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On Relativistic Continuum Mechanics

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 On Relativistic Continuum Mechanics

Miquel Crusells Girona

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of California at Berkeley

May 2014

Abstract

The present document is designed to be a summary of the key concepts that lead to the general-
ization of the classical Continuum Mechanics into special relativity. The basis of this text is the paper
published by Richard A. Grot and Cemal Eringen Relativistic Continuum Mechanics (Ref. [1]). This
is a two-part paper, whose first part deals with mechanical and thermodynamical developments, and
whose second part is focused on electromagnetic interaction with matter. Even though the basis of this
document is Part I of the former paper, the author will point out some extra concepts and comments
which are not included in the paper, or are simplified.

Index

Index 1

1 Introduction to Special Relativity 2

2 Relativistic kinematics 3
2.1 Invariance requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Notation in Relativistic Continuum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Material surfaces and volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Decomposition of 4-vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 Deformation tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.6 Deformation invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.7 Compatibility conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.8 Rates of deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Relativistic Balance Laws 7

3.1 Conservation of particle number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Balance of energy-momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2.1 First law of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.2 Second law of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Constitutive theories 10

References 10

1
2 1 INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL RELATIVITY

1 Introduction to Special Relativity

Special Relativity started as an incipient idea in Albert Einstein’s mind (1879-1955), in which he
imagined himself traveling on a light ray. How would he see the world in this experiment? This
idea, together with a scientific inconsistence within Maxwell theory of Electromagnetism, forged the
whole Einstein’s theory. Indeed, one can show that Maxwell equations are not satisfied in all reference
systems, but only in inertial ones.
What Einstein came up with to solve this inconsistency was the principle of relativity, which states
that the speed of light has to be independent of the reference system and, hence, cannot depend on the
motion of its source. This statement, as simple as it may seem, has huge implications, mainly sum-
marized in two facts: space and time cannot be independent, and simultaneity is relative to observers
(not an absolute concept).
From a Galilean point of view, one would be able to measure the speed of light c by measuring the
Euclidean distance and the amount of time independently, such that:
√
k∆xk ∆xi ∆xi
c= = (1)
∆t ∆t
However, accounting for this definition, one can state:

∆xi ∆xi − c2 (∆t)2 = 0 (2)

But, from another reference system, one would also measure:

∆x̂i ∆x̂i − c2 (∆t̂)2 = 0 (3)

And actually, they have to, at least, coincide by the principle of relativity:

∆xi ∆xi − c2 (∆t)2 = ∆x̂i ∆x̂i − c2 (∆t̂)2 (4)

Rigurously, these two quantities need not vanish. A former Einstein professor, Hermann Minkowski
(1864-1909), actually after Einstein’s ideas were published in 1905, realized special relativity could be
mathematically described by a non-Euclidean geometry, and introduced what is nowadays known as
the Minkowski metric. As a result, the old and established idea that physical space is an Euclidean
space was about to disappear:

dl2 = gij dxi dxj ; dx ∈ R3 (5)

In its place, a new concept was arising, space-time. All Einstein’s ideas conducted to the fact that
the laws of physics cannot be included in R3 × R, but in a four-dimensional space: the Minkowski space,
M4 , where a new metric1 is defined:

dl2 = ηµν dxµ dxν ; dx ∈ M4 (6)

Although there are several consistent ways to define the Minkowski metric, this text, and Eringen’s
paper, use a metric with signature (+++-)2 :
 
1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 
ηµν = 
 0 0 1
 (7)
0 
2
0 0 0 −c
And so, for a vector x ∈ M4 :

kxkM4 = (x1 )2 + (x2 )2 + (x3 )2 − (cx4 )2 (8)

1
From now on, k ∈ {1, 2, 3}, K ∈ {1, 2, 3} and α ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
2
Eringen’s paper consider the speed of light c = 1 by simplicity, fact that won’t be applied herein.

On Relativistic Continuum Mechanics

2 RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS 3

As a result, the surface in M4 satisfying kxkM4 = 0 is called the light cone and represent all the
possible relations of a point in M4 , also called an event, with his past, present and future. Hence, the
light cone is divided into present, future light cone and past light cone, as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Light cone of future, present and past.

One can easily see that intertial systems are straight lines within the cone.

2 Relativistic kinematics
As usual, continuum mechanics deal with the deformation of a body, as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Deformation.

However, the spatial description of the deformation will now be:

xk = x̂k (X K , t) ≡ x̂k (X K , x4 ) (9)

k 4
Where x and x are not independent. And one imposes for this function to have an inverse, then
det xk,K 6= 0 at any point. As a result, one can describe the mapping as:

X K = X̂ K (xµ ) (10)
µ
Where x lives in a Minkowski subspace such that:

xµ ∈ D = {xk ∈ Bt , 0 < x4 < ∞} ⊂ M4 (11)

2.1 Invariance requirements

Recall that, for the Galilean group, the invariance transformations are those that conserve the Euclidean
norm:

Miquel Crusells Girona

4 2 RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS

x+ = Qx + a ; Q ∈ SO(3) , a constant (12)

Nevertheless, it can be proved that these transformations are not invariant to the Minkowski metric.
For the transformations to conserve the Minkowski metric, one applies:

x̂µ = Λµ·ν xν + aµ (13)

In the former equation aµ is a constant vector, and the tensors Λµ·ν are such that X K (xµ ) = X K (x̂µ ):
·α ·ν
Λα ν α
·ν Λ·β = Λν Λβ = δβ (14)
One can show that the relevant Λµ·ν
are those with det Λµ·ν
= +1, which represent hyperbolic rota-
tions. Tensors such that det Λµ·ν = −1 are those that change the parity, an important fact in Quantum
Mechanics that will not be addressed here. Within the former tensor, it is convinient to define in
Special Relativity, calling v to the particle velocity:
1 β v
cosh ψ = p =γ; sinh ψ = p = γβ ; β = (15)
1− β2 1−β 2 c
And hence the Lorentz group, for instance within the x1 − x4 surface, is the one compounded by
transformations such as:

cx̂4 = cx4 cosh ψ − x1 sinh ψ

x̂1 = −cx4 sinh ψ + x1 cosh ψ
(16)
x̂2 = x2
x̂3 = x3
As a result:

x4 − β x1 x1 − vx4
x̂4 = p c ; x̂1 = p (17)
1 − β2 1 − β2
From this transformations in all the hypersurfaces, one obtains the world velocity or 4-velocity, uα ,
which plays a central role in relativistic mechanics:
( )
α vk c
u = p ,p ∈ M4 (18)
1−β 2 1−β 2

2.2 Notation in Relativistic Continuum Mechanics

As a result, the deformation can be described in two different ways:

X K = X̂ K (xµ ) (19)

xk = x̂k (X K , x4 ) (20)
And we denote the derivatives as:

∂xk (X K , x4 )
xk,K = (21)
∂X K
∂xk (X K , x4 )
xk,4 = (22)
∂(cx4 )
∂xk (X K , x4 )
vk = (23)
∂x4
According to these definitions, a very important result is obtained for the Minkowski metric:
K
X,4 = −v k X,k
K
=⇒ uα X,α
K
=0 (24)

On Relativistic Continuum Mechanics

2 RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS 5

2.3 Material surfaces and volumes

According to result 24, one can define the invariant derivative of a magnitude φ in Special Relativity
as:

Dφ = uα φ,α (25)
And so the generalization of the material time derivative in Special Relativity will be:
1 Dφ
Dt φ = u4 φ,4 = γDφ = p (26)
1− β2 Dt
As a result, the materiality condition for a field f reads as Dt f = 0.

2.4 Decomposition of 4-vectors

A vector x ∈ M4 is said to be space-like if kxk2 > 0, null if kxk2 = 0 and time-like if kxk2 < 0.
As a result, a vector F α admits a decomposition:

F α = f α + uα f (27)
Where f α is space-like and f is time-like. To obtain these components, the projection operator is
defined:

α 1 α
S·β = δβα + u uβ (28)
c2
K
According to this decomposition, one can easily show that the reference vectors X,α are space-like:

µ K 1 µ
S·α X,µ = δαµ X,µ
K
+ K
u uα X,µ K
= X,α K
≡ X,µ (29)
c2

2.5 Deformation tensors

K
Seeing that X,µ are space-like, one can immediately define the inverse of the Green deformation tensor3 :

(C −1 )KL = η αβ X,α
K L
X,β (30)
Certainly, one can develop its components to see the following:

vi vj
 
1 K L 1
(C −1 )KL = δ ij X,iK X,jL − 2
X,4 X,4 = δ ij X,iK X,jL − 2 v i X,iK v j X,jL = δ ij − 2 X,iK X,jL (31)
c c c
The defined Green tensor is a generalization of the one in classical continuum mechanics. Indeed,
suppose v = 0 and one obtains the same representation for the tensor.
Moreover:

vi vj
 
−1 ij

2
2
det X,iK = 1 − β 2 det X,iK ≥ 0


det C = det δ − 2 (32)
c
Where it is imposed that β 2 ≤ 1, hence v ≤ c.
The inverse of the former tensor is:
 
1
CKL = δij + 2 ui uj xi,K xj,L (33)
c
And so the Green tensor measures the change in length in the Minkowski metric. Note that xi,K
are not space-like in general.
3
The same notation as in classical continuum mechanics is used in order to foment the analogy.

Miquel Crusells Girona

6 2 RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS

The strain tensor can then be defined as:

2EKL = CKL − GKL (34)

Also, one can show the inverse relation:

CKL = Skl xk,K xl,L = Skα Sαl xk,K xl,L (35)

And:
β
CKL = ηαβ xα α α k
K xL where xK = Sk x,K (36)
It can be proved that the quantities xα
K are 4-vectors, and thus define a two-point tensor.
The Cauchy tensors can be defined as:

K L
cαβ = δKL X,α X,β (37)

β α β −1 kl
(c−1 )αβ = δ KL xα
K xL = Sk Sl (c ) (38)
Thus:

cαβ (c−1 )αβ = Sβα (39)

As a result, one can see that in this case they are inverse one another by a factor S, the projection
operator. This can be explained because in Special Relativity, simultaneity is not an absolute concept.
This result becomes the identity only when two events xβ and xβ + dxβ satisfy:
1 α
Sβα dxβ = δβα dxβ + u uβ dxβ = δβα dxβ =⇒ uβ dxβ = 0 (40)
c2

2.6 Deformation invariants

As in classical continuum mechanics, one can state the invariants of the deformation tensors, satisfying:

tr C = tr c−1
tr C2 = tr(c−1 )2 (41)
tr C3 = tr(c−1 )3
And the relationship between volumes is of the same form:

dv0
J= (42)
dV
Where the Jacobian is defined within the Minkowski metric (i.e. 4-D permutation operator):
1 αβγδ K L M
J= ε εKLM X,α X,β X,γ uδ (43)
6

2.7 Compatibility conditions

If one uses convected curvilinear coordinates within the 4-D Minkowski space:

K L
cαβ = δKL X,α X,β (44)
And one states the following definitions from differential geometry:
K L K L
cαβ,γ = δKL X,αγ X,β + δKL X,α X,βγ
(45)
1
Γαβγ = (cαγ,β + cβγ,α − cαβ,γ )
2

On Relativistic Continuum Mechanics

3 RELATIVISTIC BALANCE LAWS 7

Then:
K L K K γ
Γαβγ = δKL X,αβ X,γ =⇒ X,αβ = X,γ Γαβ (46)
This differential system is integrable if and only if:
K γ K γ K γ K γ
X,γ Γαβ,δ + X,γ Γαδ Γεαβ = X,γ Γαδ,β + X,γ Γαβ Γεαδ (47)
Hence, defining the relativistic Riemann-Christoffel tensor :
α α
 τ
Γβδ,γ − Γτβγ,δ + Γτσγ,δ Γσβδ − Γτσδ Γσβγ

R̂·βγδ = S·τ (48)
The compatibility condition is:
α
R̂·βγδ (cαβ ) = 0 (49)

2.8 Rates of deformation

Playing the role of the velocity gradient in classical continuum mechanics, one can introduce the space-
like projection of the world velocity gradient as:
µ α
ûα
β = Sβ u,µ (50)
Then, it is possible to decompose the former vector into a symmetric and skew-symmetric part, the
rate of deformation tensor dˆαβ and the spin tensor ŵαβ .
1 1
ûαβ = (ûαβ + uβα ) + (uαβ − uβα ) = dˆαβ + ŵαβ (51)
2 2

3 Relativistic Balance Laws

In classical continuum mechanics, one often states the balance law for a magnitude φ in terms of the
flux i and the generation per unit volume s:
Z Z Z
D
φ dv = i · da + s dv (52)
Dt V(t) S(t) V(t)

Integrating this expression in time and noting dv = dx1 dx2 dx3 , dt ≡ dx4 and da = dx̂1 dx̂2 , one
obtains:
Z Z Z Z Z
k 4
φ dv − φ dv − i dak dx = s dvdx4 (53)
V(t2 ) V(t1 ) t S(t) V(t)
µ
But assuming φ = φ̂(x ):

Dt φ = γDφ = γ(φ,k xk,4 + φ,4 ) = γ(φ,k v k + φ,4 ) (54)

And so the left hand side of equation 53 may be rewritten as:
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
k 4 t 4
φ dv − φ dv − i dak dx = γD φ dvdx − ik dak dx4 (55)
V(t2 ) V(t1 ) t S(t) t V(t) t S(t)

And4 :

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
γDt φ dvdt − ik dak dx4 = γ(φ,k v k + φ,4 ) dvdx4 − ik dak dx4 =
t
ZV(t)
Z t S(t)
Z Z t V(t)
I t S(t)
I (56)
k 4 k 4 k k
= γ(φv , φ) dak dx − i dak dx = (γφv − i , γφ) ds3α = φα ds3α
t V(t) t S(t) ∂M ∂M

4
Note that flux within the time direction is not allowed.

Miquel Crusells Girona

8 3 RELATIVISTIC BALANCE LAWS

Hence, the balance law in relativistic continuum mechanics reads as:

I Z
φα ds3α = s dv4 (57)
∂M M

Where M represents the material 4-volume in space-time and ∂M, its boundary; and the compo-
nents of the magnitude are φα = (γφv k − ik , γφ).
A property φ is said to be conserved when, for ik = s = 0, and thus φα = uα φ:
I
φα ds3α = 0 (58)
∂M

3.1 Conservation of particle number

It is rapidly noticed in relativity that, if one establishes φ = m the mass of a particle, this is not
constant. Particularly, the fourth component of φα reads as:
m0
m = γm0 = p (59)
1 − β2
This magnitude is called in relativity the improper mass or relativistic mass of a particle. As a result,
the conservation of mass does not make sense, and one has to formulate the same concept by implying
the conservation of particle number. This principle is based on the non-creation or indestrucibility of
particles5 .
To this end, one assigns to any dimensional 3-d boundary P a density of particles nα , such that:
Z
N [P] = nα ds3α (60)
P

It is easy to see that the density of particles change is in close relationship to equation 59. And the
integral form of the balance law is:
I
nα ds3α = 0 (61)
∂M

Locally, one can show that the conservation of particle number reads as:

nα
,α = 0 (62)

3.2 Balance of energy-momentum

One can generalize the idea of the stress tensor of classical continuum mechanics by stating a principle
in a 3-dimensional hypersurface with normal n:

T µν nν = tµ (63)
µν
Where T is the so-called energy-momentum tensor. Notice that momentum and energy are all
mixed within the 4x4 tensor.
According to 57, one can derive the balance of energy-momentum in integral and local forms:
I Z
µν
T ds3α = f µ dv 4 (64)
∂M M

T,νµν = f µ (65)
However, it is actually intersting to unravel the different contributions of the energy-momentum
tensor. It can be proved that a possible decomposition of the tensor is such that:
5
This approach is called classical relativistic mechanics, as opposed to relativistic quantum mechanics, where the idea of
creating and destroying particles is essential.

On Relativistic Continuum Mechanics

3 RELATIVISTIC BALANCE LAWS 9

T µν = ωuµ uν + uµ q ν + pµ uν − tµν (66)

Where the first term refers to the kinetic energy-momentum, the second one to the heat flow four-
vector, the third one to the non-mechanical momentum and the last one to the relativistic stress tensor,
with the following definitions (projections):

ω = T αβ uα uβ
q α = −S·β
α γβ
T uγ
α α βγ (67)
p = −S·β T uγ
αβ α β γδ
t = −S·γ S·δ T

3.2.1 First law of thermodynamics

Following the same exact procedure of classical continuum mechanics, on can contract equation 66 with
the world velocity:
αβ
uα T,β = f α uα (68)
Integrating by parts:

(uα T αβ ),β − T αβ uα,β = f α uα (69)

One can show that, according to the former decomposition:

uα T αβ = −ωuβ − q β (70)

T αβ uα,β = pα Dt uα − tαβ uα,β (71)

And thus obtain:
β
−(ωuβ ),β − q,β − pα Dt uα + tαβ uα,β = f α uα (72)
And if one defines an internal energy function such that ω = n0 ε, the first law of thermodynamics
reads as:
β
n0 Dt ε = tαβ uα,β − q,β − pα Dt uα − f α uα (73)

3.2.2 Second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics reads as an inequality for the Clausius integral. If one assumes a
4-vector entropy function η α and a 4-vector entropy generation r, formulation 57 reads as:
I Z
α
η ds3α + r dv4 ≥ 0 (74)
∂M M

α
η,α +r ≥0 (75)
And the 4-vector entropy admits a decomposition in time-like and space-like components:

η µ = η0 uµ + sµ (76)
If one denotes η0 = η00 n0 , the balance reads as:

n0 Dt η00 + sβ,β + r ≥ 0 (77)

For a homothermal process, one can make the analogy:

Miquel Crusells Girona

 10 REFERENCES

h0 qµ
r= sµ = (78)
θ θ
Transforming the former balance into:

qβ
 
t h0
n0 D η00 + + ≥0 (79)
θ ,β θ
Clearly, equation 79 clearly reminds of the classical continuum mechanics 2nd law.

4 Constitutive theories
Within relativistic continuum mechanics, and according to all of the former formulation, one imposes
five conditions to constitutive theories:
ˆ Causality. The behaviour of the material at the event x is determined only by events lying in the
past light cone at x.
ˆ Locality. The behaviour of the material at an event x depends strongly on the properties of the
material in the neighbourhood of the event.
ˆ Lorentz invariance. The constitutive equations are invariant to a Lorentz transformation.
ˆ Material invariance. The constitutive relations are invariant under the symmetry group which
characterizes the material in the Lagrangian frame X K .
ˆ Consistency. The constitutive equations must be consistent with the balance laws.
ˆ Equipresence. An independent variable that appears in one constitutive equation should appear
in all of them unless excluded by one of the above principles.

References
[1] Grot, R.A. and Eringen, C.: Relativistic Continuum Mechanics. Part I - Mechanics and
Thermodynamics. International Journal of Engineering Science, 1966, 4, pp. 611–638.

[2] ——: Relativistic Continuum Mechanics. Part II - Electromagnetic Interactions with Matter. In-
ternational Journal of Engineering Science, 1966, 4, pp. 639–670.

[3] Hartle, J.B.: Gravity. An introduction to Einstein’s General Relativity. Pearson Education, 2003.

[4] Maugin, G. and Eringen, C.: Relativistic continua with directors. Journal of Mathematical
Physics, 1972, 13(11), pp. 1788–1797.

On Relativistic Continuum Mechanics

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