or as a part of the system.

Moreover, on failure of any sub system, an integrated alarm system must provide a suitable
warning to the officer on watch (OOW) of the potential threat.

An integrated bridge navigation system is generally connected to

 Autopilot

 Radar

 Gyro

 Position fixing systems

 ECDIS

 Power distribution system

 Steering gear

An alarm system links all the above mentioned systems and gives out audio and visual signal in
case of any emergency condition. (There can be more systems connected to the IBS and to the
alarm system)

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In most ships, an additional alarm connected to the IBS is also fitted in the cabins of navigational
officers. This alarm provides a signal in the cabins within 30 seconds in case the officer in charge
fails to acknowledge an alarm.

Though IBS is an excellent system for navigation, officers on watch shouldn’t completely rely on
the equipment but should pay proper attention to visual navigational watch keeping techniques
as well.

Also, proper guidelines should be provided on the bridge manual as to when to use and when
not to use the Integrated Bridge System (IBS).

IBS is not mandatory on ships.

Bridge Navigation Watch Alarm System

A Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System, abbreviated BNWAS, is an automatic system which
sounds an alarm if the watch officer on the bridge of a ship falls asleep, becomes otherwise
incapacitated, or is absent for too long a time. The BNWAS is automatically engaged when the
ship's autopilot is activated.[1]
The minimum requirement for a BNWAS under International Maritime Organization standards is
to have a dormant stage and three alarm stages, except that on a non-passenger vessel, the
second stage may be omitted.[2]
Stage 1: When the autopilot is engaged, the bridge officer is required to signal his presence to
the BNWAS system every 3 to 12 minutes in response to a flashing light, [3] either by moving an
arm in front of a motion sensor, pressing a confirmation button, or directly applying pressure to
the BNWAS centre.
Stage 2: When a confirmation signal fails to occur within 15 seconds in Stage 1, an alarm will
sound on the bridge, and if there is still no confirmation signal after a further 15 seconds, in
the captain's and the first officer's cabins.[2] One of them must then go to the bridge and cancel
the alarm.
Stage 3: If neither the captain nor the first officer cancels the alarm within a specified time
period (between 90 seconds and 3 minutes depending on the size of the vessel), an alarm will
sound in locations where other personnel are usually available. [2]
In addition an emergency call function may be provided, by which bridge personnel can activate
a Stage 2 or Stage 3 alarm to call for help.[4]
IMO requirements under the SOLAS resulting from an amendment of June 5, 2009, [5][6][7] come
into force on the following dates for ships classified by size:

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July 2011: new vessels in excess of 150 tonnes

July 2011: all passenger vessels
July 2012: all vessels in excess of 3,000 tonnes
July 2013: all vessels between 500 and 3,000 tonnes
July 2014: all vessels between 150 and 500 tonnes
Specific nations have added further regulations. For example, vessels of the Norwegian coastal
fishery are required to activate a speed sensor connected to the vessel's motor or GPS.
Wired and wireless versions are available.

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Voyage data recorder

Voyage data recorder, or VDR, is a data recording system designed for all vessels required to
comply with the IMO's International Convention SOLAS Requirements (IMO Res.A.861(20)) in
order to collect data from various sensors on board the vessel. It
then digitizes, compresses and stores this information in an externally mounted protective
storage unit. The protective storage unit is a tamper-proof unit designed to withstand the
extreme shock, impact, pressure and heat, which could be associated with a marine incident
(fire, explosion, collision, sinking, etc.).
The protective storage unit may be in a retrievable fixed unit or free float unit (or combined
with EPIRB) when the ship sinks in a marine accident. The last 12 hours (48 Hours for the 2014
regulations MSC.333(90)) of stored data in the protected unit can be recovered and replayed by
the authorities or ship owners for incident investigation. Besides the protective storage unit, the
VDR system may consist of a recording control unit and a data acquisition unit, which are
connected to various equipment and sensors on board a ship. The new MSC.333(90) regulations
also state a minimum of 30 days of recorded data must be held internally (this could be within
the recording control unit, data acquisition unit, Main Electronics Unit depending on the
manufacturers terminology).
Although the primary purpose of the VDR is for accident investigation after the fact, there can
be other uses of recorded data for preventive maintenance, performance efficiency monitoring,

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heavy weather damage analysis, accident avoidance and training purposes to improve safety
and reduce running costs.[1]
Simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR), as defined by the requirements of IMO Performance
Standard MSC.163(78), is a lower cost simplified version VDR for small ships with only basic
ship's data recorded.

Voyage data
The information recorded in the unit(s), sometimes also called Black box for ship, may include
the following information:

 Position, date, time using GPS

 Speed log – Speed through water or speed over ground

 Gyro compass – Heading

 Radar* – As displayed or AIS data if no off-the-shelf converter available for the Radar
video

 ECDIS* – A screen capture every 15 seconds and a list of navigational charts in use every
10 minutes or when a chart change occurs

 Audio from the bridge, including bridge wings

 VHF radio communications

 Echo sounder* – Depth under keel

 Main alarms* – All IMO mandatory alarms

 Hull openings* – Status of hull doors as indicated on the bridge

 Watertight & fire doors* status as indicated on the bridge

 Hull stress* – Accelerations and hull stresses

 Rudder* – Order and feedback response

 Engine/Propeller* – Order and feedback response

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 Thrusters* – Status, direction, amount of thrust % or RPM

 Anemometer and weather vane* – Wind speed and direction

Data marked with * may not be recorded in S-VDR, except Radar and Echo Sounder if data &
standard interfaces available.

Bridge Resource Management

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Weakness
in bridge

organization and management has been cited as a major

cause for marine casualties worldwide. Accidents in
operations are frequently caused by resource management
errors. Bridge Resource Management reduces the risk of marine casualties by helping a ship’s bridge
crew anticipate and correctly respond to their ship’s changing situation.

Principles of Good Management practices are:

• Shared view of goals;

• Delegation of responsibilities;

• Effective organization; and

• Sense of team ownership in achieving goals.

What is Bridge Resource Management? Bridge Resource Management (BRM), or as it is also called
Bridge Team Management (BTM), is the effective management and utilization of all resources, human
and technical, available to the Bridge Team to ensure the safe completion of the vessel’s voyage. BRM
focuses on bridge officers’ skills such as teamwork, teambuilding, communication, leadership, decision-
making and resource management and incorporates this into the larger picture of organizational and
regulatory management. BRM addresses the management of operational tasks, as well as stress,
attitudes and risk. BRM recognizes there are many elements of job effectiveness and safety, such as
individual, organizational, and regulatory factors, and they must be anticipated and planned for. BRM
begins before the voyage with the passage plan and continues through the end of the voyage with the
passage debrief. What Are My Available Resources To Manage? A mariner has many resources available
to him/her for safe passage planning and execution. Some examples include:

• Electronic equipment (i.e. radar, depth sounder, GPS/DGPS, ARPA, gyro compass)

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• Charts and publications, including electronic publications

• Environmental factors (i.e. tide, wind, currents)

• Electronic Charting and Display Information Systems (ECDIS)

• Vessel Traffic Services (VTS)

• Passage plan

• Internal and external communication equipment

• NAVTEX • Automatic Identification System (AIS)

• Persons with local knowledge (i.e. Pilot)

• Bridge Personnel (i.e. Master, Officer On Watch (OOW), helmsman, lookout) What are the objectives of
Bridge Resource Management?

• Share a common view of the intended passage and the agreed procedures to transit the passage with
all members of the Bridge Team.

• Develop and use a detailed passage plan to anticipate and manage workload demands and risks.

• Set appropriate manning levels and make contingency plans based on anticipated workload and risks.

• Make roles and responsibilities clear to Bridge Team members.

• Involve all team members in problem solving.

• Acquire all relevant information early and anticipate dangerous situations.

• Team members clearly understand the chain of command including the way decisions and instructions
are made, responded to, and challenged.

How do I implement Bridge Resource Management on my vessel? The Master can implement BRM by
considering and addressing the following:

• Passage Planning – covering ocean, coastal and pilotage waters. Particular attention is paid to high
traffic areas, shallow waters, or pilotage waters where the plan incorporates appropriate margins of
safety and contingency plans for unexpected incidents.

• Passage Plan Briefing - all bridge team members are briefed on the passage plan and understand the
intended route and procedures to transit the route.

• Bridge Manning – Master uses passage plan to anticipate areas of high workload and risk and sets
manning levels appropriately.

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• Bridge Team Training (ashore and on-the-job) - is given all bridge crew members and they are sure of
their roles and responsibilities, both for their routine duties and their duties in the event of an
incident/emergency.

• Master’s Standing Orders – are read and signed before the commencement of the voyage. Orders are
clear on the chain of command, how decision and instructions are given on the bridge and responded to,
and how bridge team members bring safety concerns to the notice of the Master.

• Master/Pilot Exchange – the passage plan is discussed by the Master and the pilot and changes made
as necessary. Any new information is communicated to the rest of the bridge team. When the pilot is
onboard he/she should be supported as a temporary bridge team member.

• End of Voyage Debriefing – provides the opportunity for the bridge team to review the passage plan’s
strengths and weaknesses, make suggestions for improved safety or communications, and improve team
problem solving skills.

What are the benefits of BRM when correctly practiced on my vessel? When BRM is practiced correctly
onboard the result should be a Bridge Team that:

• Maintains its situational awareness;

• Continually monitors the progress of the vessel making appropriate adjustments and corrections as
necessary to maintain a safe passage;

• Acquires relevant information early;

• Appropriately delegates workload and authority;

• Anticipates dangerous situations;

• Avoids becoming pre-occupied with minor technical problems and losing sight of the big picture;

• Undertakes appropriate contingency plans when called for;

• Recognizes the development of an error chain; and

• Takes appropriate action to break the error-chain sequence.

While operating in Washington State waters, vessel owners, operators, and Masters are expected to
ensure that bridge watchstanders:

• Are properly trained in BTM in accordance with the 1995 Standards for Training, Certification, and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW);

• Practice effective BRM;

• Prepare a comprehensive voyage plan for transiting from entry into US waters to their final berth or
anchorage (and for the outbound transit);

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• Have on the bridge at all times an OOW capable of effectively communicating in English; and

• Follow the communication procedures below. Communication Procedures

• The Master should advise the pilot, upon boarding, which members of the bridge team speak English,
and discuss how communications between the pilot and the bridge team will be handled.

• The Master should discuss the voyage plan with the pilot, and inform bridge team members of the
pilot’s intentions and special concerns.

• The Master or OOW should immediately advise the pilot when, at any point in the transit:

• The maneuverability of the vessel has been adversely affected;

• When he or she has information necessary for the safety of the ship’s transit; or

• When he or she is uncertain of the pilot’s intentions regarding the ship’s movements.

Some examples of incorporating BRM

WATCH CONDITION SHIP’S EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT*

VISIBILITY WATERWAY WATERWAY
1 Unrestricted Offshore Waters Light
2 Restricted Restricted Moderate
3 Restricted Restricted Heavy
4 Restricted Pilotage Waters Heavy
NOTE: There are many combinations of the above environmental and other factors for setting different
watch conditions. These should be set by company policy and supplemented by the master’s orders.

A watch condition structures the bridge team based on the environment in which the ship is operating.
The environment consists of both internal and external factors affecting the vessel. These factors include
the mechanical condition of the vessel, weather, traffic, location and sea state.

Example of setting bridge team duties BRM may group bridge duties into three general areas:

• Collision Avoidance – Detecting and avoiding other craft and objects.

• Navigation – Keeping the vessel safely clear of shoal water, close to her intended track, and on
schedule.

• Administration – Routine watch duties such as communications, log keeping, and supervising watch
personnel.

Example of the division of bridge team duties under different watch conditions

BRIDGE TEAM DUTIES BY WATCH CONDITION*

WATCH BRIDGE TEAM DUTY

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CONDITION CONN COLLISION RADIO NAVIGATION OTHER HEL LOOKOUT

AVOIDANCE COMMUNICATIONS DUTIES M
1 Watch Officer AB
2 Master Watch Officer AB AB/OS
3 Master Watch Officer(s) AB AB/OS
4 Pilot Master Watch Officer AB AB/OS
NOTE: “OTHER DUTIES” may include logbook keeping, equipment checks, and tending the engine order
telegraph and thruster control. Overlap among bridge team members indicates duties that may be
shared. Cadets, when onboard, may be used to supplement and complement other members of the
team. *The charts on this page were adapted from the MITAGS “Bridge Resource Management Course,”
see reference below.

Echo sounding

Echo sounding is a type of sonar used to determine the depth of water by

transmitting sound pulses into water. The time interval between emission and return of a pulse
is recorded, which is used to determine the depth of water along with the speed of sound in
water at the time. This information is then typically used for navigation purposes or in order to
obtain depths for charting purposes. Echo sounding can also refer to hydroacoustic "echo
sounders" defined as active sound in water (sonar) used to study fish. Hydroacoustic
assessments have traditionally employed mobile surveys from boats to evaluate fish biomass
and spatial distributions. Conversely, fixed-location techniques use stationary transducers to
monitor passing fish.
The word sounding is used for all types of depth measurements, including those that don't
use sound, and is unrelated in origin to the word sound in the sense of noise or tones. Echo

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sounding is a more rapid method of measuring depth than the previous technique of lowering
a sounding line until it touched bottom.

Technique

Distance is measured by multiplying half the time from the signal's outgoing pulse to its return
by the speed of sound in the water, which is approximately 1.5 kilometres per second
[T÷2×(4700 feet per second or 1.5 kil per second )] For precise applications of echosounding,
such as hydrography, the speed of sound must also be measured typically by deploying a sound
velocity probe into the water. Echo sounding is effectively a special purpose application
of sonar used to locate the bottom. Since a traditional pre-SI unit of water depth was
the fathom, an instrument used for determining water depth is sometimes called a fathometer.
The first practical fathometer was invented by Herbert Grove Dorsey and patented in 1928.[1]
Most charted ocean depths use an average or standard sound speed. Where greater accuracy is
required average and even seasonal standards may be applied to ocean regions. For high
accuracy depths, usually restricted to special purpose or scientific surveys, a sensor may be
lowered to measure the temperature, pressure and salinity. These factors are used to calculate
the actual sound speed in the local water column. This latter technique is regularly used by US
Office of Coast Survey for navigational surveys of US coastal waters.

Common use
As well as an aid to navigation (most larger vessels will have at least a simple depth sounder),
echo sounding is commonly used for fishing. Variations in elevation often represent places
where fish congregate. Schools of fish will also register. A fishfinder is an echo sounding device
used by both recreational and commercial fishers.

Hydrography

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In areas where detailed bathymetry is required, a precise echo sounder may be used for the
work of hydrography. There are many considerations when evaluating such a system, not limited
to the vertical accuracy, resolution, acoustic beamwidth of the transmit/receive beam and the
acoustic frequency of the transducer.
The majority of hydrographic echosounders are dual frequency, meaning that a low frequency
pulse (typically around 24 kHz) can be transmitted at the same time as a high frequency pulse
(typically around 200 kHz). As the two frequencies are discrete, the two return signals do not
typically interfere with each other. There are many advantages of dual frequency echosounding,
including the ability to identify a vegetation layer or a layer of soft mud on top of a layer of rock.

Most hydrographic operations use a 200 kHz transducer, which is suitable for inshore work up to
100 metres in depth. Deeper water requires a lower frequency transducer as the acoustic signal
of lower frequencies is less susceptible to attenuation in the water column. Commonly used
frequencies for deep water sounding are 33 kHz and 24 kHz.
The beamwidth of the transducer is also a consideration for the hydrographer, as to obtain the
best resolution of the data gathered a narrow beamwidth is preferable. This is especially
important when sounding in deep water, as the resulting footprint of the acoustic pulse can be
very large once it reaches a distant sea floor.

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In addition to the single beam echo sounder, there are echo sounders that are capable of
receiving many return "pings". These systems are detailed further in the section
called multibeam echosounder.
Echo sounders are used in laboratory applications to monitor sediment transport, scour and
erosion processes in scale models (hydraulic models, flumes etc.). These can also be used to
create plots of 3D contours.

Standards For Hydrographic Echo Sounding

The required precision and accuracy of the hydrographic echo sounder is defined by the
requirements of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) for surveys that are to be
undertaken to IHO standards. These values are contained within IHO publication S44.
In order to meet these standards, the surveyor must consider not only the vertical and
horizontal accuracy of the echo sounder and transducer, but the survey system as a whole. A
motion sensor may be used, specifically the heave component (in single beam echosounding) to
reduce soundings for the motion of the vessel experienced on the water's surface. Once all of
the uncertainties of each sensor are established, the hydrographer will create an uncertainty
budget to determine whether the survey system meets the requirements laid down by IHO.
Different hydrographic organisations will have their own set of field procedures and manuals to
guide their surveyors to meet the required standards. Two examples are the US Army Corps of
Engineers publication EM110-2-1003, and the NOAA 'Field Procedures Manual'.

History
German inventor Alexander Behm was granted German patent No. 282009 for the invention of
echo sounding (device for measuring depths of the sea and distances and headings of ships or
obstacles by means of reflected sound waves) on 22 July 1913.
Norwegian Inventor Hans Sundt Berggraf (1874-1941) published the same invention 8 years
earlier, 8 September 1904 in Teknisk Ukeblad.

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