HSC General Mathematics Text Book

MATHS
Quest
General Mathematics
HSC COURSE
D E D ITION
SE CON
Robert Rowland
Second edition published 2007 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2001
Typeset in 10.5/12.5 pt Times
© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2001, 2007
The moral rights of the author have been asserted.
National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Rowland, Robert, 1963–.

Maths quest: general mathematics HSC.
2nd ed.
Includes index.
For secondary school students.
ISBN 978 0 7314 0569 5. (Student edition)
ISBN 978 0 7314 0568 8. (Teacher edition)
1. Mathematics - Problems, exercises, etc. 2. Mathematics.

I. Title.
510
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Contents
Introduction vi Summary 73
About eBookPlus viii Chapter review 75
Acknowledgements ix Practice examination questions 78
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 1 Applications of
Credit and borrowing 1 trigonometry 79
Are you ready? 2 Are you ready? 80
Flat rate interest 3 Review of right-angled triangles 81
Exercise 1A 6 Exercise 3A 85
Home loans 9 Bearings 86
Exercise 1B 12 Exercise 3B 89
10 Quick Questions 1 16 Investigation — Trigonometric ratios for obtuse
The cost of a loan 16 angles 91
Exercise 1C 19 The sine rule 91
Investigation — Researching home loans 22 Investigation — Derivation of the sine rule 92
Credit cards 22 Exercise 3C 95
Exercise 1D 26 Exercise 3D 99
Investigation — Researching credit cards 28 10 Quick Questions 1 101
10 Quick Questions 2 28
Area of a triangle 102
Loan repayments 29 Exercise 3E 103
Exercise 1E 31 The cosine rule 106
Summary 34 Investigation — Derivation of the cosine
Chapter review 36 rule 106
Practice examination questions 39
Exercise 3F 109
Exercise 3G 115
CHAPTER 2 Radial surveys 118
Further applications of area Exercise 3H 121
Investigation — Conducting a radial
and volume 41
survey 122
Are you ready? 42
Summary 123
Area of parts of the circle 43
Chapter review 125
Exercise 2A 45
Area of composite shapes 48
Exercise 2B 50
Simpson’s rule 53 CHAPTER 4
Exercise 2C 55 Interpreting sets of data 129
Surface area of cylinders and spheres 57 Are you ready? 130
Exercise 2D 59 Measures of location and spread 131
Investigation — Packaging 62 Exercise 4A 136
Volume of composite solids 62 Skewness 140
Exercise 2E 65 Exercise 4B 142
Investigation — Maximising volume 67 10 Quick Questions 1 145
10 Quick Questions 2 68 Displaying multiple data sets 145
Error in measurement 69 Investigation — Examining exam results 146
Exercise 2F 71 Exercise 4C 150
iv
Comparison of data sets 152
Exercise 4D 155
CHAPTER 7
Investigation — Developing a two-way Applications of
table 159 probability 217
Summary 160 Are you ready? 218
Chapter review 161 Expected outcomes 219
Practice examination questions 165 Investigation — Rolling a die 219
Exercise 7A 221
Financial expectation 223
CHAPTER 5 Exercise 7B 225
Algebraic skills and 10 Quick Questions 1 226
techniques 167 Two-way tables 227
Are you ready? 168 Exercise 7C 229
Substitution 169 Summary 232
Exercise 5A 171 Chapter review 233
Algebraic manipulation 172 Practice examination questions 235
Exercise 5B 174
Equations and formulas 175 CHAPTER 8
Exercise 5C 178 Annuities and loan
Solution by substitution 180 repayments 237
Exercise 5D 182 Are you ready? 238
Investigation — Repeated enlargements 183 Future value of an annuity 239
10 Quick Questions 2 183 Exercise 8A 242
Scientific notation 184 10 Quick Questions 1 245
Exercise 5E 186 Present value of an annuity 246
Summary 187 Exercise 8B 248
Chapter review 188
Future and present value tables 250
Exercise 8C 253
CHAPTER 6 Loan repayments 255
Exercise 8D 257
Multi-stage events 191 Investigation — Types of loan
Are you ready? 192 arrangements 259
Tree diagrams 193 Summary 260
Exercise 6A 195 Chapter review 261
Counting techniques 196 Practice examination questions 263
Investigation — Ordered arrangements 196
Investigation — Tree diagrams and ordered
arrangements 198
Investigation — Committee selections 199
CHAPTER 9
Investigation — Unordered selection 200 Modelling linear and
Exercise 6B 200 non-linear relationships 265
Probability and counting techniques 201 Are you ready? 266
Investigation — Popular gaming 203 Linear functions 267
Exercise 6C 203 Exercise 9A 272
10 Quick Questions 1 204 Investigation — Conversion of
Probability trees 205 temperature 274
Exercise 6D 209 Quadratic functions 274
Summary 212 Exercise 9B 278
Chapter review 213 Investigation — Maximising areas 280
Practice examination questions 215 10 Quick Questions 1 280
v
Other functions 281 CHAPTER 12
Exercise 9C 284
Investigation — Compound interest 285 Correlation 349
Are you ready? 350
Variations 285
Exercise 9D 288 Scatterplots 351
Exercise 12A 355
Graphing physical phenonema 289 Investigation — Collecting bivariate data 357
Exercise 9E 292
Regression lines 357
Investigation — Force of gravity 293
Exercise 12B 359
Summary 294 Exercise 12C 365
Chapter review 295 Investigation — Relationship between
Practice examination questions 297 variables 369
CHAPTER 10 Correlation 370
Depreciation 299 Investigation — Causality 372
Are you ready? 300 Exercise 12D 374
Modelling depreciation 301 Summary 378
Investigation — Depreciation of motor Chapter review 379
vehicles 301 Practice examination questions 381
Exercise 10A 304
Straight line depreciation 307 CHAPTER 13
Exercise 10B 309 Spherical geometry 383
Declining balance method of Are you ready? 384
depreciation 310 Arc lengths 385
Exercise 10C 312 Exercise 13A 386
Investigation — Rates of depreciation 313 Great circles and small circles 389
10 Quick Questions 1 314 Exercise 13B 390
Depreciation tables 314 10 Quick Questions 1 392
Exercise 10D 319 Latitude and longitude 393
Summary 322 Exercise 13C 396
Chapter review 323 Investigation — Important parallels of
Practice examination questions 325 latitude 397
Distances on the Earth’s surface 397
CHAPTER 11 Exercise 13D 399
The normal distribution 327 Time zones 401
Are you ready? 328 Investigation — Australian time zones 402
z-scores 329 Exercise 13E 404
Exercise 11A 332 Investigation — The keepers of time 405
Comparison of scores 334 Summary 406
Exercise 11B 336 Chapter review 407
10 Quick Questions 1 338 Practice examination questions 409
Investigation — Comparison of subjects 338
Distribution of scores 339 Glossary 411
Exercise 11C 342
Investigation — Examining a normal Formula sheet 414
distribution 343
Summary 344 Answers 417
Chapter review 345
Practice examination questions 346 Index 449
Introduction
Maths Quest General Mathematics — HSC course is the second book in a
series specifically designed for the General Mathematics Stage 6 Syllabus
starting in 2000. This course replaces the current syllabuses for Mathematics
in Society (1981) and Mathematics in Practice (1989).
There are five new areas of study:

• Financial mathematics
• Data analysis
• Measurement
• Probability
• Algebraic modelling.
This resource contains:

• a student textbook with accompanying eBookPLUS and
• a teacher edition with accompanying eGuidePLUS.
Student textbook
Full colour is used throughout to produce clearer graphs and diagrams, to pro-
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Clear, concise theory sections contain worked examples, highlighted impor-

tant text and remember boxes.
Worked examples in a Think/Write format provide a clear explanation of key

steps and suggest a presentation for solutions.
Exercises contain many carefully graded skills and application problems,

including multiple-choice questions. Cross-references to relevant worked
examples appear beside the first ‘matching’ question throughout the exercises.
Investigations, including spreadsheet investigations, provide further learning

opportunities through discovery.
Sets of 10 Quick Questions allow students to quickly review the concepts

just learnt before proceeding further in the chapter.
A glossary of mathematical terms is provided to assist students’ under-

standing of the terminology introduced in each unit of the course. Words in
bold type in the theory sections of each chapter are defined in the glossary at
the back of the book.
Each chapter concludes with a summary and chapter review exercise, con-
taining questions in a variety of forms (multiple-choice, short-answer and
analysis) that help consolidate students’ learning of new concepts.
Practice examination questions provide a ready source of problems for stu-

dents to use to gain further confidence in each topic.
vii
Technology is fully integrated, in line with Board of Studies recommen-
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versions of the programs (with the exception of Microsoft Excel) are also
included, as well as hundreds of supporting files available online.
Graphics calculator tips are incorporated throughout the text.
All formulas, which are given on the examination formula sheet, are marked
with the symbol .
Programs included
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Poly: for visualising 3D polyhedra and their nets
Tess: for producing tessellations and other symmetric planar illustrations
TI Connect: calculator screen capture and program transfer
CASIO Software FA-123: calculator screen capture and program transfer
Cabri Geometry II: dynamic geometry program
Adobe® Acrobat® Reader 4.0
Teacher edition with accompanying

eGuidePLUS
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more. To support teachers assisting students in class, answers appear in red
next to most questions in the exercises. Each exercise is annotated with rel-
evant study design dot points. A readily accessible Work program lists all
available resources and provides curriculum coverage information.
The accompanying online resources contain everything in the student
eBookPLUS and more. Four tests per chapter, fully worked solutions to
WorkSHEETs, the work program and other curriculum advice in editable
Word 2000 format are provided.
Maths Quest is a rich collection of teaching and learning resources within
one package.
Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC course provides ample material,
such as exercises, analysis questions, investigations, worksheets and tech-
nology files, from which teachers may set assessment tasks.
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Acknowledgements
The Maths Quest project began in 1997, and the first edition of this book
was printed in 2001. In that time we believe that Maths Quest has become
the best resourced mathematical database in Australian education. I would
like to thank all of those people who have supported us with our first edition.
I hope that we have been able to help you in achieving your goals and have
also played a part in your successes.
Technology has evolved greatly since our first edition was published. The
second edition has evolved from being a textbook in its first edition, into an
interactive resource for both students and teachers. I would like to thank
everyone at John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd for giving me the opportunity
to do this.
There are three people in particular that I would like to single out for
special mention: Jennifer Nolan, whose support for the Maths Quest project
and for me personally has made everything possible; Ingrid Kemp, the
newest addition to our team. Ingrid has brought a new set of eyes to our
project and kept the ball rolling — thanks, Ingrid; and finally, Keith Hart-
mann, who has tirelessly reviewed all of the new material and has completed
all of the answer checking. Thanks, Keith — hope you’re enjoying
retirement!
Finally and most importantly to my family — thank you. Without your
support this book and online resources would never have been completed.
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About the author

Robert Rowland has been teaching Mathematics for over 20 years and cur-
rently holds the position of Head teacher, Teaching and learning at Ulladulla
High School. He taught at Cabramatta High School from 1985 to 1988 before
taking up his appointment at Ulladulla High School in 1989. Robert has suc-
cessfully taught all levels of Mathematics to Year 12 as well as Computing
Studies 7–12 and Information Processes and Technology. Robert is the co-
author of New South Wales Maths Year 9 Standard and New South Wales
Maths Year 10 Standard as well as being the author of Maths Quest General
Mathematics — Preliminary Course and Maths Quest General Mathematics
— HSC Course.
Credit and
borrowing
1
syllabus reference
Financial mathematics 4
• Credit and borrowing
In this chapter
1A Flat rate interest
1B Home loans
1C The cost of a loan
1D Credit cards
1E Loan repayments
areyou
Are you ready? READY?
Try the questions below. If you have difficulty with any of them, extra help can be
obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon
next to the question on the Maths Quest HSC Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for
a copy.
1.1 Converting a percentage to a decimal

1 Convert each of the following percentages to decimals.
a 40% b 12% c 8% d 2.4%
1
e 0.3% f 7 --- % g 1--- % h 0.02%
2 4
1.2 Finding a percentage of a quantity (money)

2 Find:
a 30% of $5000 b 5% of $7390 c 7.4% of $125 000
d 0.45% of $3600 e 1--- % of $82 000 f 0.06% of $78 000
2
1.3 Calculating simple interest

3 Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of:
a $7000 at 9% p.a. for 4 years b $57 500 at 6.5% p.a. for 2 years
c $90 000 at 7 1--- % for 2 1--- years d $60 000 at 5.2% p.a. for 9 months
2 2
1.4 Finding values of n and r in financial formulas

4 Find the value of n and r for each of the following investments
a Interest of 6% p.a. for 5 years with interest calculated annually
b Interest of 9% p.a. for 4 years with interest calculated six-monthly
c Interest of 8.8% p.a. for 3 years with interest calculated quarterly
d Interest of 7.2% p.a. for 10 years with interest calculated monthly
e Interest of 21% p.a. for June with interest calculated daily
1.5 Calculating compound interest

5 Use the formula A = P(1 + r)n to calculate the amount to which each of the following investments
will grow.
a $7000 at 9% p.a. for 4 years with interest compounded annually
b $75 000 at 6.2% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded six-monthly
Calculate the amount of compound interest earned on an investment of:
c $18 000 at 9.2% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded annually
d $150 000 at 8.4% p.a. for 10 years with interest compounded quarterly
1.6 Substitution into a formula

6 Evaluate each of the following by substituting into the given formula.
m
a If d = ---- , find d when m = 30 and v = 3.
v
b If A = 1--- (x + y)h, find A when h = 10, x = 7 and y = 2.
2
c If s = ut + 1--- at2, find s when u = 0.8, t = 5 and a = 2.3.

2
Chapter 1 Credit and borrowing 3
Flat rate interest
During the preliminary course we calculated the simple interest earned on investments.
Flat rate interest is the borrowing equivalent of simple interest. Flat rate interest applies
to many small loans and hire purchase agreements.
When money is borrowed from a lending institution such as a bank at a flat rate of
interest, the total amount of interest is calculated as a percentage of the initial amount
borrowed and then this is multiplied by the term of the loan. The term of the loan is
the length of time which the loan is agreed to be repaid over.
The formula for calculating the amount of flat interest to be paid on a loan is the
same formula as for simple interest (I):
I = Prn
where P = initial quantity
r = percentage interest rate per period expressed as a decimal
n = number of periods
As you work through the financial mathematics strand there are several formulas that
use the same pronumerals.
While the initial quantity (P) will be the principal in an investing scenario, it will
represent the amount borrowed in a loans situation.
All of these formulas use the same pronumerals and all of them require r to be
expressed as a decimal. It should be part of your normal practice when doing such
questions to convert the interest rate, expressed as a percentage, to a decimal. In simple
or flat rate interest, r will always be a rate per annum or per year and there will be no
variation on this regardless of how often interest is paid.
Similarly, n will always be the number of years of the investment or loan.
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the flat interest to be paid on a loan of $20 000 at 7.5% p.a. flat interest if the
loan is to be repaid over 5 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Convert the interest rate to a decimal. r = 7.5 ÷ 100

= 0.075
2 Write the formula. I = Prn
3 Substitute the values of P, r (as a = $20 000 × 0.075 × 5
decimal) and n.
4 Calculate. = $7500
Once the interest has been calculated, we can calculate the total amount that must be
repaid in a loan. This is calculated by adding the principal and the interest.
4 Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course
WORKED Example 2
Alvin borrows $8000 to buy a car at a flat rate of 9% p.a. interest. Alvin is to repay the
loan, plus interest, over 4 years. Calculate the total amount that Alvin is to repay on this
loan.
THINK WRITE
1 Convert the interest rate to a decimal. r = 9 ÷ 100
= 0.09
2 Write the interest formula. I = Prn
3 Substitute the values of P, r and n. = $8000 × 0.09 × 4
4 Calculate the interest. = $2880
5 Calculate the total repayments by Total repayments = $8000 + $2880
adding the interest and principal. Total repayments = $10 880
Graphics Calculator tip! Calculate simple interest

Your Casio graphics calculator can perform a number of financial functions by using
the TVM mode.
One of the options in this mode is to calculate simple interest. Examples such as
worked example 2 above are more simply done using the arithmetic method as shown
above. However, for some of the more complex questions later in this chapter it is
worth familiarising yourself with this method.
1. From the MENU select TVM.
2. Press F1 to select Simple Interest.
3. The calculator has two modes of calculating interest:

360 day mode or 365 day mode. You need to make
sure that it is on 365 day mode. If not, press SHIFT
[SET UP], select Date Mode and press F1 for 365.
4. Press EXE to return to the previous screen and

enter the data for worked example 2.
n = 4 × 365 (as n is in days)
I% = 9
PV = –8000
(principal or present value is entered as a negative)
5. The calculator gives you two options.
Press F1 (SI) for simple interest
Press F2 (SFV) for future value (in other words, the
principal plus interest).
In this example we want the total repayments, so we
press F2 (SPV).
Most loans are repaid on a monthly basis. Once the total amount to be repaid has been
calculated, this can be divided into equal monthly, fortnightly or weekly instalments.
WORKED Example 3
Narelle buys a computer on hire purchase. The cash price of the computer is $3000, but
Narelle must pay a 10% deposit with the balance paid at 8% p.a. flat rate interest in equal
monthly instalments over 3 years.
a Calculate the deposit.
b Calculate the balance owing.
c Calculate the interest on the loan.
d Calculate the total amount to be repaid.
e Calculate the amount of each monthly instalment.
THINK WRITE
a Find 10% of $3000. a Deposit = 10% of $3000

Deposit = $300
b Subtract the deposit from the cash price b Balance = $3000 − $300
to find the amount borrowed. Balance = $2700
c 1 Write the interest formula. c I = Prn

2 Substitute for P, r and n. I = $2700 × 0.08 × 3
3 Calculate the interest. I = $648
d Add the interest to the amount d Total repayments = $2700 + $648

borrowed. Total repayments = $3348
e Divide the total repayments by 36 e Monthly repayments = $3348 ÷ 36

(the number of monthly instalments in Monthly repayments = $93.00
3 years).
If given the amount to be repaid each month, we can calculate the interest rate. The
interest on the loan is the difference between the total repaid and the amount borrowed.
This is then calculated as a yearly amount and written as a percentage of the amount
borrowed.
WORKED Example 4
Theresa borrows $12 000 to buy a car. This is to be repaid over 5 years at $320 per month.
Calculate the flat rate of interest that Theresa has been charged.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the total amount that is Total repayments = $320 × 60
repaid. Total repayments = $19 200
2 Subtract the principal from the total Interest = $19 200 − $12 000
repayments to find the interest. Interest = $7200
3 Calculate the interest paid each year. Interest per year = $7200 ÷ 5
Interest per year = $1440
4 Write the annual interest as a $1440
Interest rate = ------------------- × 100%
percentage of the amount borrowed. $12 000
Interest rate = 12%
remember
1. Flat rate interest is the borrowing equivalent of simple interest. It is calculated
based on the initial amount borrowed.
2. The simple interest formula is used to calculate the amount of flat rate interest
to be paid on a loan. The simple interest formula is I = Prn .
3. The total amount to be repaid on a loan is the principal plus interest. To
calculate the amount of each instalment, we divide the total amount by the
number of repayments.
4. When given the amount of each instalment, we can calculate the flat rate of
interest.
1A Flat rate interest

HEET
1.1
SkillS
WORKED 1 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest paid on each of the following loans.
Converting Example
a 1 a $5000 at 7% p.a. for 2 years b $8000 at 5% p.a. for 3 years
percentage c $15 000 at 10% p.a. for 5 years d $9500 at 7.5% p.a. for 4 years
to a decimal
e $2500 at 10.4% p.a. for 18 months
HEET
1.2 2 Roula buys a used car that has a cash price of $7500. She has saved a deposit of
SkillS
$2000 and borrows the balance at 9.6% p.a. flat rate to be repaid over 3 years.
Finding a Calculate the amount of interest that Roula must pay.
percentage
of a WORKED 3 Ben borrows $4000 for a holiday. The loan is to be repaid over 2 years at 12.5% p.a.
quantity Example
2
flat interest. Calculate the total repayments that Ben must make.
HEET
1.3 4 Calculate the total amount to be paid on each of the following flat rate interest loans.
SkillS
a $3500 at 8% p.a. over 2 years b $13 500 at 11.6% p.a. over 5 years
Calculating
simple c $1500 at 13.5% p.a. over 18 months d $300 at 33% p.a. over 1 month
interest e $100 000 at 7% p.a. over 25 years
5 Mr and Mrs French purchase a new lounge suite, which has a cash price of $5500. L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
They purchase the lounge on the following terms: 30% deposit with the balance to be
repaid at 9% p.a. flat interest over 2 years. Calculate: Simple
interest
a the deposit
b the balance owing
c the interest to be paid
am
d the total amount that they pay for the lounge. progr –C
GC
asio
WORKED 6 Yasmin borrows $5000 from a credit union at a flat interest rate of 8% p.a. to be Interest
Example
3
repaid over 4 years in equal monthly instalments. Calculate:
a the interest that Yasmin must pay on the loan
b the total amount that Yasmin must repay GC
program
c the amount of each monthly repayment.
–TI
Interest
7 Ian borrows $2000 from a pawnbroker at 40% p.a. interest. The loan is to be paid over
1 year in equal weekly payments.
a Calculate the interest on the loan. b Calculate the total that Ian must repay.
c Calculate Ian’s weekly payment.
8 The Richards family purchase an entertainment system for their home. The total cost
of the system is $8000. They buy the system on the following terms: 25% deposit
with the balance repaid over 3 years at 12% p.a. flat interest in equal monthly
instalments. Calculate:
a the deposit b the balance owing
c the interest on the loan d the total repayments
e the amount of each monthly repayment.
9 Sam buys an electric guitar with a cash price of $1200. He
buys the guitar on the following terms: one-third deposit, with
the balance at 15% p.a. flat interest over 2 years in equal
monthly instalments. Calculate the amount of each monthly
repayment.
10 multiple choice
The amount of flat rate interest on a loan of $10 000 at 10% p.a.
for 2 years is:
A $1000
B $2000
C $11 000
D $12 000
11 multiple choice
A refrigerator with a cash price of $1800 is bought on the
following terms: 20% deposit with the balance paid in
12 equal monthly instalments at 12% p.a. flat interest.
The total cost of the refrigerator when purchased on
terms is:
A $172.80
B $216.00
C $1972.80
D $2016.00
WORKED 12 Andy borrows $4000, which is to be repaid over 4 years at $110 per month. Calculate
Example
the flat rate of interest that Andy has been charged.
4
13 Sandra buys a used car with a cash price of
$12 000 on the following terms: 20%
deposit with the balance paid at $89.23 per
week for 3 years. Calculate:
a the deposit
b the balance owing
c the total cost of the car
d the flat rate of interest charged.
14 Calculate the flat rate of interest charged on
a lounge suite with a cash price of $5000 if
it is purchased on the following terms: 15%
deposit with the balance paid at $230.21
per month for 2 years.
Computer Application 1 Flat rate interest loan calculator

reads Access the spreadsheet Flat Interest from the Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC
L Sp he
et
Course CD-ROM. This spreadsheet will demonstrate how to calculate a deposit, the
EXCE
Flat total repayments on a loan and the size of each repayment.

interest
Monthly payment calculator
Consider a $5000 loan to be repaid at 9% p.a. flat rate interest over 3 years.
1. On the sheet titled ‘Monthly Payments’, in cell B5 enter the amount which has been
borrowed ($5000), or the balance owing on a purchase after the deposit has been
paid.
2. In cell B7 enter the interest rate as a percentage (9%).
3. In cell B9 enter the number of years over which the loan is to be repaid (3).
4. The total interest paid on the loan will be displayed in cell B11. The formula for this
will be displayed in this cell.
5. Cell B13 shows the total amount to be repaid and cell B15 shows the amount of each
repayment.
Flat interest rate calculator
The worksheet ‘Flat Interest Rate’ will calculate the flat rate of interest charged given
the amount of each repayment. Consider a $15 000 loan that is repaid over 5 years at
$350 per month.
1. In cell B5 enter the amount borrowed ($15 000).
2. In cell B7 enter the amount of each monthly payment ($350).
3. In cell B9 enter the total number of monthly payments (60).
4. Displayed will be the total amount to be repaid (cell B11), the total interest paid on
the loan (cell B13), the amount of interest paid per year (cell B15) and the flat rate of
interest (cell B17).
Check your answers to the previous exercise using this spreadsheet.
Home loans
The biggest loan that most people will ever take out will be for a home. These loans are
usually for large amounts of money and are taken over long periods of time. Most com-
monly they are taken over 10, 15, 20 or 25 years but they can be taken over even longer
periods of up to 35 years.
Home loans are not charged at a flat rate of interest. The interest on these loans is
reducible, which means that the interest is calculated on the amount of money owing on
the loan at the time rather than on the amount initially borrowed. This is known as a
reducing balance loan.
The interest on a home loan is usually calculated at the beginning of each month, and
payments are calculated on a monthly basis. So each month interest is added to the loan
and a payment is subtracted from the balance owing. The balance increases by the
amount of interest and then decreases by the amount of each payment.
Consider the case of a person who borrows $250 000 to buy a home at 9% p.a.
reducible interest. The monthly repayment on this loan is $2500 per month. The
interest rate of 9% p.a. converts to 0.75% per month.
First month’s interest = 0.75% of $250 000
= $1875
Balance owing = $250 000 + $1875 − $2500
= $249 375
In the second month the interest is calculated on the balance owing at the end of the
first month.
Second month’s interest = 0.75% of $249 375
= $1870.31
Balance owing = $249 375 + $1870.31 − $2500
= $248 745.31
The progress of this loan can be followed in the following computer application.
Computer Application 2 Home loan calculator

reads Access the spreadsheet Home Loan from the Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC
L Sp he
et
EXCE
Course CD-ROM. This spreadsheet will allow you to follow the progress of a home
Home loan as it is paid off.
loan
Use the Edit and then the Fill and Down functions on columns A, B, C and D. Look
down column D to find when the balance owing becomes 0 or when it becomes
negative. At this time the loan will have been fully repaid.
Examine other loans by changing the data in C4, C5 and C6.
WORKED Example 5
Mr and Mrs Chan take out a $100 000 home loan at 8% p.a. reducible interest over
25 years. Interest is calculated and added on the first of each month. They make a
payment of $775 each month. Calculate:
a the interest added after one month
b the balance owing after one month.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Convert 8% p.a. to a monthly rate. a 8% p.a. = 2--- % per month
3
2 Calculate 2
--- % of $100 000 to find the Interest = 2
--- % of $100 000
3 3
interest for one month. Interest = $666.67
b Add the interest to the principal and b Balance owing = $100 000 + $666.67 − $775
subtract the repayment. Balance owing = $99 891.67
Graphics Calculator tip! Calculate the interest in

a one-month period
We can use the TVM function to calculate the interest for a one-month period but great
care needs to be taken. Remembering that the interest is calculated for a number of
days, to calculate monthly interest we need to enter n = 365 ÷ 12. Consider the method
shown below for worked example 5.
3. n = 365 ÷ 12 (as n is in days)

I% = 8
PV = –100000
4. Press F1 (SI) to find the interest for one month.
When interest is calculated every year for such a long

period of time, as with many home loans, the amount of
money required to pay off such a loan can be a great
deal more than the initial loan.
WORKED Example 6
A loan of $120 000 is paid off at 9% p.a. reducible interest over a period of 25 years.
The monthly repayment is $1007.04. Calculate the total amount made in repayments on
this loan.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the number of repayments by No. of repayments = 25 × 12
multiplying the number of years by 12. No. of repayments = 300
2 Multiply the monthly repayment by the Total repayments = $1007.04 × 300
number of repayments. Total repayments = $302 112.00
remember
1. The interest on home loans is calculated at a reducible rate. This means that the
interest is calculated on the balance owing rather than the initial amount
borrowed.
2. Interest is calculated each month; this is then added to the principal and a
payment is made. The interest next month is then calculated on the new amount
owing.
3. To calculate the total amount to be repaid on a home loan, we multiply the
monthly payment by the number of repayments made.
1B Home loans
HEET
1.4 WORKED 1 Mr and Mrs Devcich borrow
SkillS
Example
5
$80 000 to buy a home. The interest
Finding
values of rate is 12% p.a. and their monthly
n and r in payment is $850 per month.
financial
formulas a Calculate the interest for the first
month of the loan.
HEET
1.5 b Calculate the balance owing at
SkillS
the end of the first month.

Calculating
compound 2 The repayment on a loan of
interest
$180 000 at 7.5% p.a. over a
reads
L Sp he 15-year term is $1668.62 per
et
EXCE
month.
Interest a Calculate the interest for the first
month of the loan and the bal-
ance owing at the end of the first
month.
b Calculate the amount by which
the balance has reduced in the
first month.
c Calculate the interest for the second month of the loan and the balance at the end
of the second month.
d By how much has the balance of the loan reduced during the second month?
3 The repayment on a loan of $150 000 over a 20-year term at 9.6% p.a. is $1408.01 per
month. Copy and complete the table below.
Month Principal ($) Interest ($) Balance ($)
1 150 000.00 1200.00 149 791.99
2 149 791.99
10
4 Mr and Mrs Roebuck borrow $255 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is
9% p.a. and over a 25-year term the monthly repayment is $2294.31.
a Copy and complete the table below.

1 255 000.00 1912.50 254 618.19
2 254 618.19
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
b Mr and Mrs Roebuck decide to increase their monthly payment to $2500.

Complete the table below.
1 255 000.00 1912.50 254 412.50
2 254 412.50
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
c How much less do Mr and Mrs Roebuck owe at the end of one year by increasing
their monthly repayment?
WORKED 5 The repayments on a loan of $105 000 at 8% p.a. reducible interest over 25 years are
Example
6
$810.41 per month. Calculate the total repayments made over the life of the loan.
6 The Taylors borrow $140 000 over 20 years at 9% p.a.
a The monthly repayment on this loan is $1259.62. Calculate the total repayments.
b The Taylors attempt to pay the loan off quickly by increasing their monthly
payment to $1500. The loan is then paid off in 161 months. Calculate the total
repayments made under this plan.
c How much will the Taylors save by increasing each monthly payment?
7 multiple choice
The first month’s interest on a $60 000 home loan at 12% p.a. reducible interest is:
A $600 B $7200 C $60 600 D $67 200
8 multiple choice
A $95 000 loan at 8% p.a. reducible interest over a 15-year term has a monthly
payment of $907.87. The total amount of interest paid on this loan is:
A $7600 B $68 416.60 C $114 000 D $163 416.60
9 Mr and Mrs Chakraborty need to borrow $100 000 to purchase a home. The interest
rate charged by the bank is 7% p.a. Calculate the total interest paid if the loan is taken
over each of the following terms:
a $706.78 per month over a 25-year term
b $775.30 per month over a 20-year term
c $898.83 per month over a 15-year term
d $1161.08 per month over a 10-year term.
10 The Smith and Jones families each take out a $200 000 loan at 9.5% p.a. reducible
interest. The Smith family repay the loan at $2000 per month and the Jones family
repay the loan at $3000 per month.
a How much does each family make in repayments in the first year?
b Complete the table below for each family.
Smith family
1 200 000.00 1583.33 199 583.33
2 199 583.33
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Jones family
1 200 000.00 1583.33 198 583.33
2 198 583.33
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
c After one year how much less does the Jones family owe than the Smith family?
1
1 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest payable on a loan of $1500 at 14% p.a. to be
repaid over 2 years.
2 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest payable on a loan of $2365 at 19.2% p.a. to
be repaid over 2 1--- years.
2
3 Calculate the total repayments on a loan of $5000 at 13.5% p.a. to be repaid over
3 years.
4 Susan buys a lounge suite on terms. The cash price of the lounge is $6500 and she
pays a 15% deposit. Calculate the amount of the deposit.
5 Calculate the balance that Susan owes on the lounge suite.
6 Calculate the interest that Susan will pay at 17% p.a. flat rate interest for a period of
3 years.
7 Calculate the total amount that Susan will have to repay.
8 Calculate the monthly repayment that Susan will need to make.
9 Harry and Sally borrow $164 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 12% p.a.
Calculate the amount of interest payable for the first month.
10 A $175 000 loan that is repaid over 25 years has a monthly repayment of $1468.59.
Calculate the total amount of interest that is paid on this loan.
The cost of a loan

Because of the different ways that interest can be calculated, the actual interest rate
quoted may not be an accurate guide to the cost of the loan. By using a flat rate of
interest, a lender can quote an interest rate less than the equivalent reducible interest
rate.
To compare flat and reducible rates of interest, we need to calculate the effective rate
of interest for a flat rate loan. The effective rate of interest is the equivalent rate of
reducible interest for a flat rate loan.
The formula for effective rate of interest is:
( 1 + r )n – 1
E = ----------------------------
n
where E = effective rate of interest, expressed as a decimal
r = stated rate of flat interest expressed as a decimal
n = term of the loan in years
Note: This formula for effective rate of interest is not on your formula sheet. This does
not mean that you have to memorise it as the formula will be given to you as a part of
any question that requires you to use it.
WORKED Example 7
Andrea takes out an $8000 loan for a car over 5 years at 6% p.a. flat rate interest.
Calculate the effective rate of interest charged on the loan.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. ( 1 + r )n – 1

E = ----------------------------
n
2 Substitute r = 0.06 and n = 5.
( 1.06 ) 5 – 1
E = --------------------------
5
3 Calculate.
E = 0.068
4 Write the interest rate as a percentage. The effective rate of interest is 6.8% p.a.
A loan with a reducible rate of interest can be compared to a flat rate of interest if we
are able to calculate the total repayments made over the term of the loan.
WORKED Example 8
An $85 000 loan at 10% p.a. reducible interest is to be repaid over 15 years at $913.41 per
month.
a Calculate the total repayments on the loan.
b Calculate the total amount of interest paid.
c Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest on this loan.
THINK WRITE
a Multiply the monthly repayments by the a Total repayments = $913.41 × 180
number of months taken to repay the loan. Total repayments = $164 413.80
b Subtract the initial amount borrowed from the b Interest = $164 413.80 − $85 000
total repayments. Interest = $79 413.80
c 1 Calculate the amount of interest paid per c Annual interest = $79 413.80 ÷ 15
year. Annual interest = $5294.25
$5294.25
2 Write the yearly interest as a percentage of Flat interest rate = ---------------------- × 100%
$85 000
the amount borrowed. Flat interest rate = 6.2% p.a.
The most accurate way to compare loans is to calculate the total repayments made in
each loan.
WORKED Example 9
Allison borrows $6000 and has narrowed her choice of loans down to two options.
Loan A: At 8% p.a. flat rate interest over 4 years to be repaid at $165.00 per month.
Loan B: At 12% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years to be paid at $199.29 per month.
Which of the two loans would cost Allison less?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the total repayments on Loan A repayments = $165.00 × 48
Loan A. Loan A repayments = $7920
2 Calculate the total repayments on Loan B repayments = $199.29 × 36
Loan B. Loan B repayments = $7174.44
3 Write a conclusion. Loan B would cost $745.56 less than Loan A.
In the above example Allison should take Loan B even though it has a much higher
advertised interest rate. This of course would depend upon Allison’s ability to meet the
higher monthly payments.
Generally the more quickly that you can pay off a loan the cheaper the loan will be.
The savings are particularly evident when examining home loans. Some home loans
that offer a lower interest rate allow for you to make only the minimum monthly repay-
ment. This will maximise the amount of interest that the customer will pay.
If a person can afford to pay more than the minimum amount, they may be better off
over time by paying a slightly higher rate of interest and paying the loan off over a
shorter period of time.
WORKED Example 10
Mr and Mrs Beasley need to borrow $100 000 and have the choice of two home loans.
Loan X: 6% p.a. over 25 years with a fixed monthly repayment of $644.30. No extra
repayments are allowed on this loan.
Loan Y: 7% p.a. over 25 years with a minimum monthly payment of $706.78.
Mr and Mrs Beasley believe they can afford to pay $800 per month on this loan. If they
do, the loan will be repaid in 18 years and 9 months. Which loan would you recommend?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the total repayments on Loan X repayments = $644.30 × 300
Loan X. = $193 290
2 Calculate the total repayments on Loan Y repayments = $800 × 225
Loan Y. = $180 000
3 Make a recommendation. Mr and Mrs Beasley should choose Loan Y
as they will save $13 290 provided they can
continue to pay $800 per month.
With loans such as the one in the above example, the savings depend upon the ability to
make the extra repayments. If this is doubtful, Loan X would have been the safer
option.
The other factor to consider when calculating the cost of a loan is fees. Many loans
have a monthly management fee attached to them. This will need to be calculated into
the total cost and may mean that a loan with a slightly higher interest rate but no fee
may be a cheaper option.
remember
1. The actual cost of a loan is calculated by the total cost in repaying the loan.
The interest rate is a guide but not the only factor in calculating cost.
2. A loan that is quoted at a flat rate of interest can be compared to a reducible
rate of interest only by calculating the effective rate of interest on the flat rate
loan. The effective rate of interest is the equivalent reducible rate of interest
and is found using the formula:
( 1 + r )n – 1
E = ----------------------------
n
3. By calculating the total repayments on a loan, we can calculate the equivalent
flat rate of interest paid on the loan.
4. A loan that is repaid over a shorter period of time will usually cost less than
one where the repayments are made over the full term of the loan.
5. The flexibility of a loan, which includes factors such as whether extra
repayments can be made, is important when considering the cost of a loan.
6. When calculating the cost of a loan, any ongoing fees need to be calculated.
1C The cost of a loan

WORKED 1 A $15 000 loan is to be repaid at 8% p.a. flat rate interest over a 10-year term. 1.6 SkillS
Example
7 ( 1 + r )n – 1
HEET
Use the formula E = ---------------------------- to calculate the effective rate of interest.
n Substitution
into a
2 Calculate the effective rate of interest on each of the following flat rate loans. formula
a 10% p.a. over 4 years b 8% p.a. over 2 years c 12% p.a. over 5 years
L Spre
d 7.5% p.a. over 10 years e 9.6% p.a. over 6 years XCE ad sheet
E
3 A bank offers loans at 8% p.a. flat rate of interest. Calculate the effective rate Effective
rate of
of interest for a loan taken over: interest
a 2 years b 3 years c 4 years
d 5 years e 10 years f 20 years.
WORKED 4 An $85 000 home loan at 9% p.a reducible interest is to be repaid over 25 years at
Example
8
$713.32 per month.
b Calculate the total amount of interest paid.
c Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest on the loan.
5 Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest paid on a $115 000 loan at 12% p.a.
reducible interest to be repaid over 30 years at $1182.90 per month.
WORKED 6 Kim borrows $12 000 for a holiday to South-East

Example
Asia. She is faced with a choice of two loans.
9
Loan I: At 10% p.a. flat rate of interest over 2 years
to be repaid at $600 per month.
Loan II: At 12.5% p.a. reducible interest over
3 years to be repaid at $401.44 per month.
Which loan will cost Kim the least money?
7 Calculate the total cost of repaying a loan of
$100 000 at 8% p.a. reducible interest:
a over 25 years with a monthly repayment of
$771.82
b over 20 years with a monthly repayment of
$836.44
c over 10 years with a monthly repayment of
$1213.28.
WORKED 8 Masako and Toshika borrow $125 000 for their
Example
10
home. They have the choice of two loans.
Loan 1: A low interest loan at 7% p.a. interest over
25 years with fixed repayments of $833.47 per
month.
Loan 2: A loan at 7.5% p.a interest over 25 years
with minimum repayments of $923.74 per month.
Masako and Toshika believe they can afford to pay
$1000 per month. If they do, Loan 2 will be repaid
in 20 years and 4 months.
Which loan should they choose if they could afford to pay the extra each month?
9 multiple choice
A loan can be taken out at 8% p.a. flat interest or 9% p.a. reducible interest. Using the
( 1 + r )n – 1
formula E = ---------------------------- , the number of years of the loan (n) after which the effective
n
rate of interest on the flat rate loan becomes greater than the reducible rate loan is:
A 2 years B 3 years C 4 years D 5 years
10 Glenn and Inge are applying for a $150 000 loan to be repaid over 25 years.
a Bank A charges 7.8% p.a. interest, no fees, with the loan to be repaid at $1137.92
per month. Calculate the total cost of this loan.
b Bank B charges 7.6% p.a. interest, a $600 loan application fee, a $5 per month
management fee and repayments of $1118.26 per month. Calculate the total cost of
this loan.
11 multiple choice
A $50 000 loan is to be taken out. Which of the following loans will have the lowest
total cost?
A 5% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid over 10 years
B 8% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 10 years at $606.64 per month
C 6% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 12 years at $487.93 per month
D 6.5% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 10 years at $567.74 per month, with
a $600 loan application fee and $8 per month account management fee
12 A home loan of $250 000 is taken out over a 20-year term. The interest rate is 9.5% p.a.
and the monthly repayments are $2330.33.
a The mortgage application fee on this loan was $600 and there is a $10 per month
account management fee. Calculate the total cost of repaying this loan.
SHEE
T 1.1
b Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest on the loan. (Consider the extra
Work
payments as part of the interest.)
c If the loan is repaid at $3000 per month, it will take 11 1--- years to repay the loan.
2
Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest if this repayment plan is followed.
Graphics Calculator tip! Loan repayment function

Your Casio graphics calculator can calculate the amount of each monthly repayment
on a home loan when given the term of the loan and the interest rate. The PMT
function, which is under the compound interest menu, allows for such calculations to
be made.
Consider a loan of $250 000 to be repaid over 25 years at 8% p.a. with interest added
and repayments made monthly. We wish to find the amount of each monthly
repayment.
2. Press F2 to select Compound Interest.
3. Enter the following settings.

n = 25 × 12
I% = 8
PV = 250000
PMT = 1
FV = 0
P/Y = 12 (payments per year)
C/Y = 12 (You will need to scroll to see this.)
4. Press F4 (PMT) to find the amount of each monthly
repayment, which will be displayed as a negative.
Researching home loans

1 Suppose that you wish to borrow $100 000 to buy a home. Go to a bank or other
lender and gather the following information.
a The annual interest rate
b The loan application fee and any other costs such as stamp duty, legal costs
etc. associated with establishing the loan
c Is there a monthly account keeping or management fee?
d The monthly repayment if the loan is repaid over:
i 15 years ii 20 years iii 25 years
e The total cost of repaying the loan in each of the above examples
2 There are many ways that people can reduce the overall cost of repaying a
mortgage. Research and explain why people are able to save money by adopting
the following repayment strategies.
a Repaying the loan fortnightly or weekly instead of monthly
b Using an account where the whole of a person’s net pay is deposited on the
mortgage and then a redraw is used to meet living expenses
Credit cards
Credit cards are the most common line of day-to-day credit that most people use. A
credit card works as a pre-approved loan up to an amount agreed upon by the customer
and the bank. The card can then be used until the amount of the debt reaches this limit.
As with other types of loan, the bank charges interest upon the amount that is owed
on the card and repayments must be made monthly. The way in which the interest is
calculated varies with different types of credit cards.
Some cards have interest charged from the day on which the purchase was made.
Others have what is called an interest-free period. This means that a purchase that is
made will appear on the next monthly statement. Provided that this amount is paid by
the due date, no interest is charged. Hence, the customer can repay the loan within a
maximum of 55 days and be charged no interest.
Generally, credit cards without an interest-free period have a lower interest rate than
those with an interest-free period. These cards, however, generally attract an annual fee.
This annual fee can in some cases be waived if a certain amount is spent on the card
over the year.
The minimum monthly repayment on most credit cards is 5% of the outstanding
balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
WORKED Example 11
On Trevor’s credit card statement he has an outstanding balance of $1148.50.
The minimum monthly payment is 5% of the outstanding balance, or $10, whichever
is greater. Calculate the minimum repayment that Trevor must make.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate 5% of the outstanding balance. 5% of $1148.50 = $57.43
2 Decide which repayment is greater and The minimum repayment is $57.43.
give a written answer.
Credit card interest is quoted as an annual amount but is added monthly. To calculate
the interest due, calculate one month’s interest on the outrstanding balance..
WORKED Example 12
The outstanding balance on a credit card is $2563.75. If the full balance is not paid by the
due date, one month’s interest will be added at a rate of 18% p.a. Calculate the amount of
interest that will be added to the credit card.
THINK WRITE
Use the simple interest formula to calculate I = Prn
one month’s interest. I = $2563.75 × 0.18 × 1
------
12
I = $38.46
In practice, most credit cards calculate interest on the outstanding balance at a daily
rate and then add the interest monthly. If a credit card advertises its interest rate as
18% p.a., the daily rate is 0.049 315%. To work out the interest, you will need to count
the number of days that the credit card has each different balance over the month.
WORKED Example 13
An extract from a credit card statement is shown below.
Interest rate = 15% p.a. Daily rate = 0.041 096%
Date Credit Debit Balance

1 June $900
10 June $400 – repayment $500
15 June $350 – purchase $850
22 June $140 – purchase $990
1 July ??? – interest
Calculate the interest that will be due for the month of June.
THINK WRITE
1 For 1 June – 9 June inclusive (9 days), the I = 0.041 096% of $900 × 9
balance owing is $900. Calculate the interest. I = $3.33
5 Add each amount of interest to calculate the Total interest = $3.33 + $1.03
total interest for the month. Total interest = + $2.45 + $3.66
Total interest = $10.47
Graphics Calculator tip! Calculating interest on a daily basis

When doing this type of question where we need to consider interest calculated on a
daily basis the TVM mode of your calculator is very useful. Consider the method shown
below for worked example 13.
1. From the MENU of your calculator select TVM.
3. For 9 days the balance is $900, so enter:

n=9
I% = 15
PV = –900
4. Press F1 (SI) to get the interest for these 9 days.
Interest = $3.33
5. For 5 days the balance is $500. Press EXIT to

return to the previous screen; change the values of n
and PV.
n=5
I% = 15
PV = –500 Interest = $1.03
Then press F1 for the simple interest.

and PV.
n=7
I% = 15
PV = –850 Interest = $2.45
Then again press F1 for the simple interest.
and PV.
n=9
I% = 15
PV = –990 Interest = $3.66
Then again press F1 for the simple interest.
8. Add each amount of interest to find the total Total interest
amount of interest for the month. = $3.33 + $1.03 + $2.45 + $3.66
= $10.47
When deciding which credit card is most suitable for your needs, consider if you will
generally be able to pay most items off before the interest-free period expires. The total
cost in interest over a year will vary according to the repayment pattern.
WORKED Example 14
Kerry has a credit card with an interest-free period and interest is then charged on the
outstanding balance at a rate of 18% p.a. Kerry pays a $1200 bill for her council rates on
her credit card.
a Kerry pays $600 by the due date. What is the outstanding balance on the card?
b Calculate the interest Kerry must then pay for the second month.
c An alternative credit card charges 12% p.a. interest with no interest-free period.
Calculate the interest that Kerry would have been charged on the first month.
d Calculate the balance owing after Kerry pays $600 then calculate the interest for the
second month.
e Which credit card would be the cheapest to use for this bill?
THINK WRITE
a Subtract the repayment from the a Balance owing = $1200 − $600
balance. Balance owing = $600
b Use the simple interest formula to b I = Prn
calculate one month’s interest. = $600 × 0.18 × 1
------
12
= $9.00
c Use the simple interest formula to c I = Prn
calculate the first month’s interest. = $1200 × 0.12 × 1
------
12
= $12.00
d 1 Add the interest to the amount of the d Balance owing = $1200 + $12 − $600
bill and subtract the repayment. = $612
2 Use the simple interest formula to I = Prn
calculate the second month’s = $612 × 0.12 × -----
1
-
12
interest. = $6.12
e Add the two months of interest together e The interest on the second card is $18.12 and
for the second card and compare with therefore the card with the interest-free
the interest for the first card. period is cheaper in this case.
remember
1. A credit card is a source of an instant loan to the card holder.
2. The card is repaid monthly with the minimum payment usually 5% of the
outstanding balance, or $10, whichever is the greater.
3. There are many different types of credit card. The main difference between
them is that some have an interest-free period while others charge interest from
the date of purchase.
4. Cards without an interest-free period generally have a lower rate of interest
than those with an interest-free period.
5. The interest on a credit card is usually calculated as a daily rate. This is found
by dividing the annual rate by 365.
6. The TVM function on the graphics calculator can be used to calculate the
monthly interest on a credit card.
7. To calculate the cheaper credit card, we need to consider the repayment plan
that would be used.
1D Credit cards
WORKED 1 Roy has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $2730. Calculate the minimum
Example
11
payment if he must pay 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
2 The minimum monthly repayment on a credit card is 5% of the balance, or $10, which-
ever is greater. Calculate the minimum monthly repayment on a balance of:
a $3500 b $1194.50 c $492.76 d $150 e $920.52.
WORKED 3 Leonie has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $1850. If the interest rate is
Example
12
18% p.a., calculate the amount of interest that Leonie will be charged for one month if
the balance is not paid by the due date.
4 Hassim buys a refrigerator for $1450 with his credit card. The card has no interest-free
period and interest is charged at a rate of 15% p.a. Calculate one month’s interest on
this purchase.
5 Michelle has a $2000 outstanding balance on her credit card. The interest rate charged
is 21% p.a. on the balance unpaid by the due date.
a If Michelle pays $200 by the due date, calculate the balance owing.
b Calculate the interest that Michelle will owe for the next month.
c What will be the balance owing on Michelle’s next credit card statement?
d What will be the total amount owing on the credit card after another month’s interest
is added?
6 Chandra has a credit card which charges interest at a rate of 12% p.a. but has no
interest-free period. He makes a purchase of $1750 on the credit card.
a After one month Chandra’s credit card statement arrives. What will be the out-
standing balance on the statement?
b The minimum repayment will be 5% of the outstanding balance. Calculate the
amount that Chandra will owe if he makes only the minimum payment.
c In the next month Chandra makes purchases totalling $347.30. Calculate the interest
charged and the balance owing for the next month’s statement.
WORKED 7 An extract of a credit card statement is shown below. Take 1 year = 365.25 days.
Example
13 Interest rate = 18% p.a. Daily rate = 0.049 28%
Date Credit ($) Debit ($) Balance ($)
1 July 256.40
10 July 40 – purchase
20 July 40 – repayment
1 August ??? – interest
a Complete the balance column. Calculate the balance owing on 10 July and 20 July.
b Calculate the interest due on 1 August and the balance on that date.
8 Study the credit card statement below.
Interest rate = 16.5% p.a. Daily rate = ______
1 Jan. 1548.50
8 Jan. 500 – repayment
15 Jan. 399 – purchase
1 Feb. ??? – interest
8 Feb. ??? – repayment
1 March ??? – interest
a Calculate the daily rate of interest, correct to 4 decimal places (take 1 year = 365.25
days).
b Calculate the interest added to the account on 1 February.
c On 8 February the minimum repayment of 5% is made. Calculate the amount of this
repayment.
d Calculate the outstanding balance on the account on 1 March.
WORKED 9 Kai has two credit cards. One has an interest-free period and interest is then charged on
Example
14 the outstanding balance at a rate of 18% p.a. The other has no interest-free period with
interest added from the date of purchase at a rate of 14% p.a. Kai has $1500 worth of
bills to pay in the coming month and intends to use one of the cards to pay them, then
pay the balance off in monthly instalments of $500.
a If Kai uses the card with the interest-free period and pays $500 by the due date, what
is the outstanding balance on the card?
b Calculate the interest Kai must then pay for the second month.
c Calculate the balance owing at the end of the second month and the balance owing
at the end of the third month, at which time Kai pays off the entire balance.
d Calculate the interest payable in the first month if Kai uses the card without the
interest-free period.
e Calculate the balance owing after Kai pays $500 then calculate the interest for the
second month.
f Calculate the balance owing at the end of the second month and the balance owing
at the end of the third month, at which time Kai pays off the entire balance.
g Which card should Kai use for these bills?
Researching credit cards

Find out about the costs associated with two credit cards. One of the cards should
have an interest-free period and the other no interest-free period. Find out:
1 if there is an annual fee associated with having the card
2 the interest rate on each card
3 the minimum monthly payment to be made on each card
4 what credit limits apply to a first-time credit card holder
5 what benefits such as ‘Fly-Buys’ or ‘Frequent Flyer Points’ can be obtained
from use of the card
6 any other relevant information about the card.
2
1 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest payable on a loan of $4500 at 21% p.a. over
a 3 year term.
2 A loan of $2000 is repaid over 1 year at a rate of $100 per week. Calculate the rate of
interest charged on the loan.
3 A loan of $120 000 at 11% p.a. reducible over 20 years is repaid at $1238.63 per
month. The bank also charges an $8 per month account management fee. Calculate
the total cost of repaying the loan.
4 A loan of $5000 is advertised at a rate of 9% p.a. flat rate interest for a term of
( 1 + r )n – 1
4 years. Use the formula E = ---------------------------- to calculate the effective rate of interest on
n
this loan (correct to 1 decimal place).
5 A loan of $10 000 at 11% p.a. reducible interest is repaid over 4 years at a rate of
$258.46 per month. Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest charged on the loan
(correct to 1 decimal place).
6 With reference to credit cards, what is meant by the term interest-free period?
7 The minimum repayment on a credit card is 5% or $10, whichever is greater.
Calculate the minimum repayment for July that is to be made on a card with an
outstanding balance of $3297.50.
8 On the credit card in question 7, a repayment of $500 is made by the due date.
Calculate the interest that will be charged for August at the rate of 18% p.a.
9 An alternative credit card with no interest-free period has an interest rate of 12% p.a.
Calculate the interest on the above credit card for July at this rate.
10 Calculate the total interest that would have been charged for 2 months assuming a
$500 payment was made on 1 August.
Loan repayments
With a reducing balance loan, an amount of interest is added to the principal each
month and then a repayment is made which is then subtracted from the outstanding
balance. Consider the case below of a $2000 loan at 15% p.a. to be repaid over 1 year
in equal monthly instalments of $180.52.
Opening Closing
Month balance Interest balance
1 $2000.00 $25.00 $1844.48
2 $1844.48 $23.06 $1687.02
3 $1687.02 $21.09 $1527.59
4 $1527.59 $19.09 $1366.17
5 $1366.17 $17.08 $1202.73
6 $1202.73 $15.03 $1037.25
7 $1037.25 $12.97 $ 869.70
8 $ 869.70 $10.87 $ 700.05
9 $ 700.05 $ 8.75 $ 528.29
10 $ 528.29 $ 6.60 $ 354.37
11 $ 354.37 $ 4.43 $ 178.29
12 $ 178.29 $ 2.23 −$ 0.00
The actual calculation of the amount to be repaid each month to pay off the loan plus
interest in the given period of time is beyond this course. The most practical way to find
the amount of each monthly repayment is to use a table of repayments.
Monthly repayment per $1000 borrowed

Interest rate
Year 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12% 13% 14% 15%
1 $85.61 $86.07 $86.53 $86.99 $87.45 $87.92 $88.38 $88.85 $89.32 $89.79 $90.26
2 $43.87 $44.32 $44.77 $45.23 $45.68 $46.14 $46.61 $47.07 $47.54 $48.01 $48.49
3 $29.97 $30.42 $30.88 $31.34 $31.80 $32.27 $32.74 $33.21 $33.69 $34.18 $34.67
4 $23.03 $23.49 $23.95 $24.41 $24.89 $25.36 $25.85 $26.33 $26.83 $27.33 $27.83
5 $18.87 $19.33 $19.80 $20.28 $20.76 $21.25 $21.74 $22.24 $22.75 $23.27 $23.79
6 $16.10 $16.57 $17.05 $17.53 $18.03 $18.53 $19.03 $19.55 $20.07 $20.61 $21.15
7 $14.13 $14.61 $15.09 $15.59 $16.09 $16.60 $17.12 $17.65 $18.19 $18.74 $19.30
8 $12.66 $13.14 $13.63 $14.14 $14.65 $15.17 $15.71 $16.25 $16.81 $17.37 $17.95
9 $11.52 $12.01 $12.51 $13.02 $13.54 $14.08 $14.63 $15.18 $15.75 $16.33 $16.92
10 $10.61 $11.10 $11.61 $12.13 $12.67 $13.22 $13.78 $14.35 $14.93 $15.53 $16.13
11 $ 9.86 $10.37 $10.88 $11.42 $11.96 $12.52 $13.09 $13.68 $14.28 $14.89 $15.51
12 $ 9.25 $ 9.76 $10.28 $10.82 $11.38 $11.95 $12.54 $13.13 $13.75 $14.37 $15.01
13 $ 8.73 $ 9.25 $ 9.78 $10.33 $10.90 $11.48 $12.08 $12.69 $13.31 $13.95 $14.60
14 $ 8.29 $ 8.81 $ 9.35 $ 9.91 $10.49 $11.08 $11.69 $12.31 $12.95 $13.60 $14.27
15 $ 7.91 $ 8.44 $ 8.99 $ 9.56 $10.14 $10.75 $11.37 $12.00 $12.65 $13.32 $14.00
16 $ 7.58 $ 8.11 $ 8.67 $ 9.25 $ 9.85 $10.46 $11.09 $11.74 $12.40 $13.08 $13.77
17 $ 7.29 $ 7.83 $ 8.40 $ 8.98 $ 9.59 $10.21 $10.85 $11.51 $12.19 $12.87 $13.58
18 $ 7.03 $ 7.58 $ 8.16 $ 8.75 $ 9.36 $10.00 $10.65 $11.32 $12.00 $12.70 $13.42
19 $ 6.80 $ 7.36 $ 7.94 $ 8.55 $ 9.17 $ 9.81 $10.47 $11.15 $11.85 $12.56 $13.28
20 $ 6.60 $ 7.16 $ 7.75 $ 8.36 $ 9.00 $ 9.65 $10.32 $11.01 $11.72 $12.44 $13.17
21 $ 6.42 $ 6.99 $ 7.58 $ 8.20 $ 8.85 $ 9.51 $10.19 $10.89 $11.60 $12.33 $13.07
22 $ 6.25 $ 6.83 $ 7.43 $ 8.06 $ 8.71 $ 9.38 $10.07 $10.78 $11.50 $12.24 $12.99
23 $ 6.10 $ 6.69 $ 7.30 $ 7.93 $ 8.59 $ 9.27 $ 9.97 $10.69 $11.42 $12.16 $12.92
24 $ 5.97 $ 6.56 $ 7.18 $ 7.82 $ 8.49 $ 9.17 $ 9.88 $10.60 $11.34 $12.10 $12.86
25 $ 5.85 $ 6.44 $ 7.07 $ 7.72 $ 8.39 $ 9.09 $ 9.80 $10.53 $11.28 $12.04 $12.81
The table shows the monthly repayment on a $1000 loan at various interest rates
over various terms. To calculate the repayment on a loan, we simply multiply the repay-
ment on $1000 by the number of thousands of dollars of the loan.
WORKED Example 15
Calculate the monthly repayment on a loan of $85 000 at 11% p.a. over a 25-year term.
THINK WRITE
1 Look up the table to find the monthly repayment
on $1000 at 11% p.a. for 25 years.
2 Multiply this amount by 85. Monthly repayment = $9.80 × 85
Monthly repayment = $833
This table can also be used to make calculations such as the effect that interest rate rises
will have on a home loan.
WORKED Example 16
The Radley family borrow $160 000 for a home at 8% p.a. over a 20-year term. They
repay the loan at $1400 per month. If the interest rate rises to 9%, will they need to
increase their repayment and, if so, by how much?
THINK WRITE
1 Look up the table to find the monthly repayment
on $1000 at 8% p.a. for 20 years.
2 Multiply this amount by 160. Monthly repayment = $9.00 × 160
Monthly repayment = $1440.00
3 If this amount is greater than $1400, state the The Radley family will need to increase
amount that the repayment needs to rise. their monthly repayments by $40.
remember
1. The amount of each monthly repayment is best determined by using a table of
repayments.
2. The amount of each repayment is calculated by multiplying the monthly
repayment on a $1000 loan by the number of thousands of the loan.
1E Loan repayments
WORKED 1 Use the table of repayments on page 30 to calculate the monthly repayment on a 1.7 S
Example killS
15
$75 000 loan at 7% p.a. over a 15-year term.
HEET
2 Use the table of repayments to calculate the monthly repayment on each of the Reading
following loans. tables
a $2000 at 8% p.a. over a 2-year term
b $15 000 at 13% p.a. over a 5-year term L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
c $64 000 at 15% p.a. over a 25-year term

Reducing
d $100 000 at 12% p.a. over a 20-year term balance
e $174 000 at 9% p.a. over a 22-year term loans
3 Jenny buys a computer for $4000 on the following terms: 10% deposit with the balance
paid in equal monthly instalments over 3 years at an interest rate of 14% p.a.
a Calculate Jenny’s deposit.
b Calculate the balance owing on the computer.
c Use the table of repayments to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
WORKED 4 Mr and Mrs Dubois borrow $125 000 over 20 years at 10% p.a. to purchase a house.
Example
16
They repay the loan at a rate of $1500 per month. If the interest rate rises to 12% p.a.,
will Mr and Mrs Dubois need to increase the size of their repayments and, if so, by how
much?
5 Mr and Mrs Munro take out a $180 000 home
loan at 9% p.a. over a 25-year term.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly
repayment.
b After 5 years the balance on the loan has
been reduced to $167 890. The interest rate
then rises to 10% p.a. Calculate the new
monthly repayment required to complete
the loan within the existing term.
6 A bank will lend customers money only if
they believe the customer can afford the
repayments. To determine this, the bank has a
rule that the maximum monthly repayment a
customer can afford is 25% of his or her gross
monthly pay. Darren applies to the bank for a
loan of $62 000 at 12% p.a. over 15 years.
Darren has a gross annual salary of $36 000.
Will Darren’s loan be approved? Use calcu-
lations to justify your answer.
7 Tracey and Barry have a combined gross income of $84 000.
a Calculate Tracey and Barry’s gross monthly income.
b Using the rule applied in the previous question, what is the maximum monthly
repayment on a loan that they can afford?
c If interest rates are 11% p.a., calculate the maximum amount (in thousands) that they
could borrow over a 25-year term.
8 Mr and Mrs Yousef borrow $95 000 over 25 years at 8% p.a. interest.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on the loan.
b Mr and Mrs Yousef hope to pay the loan off in a much shorter period of time. By
how much will they need to increase the monthly repayment to pay the loan off in
15 years?
9 Mr and Mrs Bath borrow $375 000 at 8% p.a. reducible over a 25-year term, with
repayments to be made monthly.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total amount that Mr and Mrs Bath will repay over the term of the loan.
c What is the total amount of interest that Mr and Mrs Bath will pay on the loan?
d Calculate the average amount of interest that Mr and Mrs Bath will pay each year.
e Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest by expressing your answer to part d as
a percentage of the amount borrowed.
10 A loan of $240 000 is taken out over a 25-year term at an interest rate of 7% p.a.
reducible.
b Calculate the total repayments made on the loan.
c Calculate the amount of interest paid on the loan.
d Find the equivalent flat rate of interest.
SHEE
T 1.2
e By following steps a to d above calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest if the
Work
term of the loan is:
ii 20 years ii 15 years.
Computer Application 3 Loan repayments

Access the spreadsheet Loan Repayments from the Maths Quest General Mathematics
HSC Course CD-ROM. This spreadsheet shows the graph of a home loan of $100 000
at 9% p.a. that is repaid over 25 years. Use the graph to determine how long it takes for
L Spre
the outstanding balance to reduce to: XCE ad
sheet
E
1. $80 000 Loan
2. $50 000 repayments
3. $20 000.
Next, change the amount borrowed in the spreadsheet to $200 000. Does it take the
same length of time for the outstanding balance to be halved?
Change the interest rate to 12% p.a. and the amount borrowed back to $100 000.
Does it still take the same length of time for the balance to be halved?
Experiment with different loans and look for a pattern in the way in which the
balance of the loan reduces.
summary
Flat rate interest
• A flat rate loan is one where interest is calculated based on the amount initially
borrowed.
• Flat rate loans have the interest calculated using the simple interest formula:
I = Prn
• The total repayments on a flat rate loan are calculated by adding the interest to the
amount borrowed.
• The monthly or weekly repayments on a flat rate loan are calculated by dividing the
total repayments by the number of weeks or months in the term of the loan.
Home loans
• The interest of home loans is calculated at a reducible rate. This means that the
interest is calculated on the outstanding balance at the time and not on the initial
amount borrowed.
• The interest on home loans is usually calculated and added monthly while
repayments are calculated on a monthly basis.
• To calculate the total cost of a home loan, we multiply the amount of each monthly
payment by the number of payments.
The cost of a loan

• To compare a flat rate loan with a reducing balance loan, the equivalent reducing
balance interest rate can be calculated using the formula:
( 1 + r )n – 1
E = ----------------------------
n
• When comparing two or more loans, the most accurate comparison is done by
calculating the total cost of repaying the loan.
• A loan that is repaid over a shorter period of time will generally cost less even if the
interest rate may be slightly higher.
• The flexibility of loan repayments is an important consideration when calculating
the cost of a loan.
• When calculating the cost of a loan, fees such as application fee and account
management fees must be considered along with the interest payable.
Credit cards
• A credit card is a pre-approved loan up to a certain amount called the credit limit.
• There are many kinds of credit cards and the most important difference is that some
cards have an interest-free period while others attract interest from the date of
purchase.
• Credit cards without an interest-free period generally have a lower rate of interest
than those with an interest-free period.
• Each credit card will have a monthly statement and will require a minimum
payment each month.
• When evaluating the best credit card for your circumstances, you need to consider
if you will be able to pay most bills by the due date and consider any fees attached
to the card.
Loan repayments
• The amount of each monthly repayment is best calculated using a table of monthly
repayments.
• The monthly repayment on a $1000 loan at the given rate over the given term is
then multiplied by the number of thousands of the loan to find the size of each
repayment.
CHAPTER
review
1 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest that will be paid on each of the following loans.
1A a $8000 at 7% p.a. for 2 years b $12 500 at 11.5% p.a. for 5 years
c $2400 at 17.8% p.a. for 3 years d $800 at 9.9% p.a. over 6 months
e $23 400 at 8.75% p.a. over 6 years
2 Calculate the total repayments made on a loan of $4000 at 23% p.a. flat rate interest to be
1A repaid over 3 years.
3 Noel borrows $5600 at 7.6% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid in monthly instalments over
1A 3 years. Calculate the amount of each monthly instalment.
4 Shane borrows $9500 to purchase a new car. He repays the loan over 4 years at a rate of
1A $246.60 per month. Calculate the flat rate of interest charged on the loan.
5 Mr and Mrs Smith borrow $125 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 12% p.a. and
1B the monthly repayments are $1376.36. Calculate:
a the first month’s interest on the loan
b the balance of the loan after the first month.
6 Mr and Mrs Buckley borrow $130 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 8% p.a. and
1B over a 20-year term the monthly repayment is $1087.37.
1 130 000.00 866.67 129 779.29
2 129 779.29
10
11
12
b Mr and Mrs Buckley decide to increase their monthly payment to $1500. Complete the
table below.
1 130 000.00 866.67 129 366.67
2 129 366.67
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
c How much less do Mr and Mrs Buckley owe at the end of one year by increasing their
monthly repayment?
7 Mr and Mrs Stone borrow $225 000 for their home. The interest rate is 9.6% p.a. and the
term of the loan is 25 years. The monthly repayment is $1989.48. 1B
a Calculate the total repayments made on this loan.
b If Mr and Mrs Stone increase their monthly payments to $2000, the loan will be repaid in
24 years and 1 month. Calculate the amount they will save in repayments with this
increase.
( 1 + r )n – 1
8 Use the formula E = ---------------------------- to calculate the effective interest rate on each of the
n 1C
following flat rate loans (answer correct to 2 decimal places).
a $4000 at 7% p.a. over 2 years b $12 000 at 11% p.a. over 5 years
c $1320 at 23% p.a. over 2 years d $45 000 at 9.2% p.a. over 10 years
9 Yu-Ping borrows $13 500 for a holiday to Africa at 12.5% p.a. reducible interest over a
5-year term. The monthly repayments on the loan are $303.72. 1C
b Calculate the amount of interest that Yu-Ping pays on the loan.
c Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest on the loan.
10 Kristen and Adrian borrow $150 000 for their home. They have the choice of two loans.
1C Loan 1: At 8% p.a. interest over 25 years with fixed repayments of $1157.72.
Loan 2: At 8.25% p.a interest over 25 years with minimum repayments of $1182.68 and an
$8 per month account management fee.
Kristen and Adrian believe they can afford to pay $1500 per month. If they do, Loan 2
will be repaid in 14 years and 2 months. Which loan should Kristen and Adrian choose if
they can afford to pay the extra each month?
11 Stephanie has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $423. Calculate the minimum
1C payment that must be made if she must pay 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
12 Lorenzo has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $850. If the interest rate is 24%
1D p.a., calculate the amount of interest that Lorenzo will be charged if the balance is not paid
by the due date.
13 Jessica pays for her car repairs, which total $256.50, using her credit card. The credit card
1D has an interest rate of 15% p.a. and interest is charged from the date of purchase. Calculate
the amount of interest charged after one month on this card.
14 Study the extract from the credit card statement below.
1D Interest rate = 19.5% p.a. Daily rate = ______

1 Jan. 2584.75
6 Jan. 600 – repayment
15 Jan. 39.99 – purchase
1 Feb. ??? – interest
8 Feb. ??? – repayment
15 Feb. 425.85 – purchase
1 March ??? – interest
a Calculate the daily rate of interest. (Take 1 year = 365.25 days and answer correct to
4 decimal places.)
b Calculate the interest due for January.
c If the minimum monthly payment of 5% of the outstanding balance is made on
8 February, calculate the amount of this repayment.
d Calculate the interest for February.
15 Use the table of repayments on page 30 to calculate the monthly repayment on each of the
1E following loans.
a $25 000 at 9% p.a. over a 10-year term
b $45 000 at 14% p.a. over a 15-year term
c $164 750 at 15% p.a. over a 25-year term
d $425 000 at 12% p.a. over a 15-year term
16 Mr and Mrs Rowe take out a $233 000 home loan at 12% p.a. over a 25-year term.
1E a Use the table of repayments to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b After 3 years the balance on the loan has been reduced to $227 657. The interest rate then
rises to 13% p.a. Calculate the new monthly repayment required to complete the loan
within the existing term.
Practice examination questions
1 multiple choice
The total repayments for a $3400 loan on a flat rate interest of 8.5% p.a. over a 3-year period are:
A $867 B $942.78 C $4267 D 4342.78
2 multiple choice
A $115 000 loan is repaid over a 25-year term at the rate of $1211.21 per month. The total
amount of interest that is paid on this loan is:
A $30 280.25 B $145 280.25 C $248 363.00 D $363 363.00
3 multiple choice
A $150 000 loan is to be taken out. Which of the following loans will have the lowest total cost?
A 4% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid over 20 years
B 8% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 20 years at $1254.66 per month
C 9% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years at $1521.40 per month
D 8.5% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years at $1512.49 per month with a $900
loan application fee and $12 per month account management fee
4 multiple choice
Look at the table of loan repayments per $1000 shown below.
Interest rate (p.a.)
Term 9% 10% 11% 12%
10 $12.67 $13.22 $13.78 $14.35
15 $10.14 $10.75 $11.37 $12.00
20 $9.00 $9.65 $10.32 $11.01
25 $8.39 $9.09 $9.80 $10.53
Daniel has an $80 000 mortgage at 10% p.a. over 10 years. After interest rates rise to 12%
Daniel extends the term of his loan to 15 years. What is the change in Daniel’s monthly
repayments?
A They increase by $1.13 per month. B They decrease by $1.22 per month.
C They increase by $90.40 per month. D They decrease by $97.60 per month.
5 David buys a computer that has a cash price of $4600. David pays 10% deposit with the
balance in weekly instalments at 13% p.a. flat rate interest over a period of 4 years.
a Calculate the balance owing after David has paid the deposit.
b Calculate the total repayments that David must make on this loan.
c Calculate the amount of each weekly instalment
( 1 + r )n – 1
d Use the formula E = ---------------------------- to calculate the equivalent reducible interest rate on this
loan. n
6 Mr and Mrs Tarrant borrow $186 500 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 9% p.a. and the
loan is over a 20-year term.
a Use the table below to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
Interest rate (p.a.)

Term 9% 10% 11% 12%
10 $12.67 $13.22 $13.78 $14.35
15 $10.14 $10.75 $11.37 $12.00
20 $9.00 $9.65 $10.32 $11.01
25 $8.39 $9.09 $9.80 $10.53
b Calculate the total amount that they can expect to make in repayments.
c After 10 years the outstanding balance is $132 463 and the interest rate is increased to
11%. Calculate the amount of the monthly repayment they will need to make to complete
the loan within the term.
d The loan has a $5 per month account management fee. The Tarrants also had a $400 loan
application fee and $132.75 in stamp duty to pay in establishing the loan. Calculate the
total cost of the loan after 20 years.
7 Paul has a credit card that has an interest-free period. The interest rate is 21% p.a.
a If Paul has an outstanding balance of $275.50, calculate the minimum payment he must
make by the due date if it is 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
b If Paul pays only the minimum balance by the due date, calculate the balance owing for the
next month.
test c Calculate the interest that Paul will be charged on his next month’s statement.
yourself d If Paul pays the whole balance off next month, is this card cheaper than a card without an
CHAPTER
1 interest-free period but an interest rate of 15% p.a.? Use calculations to justify your
answer.
Further
applications
of area and
volume 2
syllabus reference
Measurement 5
• Further applications of
area and volume
In this chapter
2A Area of parts of the circle
2B Area of composite shapes
2C Simpson’s rule
2D Surface area of cylinders
and spheres
2E Volume of composite solids
2F Error in measurement
areyou
a copy.
2.1 Area of a circle

1 Find the area of a circle with:
a radius 4 cm b radius 19.6 cm c diameter 9 cm d diameter 19.7 cm
2.2 Areas of squares, rectangles and triangles

2 Find the area of each of the following.
a b 10.9 m c
3.7 m 7.6 m
13.8 m
4.5 cm
2.6 Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms (3a, 3b); Volume of triangular prisms (3c)
3 Find the volume of:
a b c
11 cm
2.7 8 cm
9 cm 6 cm
24 cm 26 cm
18 cm
Volume of cylinders (4a); Volume of a sphere (4b)
2.8
4 Find the volume of:
a b
19 cm 12 m
2.9 8 cm
Volume of a pyramid
2.10 5 Find the volume of:
10 cm
7 cm
2.11 Error in linear measurement

6 For each of the following linear measurements, state the limits between which the true limits
actually lie.
a 15 cm (measured correct to the nearest centimetre)
b 8.3 m (measured correct to 1 decimal place)
c 4800 km (measured correct to the nearest 100 km)
Chapter 2 Further applications of area and volume 43
Area of parts of the circle
From previous work you should know that the area of a circle can be calculated using
the formula:
A = πr2
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the area of a circle with a radius of 7.2 cm. Give your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. A = πr2
2 Substitute for the radius. A = π × (7.2)2
3 Calculate the area. A = 162.86 cm2
A sector is the part of a circle between two radii as

shown on the right.
To calculate the area of a sector we find the fraction
of the circle formed by the sector. For example, a semi-
circle is half of a circle and so the area of a semicircle is
half the area of a full circle. A quadrant is a quarter of
a circle and so the area is quarter that of a full circle.
For other sectors the area is calculated by using the
angle between the radii as a fraction of 360° and then
multiplying by the area of the full circle. This can be
written using the formula:
θ
A = --------- π r 2
360
where θ is the angle between the two radii.
WORKED Example 2
Calculate the area of the sector drawn
on the right. Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
5 cm
80°
THINK WRITE
θ
--------- π r
1 Write the formula. A= 2
360
2 Substitute for θ and r. A= --------- × π
80
× 52
360
3 Calculate the area. A = 17.5 cm2
An annulus is the area between two circles that have the same centre (i.e. concentric
circles). The area of an annulus is found by subtracting the area of the smaller circle
from the area of the larger circle. This translates to the formula A = π(R2 – r2) , where
R is the radius of the outer circle and r is the radius of the inner circle.
WORKED Example 3
Calculate the area of the annulus on the right.
Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
5.7 cm
3.2 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. A = π(R2 – r 2)

2 Substitute R = 5.7 and r = 3.2. A = π (5.72 – 3.22)
3 Calculate. A = 69.9 cm2
An ellipse is an oval shape and therefore

does not have a constant radius. The greatest
distance from the centre of the ellipse to the
semi-minor
circumference is called the semi-major axis, axis (b)
a, while the smallest distance is called the semi-major
semi-minor axis, b, as shown in the figure on axis (a)
the right. The area of an ellipse is calculated
using the formula, found on the formula
sheet:
A = πab
WORKED Example 4
Calculate the area of the ellipse drawn
on the right. Give your answer correct 4.2 m
to 2 decimal places.
6.6 m
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. A = πab

2 Substitute for the values of a and b. A = π × 6.6 × 4.2
3 Calculate the area. A = 87.08 m2
remember
1. The area of a circle is found using the formula A = πr2.
2. The area of a sector can be found by multiplying the area of a full circle by the
fraction of the circle given by the angle in the sector. You can use the formula
θ
A = --------- × π r 2.
360
3. An annulus is the area between two concentric circles. The area is found by
using the formula A = π(R2 – r2) , where R is the radius of the outer circle
and r is the radius of the inner circle.
4. An ellipse is an oval shape. The area is calculated using the formula
A = πab , where a is the length of the semi-major axis and b is the length of
the semi-minor axis.
2A Area of parts of the circle

WORKED 1 Calculate the area of the circle 2.1 SkillS
Example
1
drawn on the right, correct to
HEET
1 decimal place. 6.4 cm Area
of a
circle
2 Calculate the area of each of the circles drawn below, correct to 2 decimal places.
a b c
33 mm
9 cm 7.4 m
d e f
6.02 m
26.5 cm 3.84 m
3 Calculate the area of a circle that has a diameter of 15 m. Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
WORKED 4 Calculate the area of the sector drawn on the right.
Example
2
7.2 m
5 Calculate the area of each of the sectors drawn below. Give each answer correct to
2 decimal places.
a b c
5.2 cm 23 m
135°
60° 74 mm
20°
d e f
9.2 mm 39 mm
240°
150°
19.5 m 72°
6 Calculate, correct to 1 decimal place, the area of a semicircle with a diameter of

45.9 cm.
WORKED 7 Calculate the area of the annulus

Example 12 cm
3
shown at right, correct to 1 decimal
place.
6 cm
8 Calculate the area of each annulus drawn below, correct to 3 significant figures.
a b c
9.7 m
77 mm
20 cm
4.2 m 13 mm
18 cm
9 A circular garden of diameter 5 m is to have concrete laid around it. The concrete is
to be 1 m wide.
a What is the radius of the garden?
b What is the radius of the concrete circle?
c Calculate the area of the concrete, correct to 1 decimal place.
WORKED 10 Calculate the area of the ellipse

Example
4
drawn on the right, correct to 6 cm
1 decimal place.
10 cm
11 Calculate the area of each of the ellipses drawn below. Give each answer correct to the
nearest whole number.
a b c
34 mm 7.2 m
14 cm
56 mm 13.6 m
21 cm
12 multiple choice
The area of a circle with a diameter of 4.8 m is closest to:
A 15 m2 B 18 m2 C 36 m2 D 72 m2
13 multiple choice
Which of the following calculations
will give the area of the sector shown
on the right? 45°
8m
A 1
---
8
× π × 42 B 1
---
8
× π × 82 C 1-4 × π × 4 2 D 1-4 × π × 8 2
14 multiple choice
The area of the ellipse drawn on the
right is closest to: 86 cm
1.2 m
A 32 400 cm2 B 324 m2 C 5900 cm2 D 59 m2

15 A circular area is pegged out and has a diameter of 10 m.
a Calculate the area of this circle, correct to
1 decimal place.
b A garden is to be dug which is 3 m wide
around the area that has been pegged out.
Calculate the area of the garden to be dug.
c In the garden a sector with an angle of 75° at
the centre is to be used to plant roses. Calculate
the area of the rose garden, correct to 1 decimal
place.
16 A circle has a diameter of 20 cm.
a Calculate the area of this circle, correct to 2 decimal places.
b An ellipse is drawn such that the radius of the circle forms the semi-major axis.
The semi-minor axis is to have a length equal to half the radius of the circle.
Calculate the length of the semi-minor axis.
c Calculate the area of the ellipse, correct to 2 decimal places.
Area of composite shapes

A composite shape is a shape that is made up of two or more regular shapes. The area
of a composite shape is found by splitting the area into two or more regular shapes and
calculating the area of each separately before adding them together. In many cases it
will be necessary to calculate the length of a missing side before calculating the area.
There will sometimes be more than one way to split the composite shape.
WORKED Example 5 6 cm
Find the area of the figure
at right.
18 cm
10 cm
12 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Copy the diagram and divide the shape into 6 cm
two rectangles. A1 8 cm
18 cm
A2 10 cm
12 cm
2 Calculate the length of the missing side in 18 − 10 = 8 cm
rectangle 1. (Write this on the diagram.)
3 Calculate the area of rectangle 1. A1 = 6 × 8
A1 = 48 cm2
4 Calculate the area of rectangle 2. A2 = 10 × 12
A1 = 120 cm2
5 Add together the two areas. Area = 48 + 120
Area = 168 cm2
Composite areas that involve triangles may require you to also make a calculation using
Pythagoras’ theorem.
WORKED Example 6 13 m
Find the area of the figure
on the right.
10 m
24 m
THINK WRITE
1 Draw the triangle at the top and cut the 13 m
isosceles triangle in half. a
12 m
THINK WRITE
2 Calculate the perpendicular height using a2 = c2 − b2
Pythagoras’ theorem. = 132 − 122
= 169 − 144
= 25
a = 25
=5m
3 Calculate the area of the triangle. A= 1
--- × 24 × 5
2
= 60 m2
4 Calculate the area of the rectangle. A = 24 × 10
= 240 m2
5 Add the two areas together. Area = 60 + 240
Area = 300 m2
Composite areas can also be calculated by using subtraction rather than addition. In
these cases we calculate the larger area and subtract the smaller area in the same way as
we did with annuluses in the previous section.
WORKED Example 7
Find the shaded area in the figure
on the right.
6 cm 20 cm
30 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the area of the rectangle. A = 30 × 20
A = 600 cm2
2 Calculate the area of the circle. A = π × 62
A = 113.1 cm2
3 Subtract the areas. Area = 600 − 113.1
Area = 486.9 cm2
remember
1. To find the area of any composite figure, divide the shape into smaller regular
shapes and calculate each area separately.
2. You may have to use Pythagoras’ theorem to find missing pieces of
information.
3. Check if the best way to solve the question is by adding two areas or by
subtracting one area from the other to find the remaining area.
2B Area of composite shapes
2.2 WORKED 1 Copy the figure on the right into your 4m

HEET Example
workbook and calculate its area by
SkillS
5
Areas of dividing it into two rectangles.
squares, 18 m
rectangles 11 m
and triangles
20 m
2 Find the area of each of the figures below. Where necessary, give your answer correct
to 1 decimal place.
a 7 cm b c 5 cm
18 cm
12 cm 19 cm
16 cm
25 cm 6 cm
40 cm
5 cm
22 cm
d e f 4 cm
12 cm 8 cm
8 cm 4 cm
16 cm 4 cm
2.3 3 Look at the triangle on the right.

HEET 10 cm
a Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find
SkillS
17 cm
Using the perpendicular height of the triangle.
Pythagoras’ b Calculate the area of the triangle.
theorem 6 cm 15 cm
omet
i Ge ry 4 Below is an isosceles triangle.
Cabr
Pythagoras’
calculations
8m
12 m
a Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the perpendicular height of the triangle, correct to
1 decimal place.
b Calculate the area of the triangle.
5 Calculate the area of each of the triangles below. Where necessary, give your answer L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
correct to 1 decimal place.
a b 25 cm
c Pythagoras
26 m
48 cm
am
progr –C
GC
asio
24 m
Mensuration
124 mm
WORKED 6 Find the area of each of the composite figures drawn below.
Example
6
a b c 25 mm 52 mm
13 cm 17 m
15 mm 48 mm
12 cm 13 m 54 mm
30 m
7 multiple choice
The area of the composite figure on the right
is closest to:
A 139 m2 B 257 m2
2
C 314 m D 414 m2
8 multiple choice 10 m
The area of the figure drawn on the right is:

A 36 m2 B 54 m2
2
C 72 m D 144 m2 12 m
6m
9 A block of land is in the shape of a square with an equilateral triangle on top. Each
side of the block of land is 50 m.
a Draw a diagram of the block of land. b Find the perimeter of the block of land.
c Find the area of the block of land.
WORKED 10 In each of the following, find the area of the shaded region. Where necessary, give
Example
7
your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a 12 m b c
10 cm 4 cm
9 cm
16 cm 3 cm
8m
9 cm
d e f
3.1 m
112 mm
1.9 m
36 mm 7.4 m
cm
1
40 mm
7.
10 cm
95 mm
11 An athletics track consists of a rectangle with two semicircular

ends. The dimensions are shown in the diagram on the right.
70 m 82 m
The track is to have a synthetic running surface laid. Calculate the
90 m
area which is to be laid with the running surface, correct to the
nearest square metre.
12 A garden is to have a concrete path laid around it. The garden is rectangular in shape
and measures 40 m by 25 m. The path around it is to be 1 m wide.
a Draw a diagram of the garden and the path.
b Calculate the area of the garden.
c Calculate the area of the concrete that needs to be laid.
d If the cost of laying concrete is $17.50 per m2, calculate the cost of laying the path.
1
Calculate the area of each of the figures drawn below. Where necessary, give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
1 2 3
5.8 cm
12 cm 9.4 cm
6.3 m
4 5 10 cm 6
91 mm
25 cm 30 cm
62 mm 20 cm
4 cm
24 cm 25 cm
7 8 9
12 cm
20 m 76 mm
m
40 m
m
32
40 cm
10
12
6 cm
cm
15
cm
Simpson’s rule
Simpson’s rule is a method used to approximate the
area of an irregular figure. Simpson’s rule approxi-
mates an area by taking a straight boundary and
dividing the area into two strips. The height of each dm dl
strip (h) is measured. Three measurements are then df
taken perpendicular to the straight boundary, as
h h
shown in the figure on the right. The formula for
Simpson’s rule is:
h
A ≈ --- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
where h = distance between successive measuements
df = first measurement
dm = middle measurement
dl = last measurement.
WORKED Example 8
Use Simpson’s rule to approximate
the area shown on the right.
30 m
10 m
90 m
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate h. h = 90 ÷ 2
= 45
2 Write down the values of df , dm and dl. df = 10, dm = 30, dl = 0
h
3 Write the formula. A ≈ --- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
45
4 Substitute. A ≈ ------ ( 10 + 4 × 30 + 0 )
3
5 Calculate. = 15 × 130
≈ 1950 m2
Could Simpson’s rule be used to estimate the areas of these irregular shapes from nature?
Simpson’s rule can be used to approximate an irregular area without a straight edge.
This is done by constructing a line as in the diagram below and approximating the area
of each section separately.
WORKED Example 9
Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation 30 m
30 m 30 m 10 m
for the area shown on the right.
17 m
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the value of h. h = 30
2 For the top area, write down the values df = 0, dm = 30, dl = 10
of df , dm and dl .
h
3
30
4 Substitute. A ≈ ------ ( 0 + 4 × 30 + 10 )
3
5 Calculate the top area. ≈ 10 × 130
≈ 1300 m2
6 For the bottom area, write down the df = 0, dm = 17, dl = 0
values of df , dm and dl .
h
7 Write down the formula. A ≈ --- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
30
8 Substitute. A ≈ ------ ( 0 + 4 × 17 + 0 )
3
9 Calculate the bottom area. ≈ 10 × 68
≈ 680 m2
10 Add the two areas together. Area ≈ 1300 + 680
Area ≈ 1980 m2
Simpson’s rule approximates an area, it does not give an exact measurement. To obtain
a better approximation, Simpson’s rule can be applied several times to the area. This is
done by splitting the area in half and applying Simpson’s rule separately to each half.
WORKED Example 10
Use two applications of Simpson’s rule to
32 m
31 m
24 m
29 m
30 m
approximate the area on the right.

105 m
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate h by dividing 105 by 4. h = 105 ÷ 4
(We are using 4 sub-intervals.) = 26.25
2 Apply Simpson’s rule to the left half. df = 32, dm = 31, dl = 24
Write the values of df , dm and dl .
THINK WRITE
h
3
26.25
4 Substitute. A ≈ ------------- ( 32 + 4 × 31 + 24 )
3
5 Calculate the approximate area of the ≈ 8.75 × 180
left half. ≈ 1575 m2
6 Apply Simpson’s rule to the left half. df = 24, dm = 29, dl = 30
Write the values of df , dm and dl .
h
3
26.25
8 Substitute. A ≈ ------------- ( 24 + 4 × 29 + 30 )
3
9 Calculate the approximate area of the ≈ 8.75 × 170
right half. ≈ 1487.5 m2
10 Add the areas together. Area ≈ 1575 + 1487.5
Area ≈ 3062.5 m2
remember
1. Simpson’s rule is a method of approximating irregular areas.
h
2. The Simpson’s rule formula is A ≈ --- ( d f + 4d m + d l ) , where h is the
3
distance between successive measurements, df is the first measurement, dm is
the middle measurement and dl is the last measurement.
3. A better approximation of an area can be found by using Simpson’s rule twice.
2.4 SkillS
HEET
2C
Substitution
Simpson’s rule into
formulas
WORKED 1 The diagram on the right is of a part of a

Example
8
creek.
a State the value of h.
b State the value of df , dm and dl .
40 m
18 m
c Use Simpson’s rule to approximate

9m
the area of this section of the creek.

60 m
2 Use Simpson’s rule to approximate each of the areas below.

a b c
40 m
28 m
16 m
12 m
6m
35 m
0m
12 m
10 m
72 m 54 m
48 m
WORKED 3 The irregular area on the right has been divided into two A1
Example
9
areas labelled A1 (upper area) and A2 (lower area).
5 m 18 m
19 m 11 m
a Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for Al .
30 m 30 m
b Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for A2.
7m
c What is the approximate total area of the figure?
A2
4 Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for each of the areas below.
a b c
17 m
22 m 11 m
31 m
27 m
14 m 6 m
21 m
12 m 10 m
45 m 45 m
16 m 16 m
12 m
21 m
27 m 27 m
23 m
40 m
5 multiple choice
Consider the figure drawn on the right.
Simpson’s rule gives an approximate area of:
51 m
A 1200 m2 B 2400 m2
22 m
7m
2
C 3495 m D 6990 m2
90 m
6 multiple choice
If we apply Simpson’s rule twice, how many measurements from the traverse line
need to be taken?
A4 B 5 C7 D9
WORKED 7 Use Simpson’s rule twice to approximate
Example
10
the area on the right.
50 m
45 m
36 m
25 m
10 m
18 m 18 m 18 m 18 m
8 Use Simpson’s rule twice to approximate each of the areas drawn below.
a b c
33 m
22 m
71 m
20 m
44 m
50 m
42 m
11 m
102 m
87 m
60 m 60 m 60 m 60 m 21 m 21 m 21 m 21 m
54 m
63 m
45 m
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
9 The figure on the right is of a cross-section of a 32 m
waterway.
15 m
a Use Simpson’s rule once to find an approximate
27 m
36 m
area of this section of land.
b Use Simpson’s rule twice to obtain a better
approximation for this area of land.
10 Apply Simpson’s rule four times to

approximate the area on the right.
45 m
41 m
T 2.1
38 m
SHEE
36 m
30 m
35 m
24 m
30 m
Work
20 m
9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m
Surface area of cylinders and spheres

From earlier work you should remember that surface area
is the area of all surfaces of a 3-dimensional shape.
Consider a closed cylinder with a radius (r) and a
perpendicular height (h). The surface of the cylinder h
consists of two circles and a rectangle.
Area of top = π r 2
Area of bottom = π r 2 r
The rectangular side of the cylinder will have a length
equal to the circumference of the circle (2π r) and a width
equal to the height (h) of the cylinder.
Area of side = 2π rh
The surface area of the closed cylinder can be calculated using the formula:
SA = 2π r 2 + 2π rh
WORKED Example 11
Calculate the surface area of the closed cylinder drawn on
the right. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
10 cm
9 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. SA = 2π r 2 + 2π rh
2 Substitute the values of r and h. SA = 2 × π × 92 + 2 × π × 9 × 10
3 Calculate the surface area. SA = 1074.4 cm2
For cylinders, before calculating the surface area you need to consider whether the
cylinder is open or closed. In the case of an open cylinder there is no top and so the
formula needs to be written as:
SA = π r 2 + 2π rh
Note: On the formula sheet in the exam only the formula for the closed cylinder is
provided. You will need to adapt the formula yourself for examples such as this.
WORKED Example 12
Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a radius of 6.5 cm and a height of
10.8 cm. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. SA = π r 2 + 2π rh
2 Substitute the values of r and h. SA = π × (6.5)2 + 2 × π × 6.5 × 10.8
A sphere is a round 3-dimensional shape, and the

only measurement given is the radius (r). The surface
r
area of a sphere can be calculated using the formula:
SA = 4π r 2
WORKED Example 13
Calculate the surface area of the
sphere drawn on the right. Give the
answer correct to 1 decimal place. 2.7 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. SA = 4π r 2
2 Substitute the value of r. SA = 4 × π × (2.7)2
remember
1. The surface area of a closed cylinder is
found using the formula
SA = 2π r 2 + 2π rh .
2. If the cylinder is an open cylinder, the
surface area formula becomes
SA = π r 2 + 2π rh.
3. The surface area of a sphere is found
using the formula SA = 4π r 2 .
The Atomium, Brussels

Surface area of cylinders and
2D spheres
2.5 SkillS
WORKED 1 Calculate the surface area of a closed cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of
HEET
Example
11
11 cm. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place. Circumference
of a circle
2 Calculate the surface area of each of the closed cylinders drawn below. Give each
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
5 cm
1.6 m
20 cm
12 cm
1.1 m
3 cm
d e f
20 cm 5.9 cm 1.5 m
5.9 cm 2.3 m
r r = 5 cm
3 Calculate the surface area of a closed cylinder with a diameter of 3.4 m and a height
of 1.8 m. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
WORKED 4 Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a radius of 4 cm and a height of
Example
12
16 cm. Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
5 Calculate the surface area of each of the following open cylinders. Give each answer
a b c
13.3 cm 22 cm 30 cm
9.6 cm 20 cm
r r = 4.1 cm
d e f
50 cm
3.2 m
23.2 cm
2.4 cm 4m
4 cm
6 A can of fruit is made of stainless steel. The can has a radius of 3.5 cm and a height
of 7 cm. A label is to be wrapped around the can.
a Calculate the amount of steel needed to make the can (correct to the nearest whole
number).
b Calculate the area of the label (correct to the nearest whole number).
WORKED 7 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with a radius of 3 cm. Give your answer correct
Example
to the nearest whole number.
13
8 Calculate the surface area of each of the spheres drawn below. Give each answer
a b c
2.1 cm
8 cm 14 cm
d e f
1m 3.4 cm 1.8 m
9 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with a diameter of 42 cm. Give your answer
correct to the nearest whole number.
10 multiple choice
An open cylinder has a diameter of 12 cm and a height of 15 cm. Which of the
following calculations gives the correct surface area of the cylinder?
A π × 62 + 2 × π × 6 × 15
B 2 × π × 62 + 2 × π × 6 × 15
C π × 122 + 2 × π × 12 × 15
D 2 × π × 122 + 2 × π × 12 × 15
11 multiple choice
Which of the following figures has the greatest surface area?
A A closed cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm
B An open cylinder with a radius of 6 cm and a height of 10 cm
C A cylinder open at both ends with a radius of 7 cm and a height of 10 cm
D A sphere with a radius of 6 cm
12 An open cylinder has a diameter and height of 12 cm.
a Calculate the surface area of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole number).
b A sphere sits exactly inside this cylinder. Calculate the surface area of this sphere
(correct to the nearest whole number).
13 A cylindrical can is to contain three tennis balls each having a diameter of 6 cm.
a Calculate the surface area of each ball.
b The three balls fit exactly inside the can. State the radius and height of the can.
c The can is open and made of stainless steel, except the top which will be plastic.
Calculate the area of the plastic lid (correct to the nearest whole number).
d Calculate the amount of stainless steel in the can (correct to the nearest whole
number).
e Calculate the area of a paper label that is to be wrapped around the can (correct to
the nearest whole number).
Computer Application 1 Minimising surface area
L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
Access the spreadsheet Volume from the Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC
Course CD-ROM. Volume
A cylindrical drink container is to have a capacity of 1 litre (volume = 1000 cm3).
We are going to calculate the most cost efficient dimensions to make the container. To
do this, we want to make the container with as little material as possible, in other words
we want to minimise the surface area of the cylinder. The spreadsheet should look as
shown below.
1. In cell B3 enter the volume of the cylinder, 1000.
2. In cell A6 enter a radius of 1. In cell A7 enter a radius of 2 and so on up to a radius
of 20.
3. The formula that has been entered in cell B6 will give the height of the cylinder
corresponding to the radius for the given volume.
4. The surface area of each possible cylinder is in column D. Use the charting function
on the spreadsheet to graph the surface area against the radius.
5. What are the most cost-efficient dimensions of the drink container?
Challenge exercise
Use one of the other worksheets to find the most efficient dimensions to make a
rectangular prism of volume 1000 cm3 and a cone of volume 200 cm3.
Packaging
A company makes tennis balls that have a diameter of 6.5 cm. The tennis balls are
to be sold in packs of four.
1 Calculate the surface area of the
packaging needed if the balls are
packed in a cylindrical tube that just
fits all four balls as shown on the
right.
2 Calculate the amount of packaging

needed if the balls are packed in a
rectangular prism.
3 Calculate the amount of packaging needed if the balls

are packed in a 2 × 2 design as shown on the right.
4 Design the most effective way of packaging nine tennis balls.
Volume of composite solids

Many solid shapes are a composition of two or more regular solids. To calculate the
volume of such a figure, we need to determine the best method for each particular part.
Many irregular shapes may still be prisms.
A prism is a shape in which every cross-section taken parallel to the base shape is
equal to that base shape.
The formula for the volume of a prism is:
V = Ah
where A is the area of the base shape and h is the height.
Remember that the base of the prism is not necessarily the bottom. The base is the
shape that is constant throughout the prism and will usually be drawn as the front of the
prism. This means that the height will be drawn perpendicular to the base. To calculate
the volume of any prism, we first calculate the area of the base and then multiply by the
height.
WORKED Example 14
Find the volume of the figure 4 cm
drawn on the right.
12 cm
6 cm
3 cm
10 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Divide the front face into two 4 cm
rectangles.
12 cm
A1
6 cm
A2
10 cm
2 Calculate the area of each. A1 = 4 × 12 A2 = 6 × 6
= 48 cm2 = 36 cm2
3 Add the areas together to find the value A = 48 + 36
of A. = 84 cm2
4 Write the formula. V=A×h
5 Substitute A = 84 and h = 3. = 84 × 3
6 Calculate. = 252 cm3
If the shape is not a prism, you may need to divide it into two or more regular 3-
dimensional shapes. You could then calculate the volume by finding the volume of each
shape separately. You will need to use important volume formulas that appear on the
formula sheet:
Cone: V = 1--- π r 2h Cylinder: V = π r 2h Pyramid: V = 1--- Ah Sphere: V = 4--- π r 3
3 3 3
WORKED Example 15
Calculate the volume of the figure
drawn on the right, correct to 2 decimal
places.
2.4 cm
1.2 cm
THINK WRITE
1 The shape is a cylinder with a
hemisphere on top.
2 Write down the formula for the volume V = π r 2h
of a cylinder.
3 Substitute r = 1.2 and h = 2.4. V = π × (1.2)2 × 2.4
4 Calculate the volume of the cylinder. V = 10.857 cm3
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
5 Write down the formula for the volume V = 4--- π r 3 ÷ 2

3
of a hemisphere. (This is the formula
for the volume of a sphere divided by
2.)
6 Substitute r = 1.2. V= 4
--- × π × (1.2)3 ÷ 2
3
7 Calculate the volume of the V = 3.619 cm3
hemisphere.
8 Add the two volumes together. Volume = 10.857 + 3.619
Volume = 14.48 cm3
In many cases a volume question may be presented in the form of a practical problem.
WORKED Example 16
A water storage tank is in the shape of a cube of side length 1.8 m, surmounted by a
cylinder of diameter 1 m with a height of 0.5 m. Calculate the capacity of the tank, correct
to the nearest 100 litres.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram of the water tank. 0.5 m

1m
1.8 m
2 Calculate the volume of the cube using V = s3

the formula V = s3. V = 1.83
V = 5.832 m3
3 Calculate the volume of the cylinder V = π r 2h
using the formula V = π r 2h. V = π × 0.52 × 0.5
V = 0.393 m3
4 Add the volumes together. Volume = 5.832 + 0.393
Volume = 6.225 m3
5 Calculate the capacity of the tank using Capacity = 6.225 × 1000
1 m3 = 1000 L. Capacity = 6225 L
6 Give an answer in words. The capacity of the tank is approximately
6200 litres.
remember
1. To find the volume of any prism, use the formula V = A × h, where A is the area
of the base and h is the height.
2. Important volume formulas:
Cone: V = 1--- π r 2h Cylinder: V = π r 2h
3
1
Pyramid: V = --- Ah Sphere: V = 4--- π r 3
3 3
where r = radius, h = perpendicular height, A = area of base
3. For other shapes, calculate the volume of each part of the shape separately, then
add together each part at the end.
4. Remember to begin a worded or problem question with a diagram and finish
with a word answer.
2E Volume of composite solids

6 cm
WORKED 1 Look at the figure drawn on 2.6 SkillS
Example
14
the right.
HEET
18 cm
a Find the area of the front face. Volume of

b Use the formula V = A × h
5 cm
cubes and
to calculate the volume of rectangular
4 cm prisms
the prism. 20 cm
2 Calculate the volume of each of the figures drawn below.

a 5 cm b c
12 cm
10 cm
15 cm
12 cm
25 cm
4 cm
20 cm 12 cm
5 cm 3 cm
20 cm 40 cm
d 0.7 m
e f
4 m 0.5 m
0.6 m
2.3 m
5m 1m
0.4 m 1.5 m
2.1 m 2m
WORKED 3 Consider the figure on the right. 1.5 m

Example 2.7 SkillS
15 The shape consists of a cube with a
HEET
square pyramid on top. Volume of

a What is the volume of the cube? triangular
prisms
b What is the volume of the square
pyramid?
c What is the total volume of this
figure? 2m
4 The figure on the right is a cylinder with a cone

mounted on top.
a Calculate the volume of the cylinder, correct to 40 cm
the nearest cm3.
b Calculate the volume of the cone, correct to the
nearest cm3.
c What is the total volume of the figure? 50 cm
12 cm
2.8 5 Calculate the volume of each of the figures drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place.
HEET a b c
SkillS
Volume of
a cylinder 3 cm
34 cm
5 cm
r r =12 cm
50 cm
2.9 6 multiple choice

HEET
SkillS
Which of the figures drawn below is not a prism?

Volume of A B
a sphere
C D
7 multiple choice
The volume of the figure drawn
on the right is closest to:
A 718 cm3 B 1437 cm3 14 cm
3
C 2155 cm D 2873 cm3 7 cm
8 A fish tank is in the shape of a

rectangular prism. The base measures
45 cm by 25 cm. The tank is filled to
a depth of 15 cm.
a Calculate the volume of water in
the tank in cm3.
b Given that 1 cm3 = 1 mL calculate,
in litres, the amount of water in
the tank.
WORKED 9 A hemispherical wine glass of radius 2.5 cm is joined to a cylinder of radius 1 cm and
Example
height 5 cm. The glass then rests on a solid base.
16
a Draw a diagram of the wine glass.
b Calculate the capacity of the glass, to the nearest 10 mL.
c How many glasses of wine can be poured from a 1 litre bottle?
10 The figure on the right is the cross-section of a concrete pipe
used as a sewage outlet. 3m
a Calculate the area of a cross-section of the pipe, correct
to 2 decimal places. 2.5 m
b Calculate the amount of concrete needed to make a 10 m
length of this pipe.
11 A commemorative cricket ball has a diameter of 7 cm. It is to be preserved in a cubic
case that will allow 5 mm on each side of the ball.
a What will the side length of the cubic case be?
b Calculate the amount of empty space inside the case, to the nearest whole number.
c Calculate the percentage of space inside the case occupied by the ball, to the
12 A diamond is cut into the shape of two square-based pyramids as 2.10 SkillS
6 mm
shown on the right. Each mm3 of the diamond has a mass of 0.04 g.
HEET
Calculate the mass of the diamond. Volume
of a
6 mm pyramid
Maximising volume
You have been given a piece of sheet metal that is in the shape of
a square with a side length of 2 m. The corners are to be cut and 9 cm
the sides bent upwards to form a rectangular prism, as shown in
the figure on the right. 3 cm
1 If a square of side length 1 cm is cut from each corner, what
will be the length and width of the rectangular prism?
2 What will be the volume of this rectangular prism?
3 What will be the volume of the prism if a square of side length 2 cm is cut from
each corner?
4 Find the size of the square to be cut from each corner that will make a prism of
maximum volume.
This exercise can be modelled using a spreadsheet or a graphics calculator.
2
1 Calculate the area of a circle 2 Calculate the area of the annulus shown
with a diameter of 8.6 cm, below, correct to 2 decimal places.
9 cm
3 cm
3 Calculate the area of the sector below, 4 Calculate the area of the figure below.
10 cm
29 cm
9 cm
13.2 cm
85° 28 cm
5 Calculate the shaded area in the 6 Use Simpson’s rule to approximate

figure drawn below, correct to the area shown below.
2 decimal places. 43 m
70 m
21 m
4.6 cm
70 m
9.7 cm
32 m
7 Calculate the surface area of a closed 8 Calculate the surface area of a sphere
cylinder with a radius of 10 cm and a with a radius of 1.3 m. Give your
height of 23 cm. Give your answer answer correct to 3 decimal places.
correct to the nearest whole number.
9 Calculate the volume of the prism 10 Calculate the volume of the solid
drawn below. below, correct to the nearest whole
number.
4 cm
20.3 cm
13.4 cm 8 cm
9.1 cm
13.7 cm
Error in measurement
As we saw in the preliminary course, all measurements are approximations. The degree
of accuracy in any measurement is restricted by the accuracy of the measuring device
and the degree of practicality.
We have previously seen that the maximum error in any measurement is half of the
smallest unit of measurement. This error is compounded when further calculations such
as surface area or volume are made.
WORKED Example 17
In the rectangular prism on the right, the length,
breadth and height have been measured, correct to
the nearest centimetre.
8 cm
a Calculate the volume of the rectangular prism. 15 cm
b Calculate the greatest possible error in the volume. 20 cm
THINK WRITE
a Calculate the volume of the rectangular a V=l×w×h
prism. = 20 × 15 × 8
= 2400 cm3
b 1 Write the smallest possible b Smallest possible dimensions:

dimensions of the prism. l = 19.5, w = 14.5, h = 7.5
2 Calculate the smallest possible V=l×w×h
volume. = 19.5 × 14.5 × 7.5
= 2120.625 cm3
3 Write the largest possible Largest possible dimensions:
dimensions of the prism. l = 20.5, w = 15.5, h = 8.5
4 Calculate the largest possible V=l×w×h
volume. = 20.5 × 15.5 × 8.5
= 2700.875 cm3
5 Calculate the maximum error. Maximum error = 2700.875 − 2400
Maximum error = 300.875 cm3
As can be seen in the above example, a

possible error of 0.5 cm in the linear
measurement compounds to an error
of 300.875 cm3 in the volume
measurement.
Mismeasurements that are
made will compound all further
calculations.
WORKED Example 18
A swimming pool is built in the shape of a rectangular prism with a length of 10.2 m,
a width of 7.5 m and a depth of 1.5 m. The floor and the sides of the pool need to be
cemented.
a Calculate the area that is to be cemented.
b The concreter mismeasured the length of the pool as 9.4 m. Calculate the error
in the area calculation.
c Calculate the percentage error (correct to 1 decimal place) in the area
calculation.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Calculate the area of the pool floor. a Area of floor = 10.2 × 7.5
Area of floor = 76.5 m2
2 Calculate the area of the ends. Area of ends = 7.5 × 1.5
Area of ends = 11.25 m2
3 Calculate the area of the sides. Area of sides = 10.2 × 1.5
Area of sides = 15.3 m2
4 Calculate the total area to be Total area = 76.5 + 2 × 11.25 + 2 × 15.3
cemented. Total area = 129.6 m2
b 1 Use the incorrect measurement to b Area of floor = 9.4 × 7.5

repeat all the above calculations. Area of floor = 70.5 m2
Area of ends = 7.5 × 1.5
Area of ends = 11.25 m2
Area of sides = 9.4 × 1.5
Area of sides = 14.1 m2
Total area = 70.5 + 2 × 11.25 + 2 × 14.1
Total area = 121.2 m2
2 Find the difference between the two Error = 129.6 − 121.2
answers. Error = 8.4 m2
8.4
c Write the error as a percentage of the c Percentage error = ------------- × 100%
correct answer. 129.6
Percentage error = 6.5%
remember
1. All measurements are approximations. The accuracy of any measurement
is limited by the instrument used and the most practical degree of
accuracy.
2. The maximum error in any linear measurement is half the smallest unit
used.
3. Any error made in linear measurement will compound when used in further
calculations such as those for surface area or volume.
2F Error in measurement
WORKED 1 In the figure on the right each measurement has 2.11 SkillS
Example
been taken to the nearest centimetre.
12 cm
17
HEET
a Calculate the volume of the figure. Error in
b Calculate the maximum error in the volume 6 cm linear
16 cm measurement
calculation.
2 The radius of a circle is measured as 7.6 cm, correct to 1 decimal place.

a What is the maximum possible error in the measurement of the radius?
b Calculate the area of the circle. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the maximum possible error in the area of the circle.
d Calculate the maximum possible error in the area of the circle as a percentage of
the area.
3 A cube has a side length of 16 mm, correct to the nearest millimetre.

a Calculate the volume of the cube.
b Calculate the smallest possible volume of the cube.
c Calculate the largest possible volume of the cube.
d Calculate the maximum possible percentage error in the volume of the cube.
e Calculate the surface area of the cube.
f Calculate the smallest possible surface area of the cube.
g Calculate the largest possible surface area of the cube.
h Calculate the maximum possible percentage error in the surface area of the cube.
4 A cylinder has a radius of 4 cm and a height of 6 cm with each measurement being

taken correct to the nearest centimetre.
a Calculate the volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole number).
b Calculate the smallest possible volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole
number).
c Calculate the largest possible volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole
number).
d Calculate the greatest possible percentage error in the volume of the cylinder.
5 For the cylinder in question 4, calculate the greatest possible percentage error in the
surface area of the cylinder.
6 The radius of a sphere is 1.4 m with the measurement taken correct to 1 decimal
place.
a Calculate the volume of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
b Calculate the maximum possible error in the volume of the sphere.
c Calculate the maximum percentage error in the volume.
d Calculate the surface area of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
e Calculate the maximum possible error in the surface area of the sphere.
f Calculate the maximum percentage error in the surface area.
WORKED 7 An open cylindrical water tank has a radius of 45 cm and a height of 60 cm.
Example
a Calculate the capacity of the tank, in litres (correct to the nearest whole number).
18
b If the tank’s radius is given as 50 cm, correct to the nearest 10 cm, calculate the
error in the capacity of the tank.
c Calculate the percentage error in the capacity of the tank.
8 A rectangular prism has dimensions 56 cm × 41 cm × 17 cm.
a Calculate the volume of the prism.
b Calculate the surface area of the prism.
c If the dimensions are given to the nearest 10 cm, what will the dimensions of the
prism be given as?
d Calculate the percentage error in the volume when the dimensions are given to the
nearest 10 cm.
e Calculate the percentage error in the surface area when the dimensions are given to
the nearest 10 cm.
9 The four walls of a room are to be painted. The length of the room is 4.1 m and the
width is 3.6 m. Each wall is 1.8 m high.
a Calculate the area to be painted.
b One litre of paint will paint an area of 2 m2. Each wall will need two coats of paint.
Calculate the number of litres of paint required to complete this job.
c Karla incorrectly measures the length of the room to be 3.9 m. If Karla does all her
calculations using this incorrect measurement, how many litres will she be short of
paint at the end of the job?
10 The dimensions of a rectangular house are 16.6 m by 9.8 m.
a Simon takes the dimensions of the house to the nearest metre for all his calcu-
lations. What dimensions does Simon use?
b Simon plans to floor the house in slate tiles. What is the area that needs to be tiled?
c The tiles cost $27.50/m2 and Simon buys an extra 10% to allow for cutting and
SHEE
T 2.2 breakage. Calculate the cost of the tiles.
d How much extra has Simon spent than would have been necessary had he used the
Work
original measurements of the house?

summary
Area of parts of the circle
• The area of a circle can be calculated using the formula A = π r 2.
• The area of a sector is found by multiplying the area of the full circle by the
fraction of the circle occupied by the sector. This is calculated by looking at the
angle that the sector makes with the centre.
• An annulus is the area between two circles. The area is calculated by subtracting
the area of the smaller circle from the area of the larger circle or by using the
formula A = π(R2 – r2) , where R is the radius of the large circle and r is the
radius of the small circle.
• The area of an ellipse is calculated using the formula A = πab, where a is the length
of the semi-major axis and b is the length of the semi-minor axis.
Area of composite figures

• The area of a composite figure is calculated by dividing the figure into two or more
regular figures.
• When calculating the area of a composite figure, some side lengths will need to be
calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem.
Simpson’s rule
• Simpson’s rule is used to find an approximation for an irregular area.
h
• The formula for Simpson’s rule is A ≈ --- ( d f + 4d m + d l ) .
3
• To obtain a better approximation for an area, Simpson’s rule can be applied twice.
This is done by dividing the area in half and applying Simpson’s rule separately to
each half.
Surface area of cylinders and spheres

• The surface area of a closed cylinder is found by using the formula
SA = 2π r 2 + 2π rh .
• If the cylinder is an open cylinder, the surface area is found using
SA = π r 2 + 2π rh.
• The surface area of a sphere is calculated using the formula
SA = 4π r 2 .
Volume of composite solids

• The volume of solid prisms is calculated using the formula V = A × h.
• The volume of a cone is found using the formula V = 1--- π r 2h .
3
• The volume of a cylinder is found using the formula V = π r 2h .

• The volume of a sphere is found using the formula V = 4--- π r 3 .

3
• The volume of a pyramid is found using the formula V = 1--- Ah .

3
• Other solids have their volume calculated by dividing the solid into regular solid
shapes.
Error in measurement
• All measurements are approximations. The maximum error in any measurement is
half the smallest unit used.
• Any error in a measurement will compound when further calculations using the
measurement need to be made.
CHAPTER
review
1 Calculate the area of each of the circles below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 2A
3.7 cm 52 mm 1.7 m
2 Calculate the area of each of the figures below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 2A
92 mm 237°
30° 12.5 cm
4.8 m
3 Calculate the area of each of the annuluses below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal
place. 2A
a b c
3.7 m 34 cm
81 mm
94 mm 1.3 m 17 cm
4 Calculate the area of each of the ellipses below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 2A
30 mm 9.2 m
3.6 cm
45 mm 11.4 m
7 cm
5 Calculate the area of the figure below.

2B
35 cm
15 cm
10 cm 10 cm
12 cm
6 Calculate the area of each of the figures below. Where appropriate, give your answer correct
2B to 2 decimal places.
a 0.7 m b c
1.5 cm
4.1 m
3 cm
0.9 m
1.5 cm 36 cm
3.9 m 6 cm
7 Use Simpson’s rule to approximate

2C the area on the right.
50 m
21 m
13 m
42 m 42 m
8 Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for each of the areas below.
2C a b c 2m
57 m
36 m
30 m
29 m
31 m
14 m
62 m
57 m
96 m
24 m 42 m
9 By dividing the area shown on the right into two

2C sections, use Simpson’s rule to find an
approximation for the area. 50 m
27 m
30 m 30 m 19 m 11 m
25 m
62 m
10 Use Simpson’s rule twice to find an

2C approximation for the area on the
right.
33 m
38 m
23 m
44 m
9m
15 m 15 m 15 m 15 m
11 Calculate the surface area of each of the closed cylinders drawn below, correct to 1 decimal
2D place.
a b c
25 cm 60 cm
10 cm 1.1 m
7 cm
4 cm
12 Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a diameter of 9 cm and a height of
15 cm. Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number. 2D
13 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with:
a a radius of 5 cm b a radius of 2.4 m c a diameter of 156 mm. 2D
Give each answer correct to the nearest whole number.
0.5 m
14 Calculate the volume of the solid drawn
on the right. 2E
3.1 m
1.9 m
0.6 m
2.7 m
15 Calculate the volume of each of the solids drawn below. Where necessary, give your answer
correct to the nearest whole number. 2E
a b c 12 cm
3 cm
9 cm
19 cm
12 cm
20 cm
3 cm
15 cm 3 cm
22 cm 10 cm
17 cm 40 cm 10 cm
16 Calculate the volume of the figure drawn on the

right, correct to 2 decimal places. 2E
15 cm
9 cm
17 A sphere has a diameter of 16 cm when measured to the nearest centimetre.

a State the maximum error made in the measurement of the radius. 2F
b Calculate the volume of the sphere. Answer correct to the nearest whole number.
c Calculate the maximum percentage error in the volume of the sphere.
18 An aluminium soft drink can has a diameter of 8 cm and a height of 10 cm.
a Calculate the capacity of the 2F
can, in millilitres, correct to the
nearest 10 millilitres.
b The machine that cuts the
aluminium for the can is
mistakenly set to 12 cm.
Calculate the percentage error
in the capacity of the can
(correct to the nearest whole
number).

1 multiple choice
6.2 mm
Which of the following calculations will correctly
give the area of the ellipse drawn on the right? 10.8 mm
A π × 6.22 B π × 8.52
C π × 10.82 D π × 10.8 × 6.2
2 multiple choice
The field drawn on the right is to have its area
approximated by two applications of Simpson’s
rule. The value of h is:
30 m
25 m
20 m
15 m
10 m
A 16 B 20
C 40 D 80 80 m
3 multiple choice
The figure drawn on the right is an open cylinder.
Which of the calculations below will correctly
give the surface area of the cylinder?
A π × 52 + 2 × π × 5 × 20 20 cm
B 2 × π × 52 + 2 × π × 5 × 20
C π × 102 + 2 × π × 10 × 20 10 cm
D 2 × π × 102 + 2 × π × 10 × 20
4 multiple choice
A closed cylinder is measured as having a radius of 1.2 m and a height of 1.4 m. The
maximum error in the calculation of the surface area is:
A 1.2 m2 B 1.5 m2 C 1.6 m2 D 19.6 m2
5 The figure on the right shows a section of a
concrete drainage pipe.
a Calculate the area of the annulus, correct to 1 decimal
2.5 m
place.
b Calculate the volume of concrete needed to make a 1.5 m
5 m length of this pipe (correct to 1 decimal place).
c Calculate the volume of water that will flow through the
5 m length of the pipe (in litres, to the nearest 100 L).
d Calculate the surface area of a 5 m section of pipe (correct to the nearest m2).
(Hint: Include the area of the inside of the pipe.)
6 The diagram on the right shows the cross-section of a river.
a Use two applications of Simpson’s rule to find the 60 m
4.9 m
5.1 m
approximate area of the river’s cross-section.

9.2 m
b If the river flows with this cross-section for

test approximately 800 m, calculate the volume of the river.
yourself
c The length of the river has been approximated to the
CHAPTER
2 nearest 100 m. Calculate the maximum percentage error

in calculating this volume.
Applications of
trigonometry
3
syllabus reference
Measurement 6
• Applications of
trigonometry
In this chapter
3A Review of right-angled
triangles
3B Bearings
3C Using the sine rule to find
side lengths
3D Using the sine rule to find
angles
3E Area of a triangle
3F Using the cosine rule to
find side lengths
3G Using the cosine rule to
find angles
3H Radial surveys
areyou
a copy.
3.1 Right-angled trigonometry — finding a side length

1 In each of the following find the length of the side marked with the pronumerals correct to two
decimal places.
a b d c f
40° 71°
a 16 m 19.5 m
25.2 km
63°
3.2 Using the inverse trigonometric ratios
2 Find angle θ, where θ is acute, correct to the nearest degree.
a sin θ = 0.7 b tan θ = 1.5 c cos θ = 0.8
Right-angled trigonometry — finding an angle
3.4 3 In each of the following find the size of the angle marked with the pronumerals correct to the
nearest degree.
a 8m b c
20 cm 46.1 mm
16 m 25 cm
31.2 mm
3.5 Converting nautical miles to kilometres

4 Use 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km to convert:
a 4 nautical miles to kilometres. b 50 kilometres to nautical miles.
c 1.2 nautical miles to metres. d 3560 metres to nautical miles.
3.6 Angle sum of a triangle
5 Find the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following.
a b c
132°
41°
58°
63° 71°
3.7 Solving fractional equations

6 Solve each of the following equations, where appropriate give your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
x x 3 x 9.5 9 2
a --- = 3 b --- = --- c ------- = ------- d --- = ---
5 4 8 3.6 2.4 x 5
Chapter 3 Applications of trigonometry 81
Review of right-angled triangles
Previously we have studied right-angled triangles and discovered that we can calculate
a side length of a triangle when given the length of one other side and one of the acute
angles.
To do this we need to use the formulas for the three trigonometric ratios.
opposite side
sin θ = --------------------------------
hypotenuse
adjacent side
cos θ = ---------------------------------
hypotenuse
opposite side
tan θ = ---------------------------------
adjacent side
WORKED Example 1
Find the length of the side marked x
in the figure on the right (correct
42°
to 1 decimal place). x
29.2 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Label the sides of the diagram.
42° hyp
adj x
29.2 cm
opp
2 Choose the sine ratio and write the opposite side
sin θ = -------------------------------
formula. hypotenuse
3 Substitute for the opposite side and 29.2
sin 42° = ----------
hypotenuse. x
4 Make x the subject of the formula. x sin 42° = 29.2
29.2
x = -----------------
sin 42°
5 Calculate the value of x. x = 43.6 m
Graphics Calculator tip! Using equation solver to find

side lengths
Consider worked example 1. Once you have chosen the correct trigonometric ratio and
substituted, you can finish the solution using the equation solver on your graphics
calculator.
1. From the MENU select EQUA.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).
3. Delete any equation, enter the equation

sin 42 = 29.2 ÷ X and press EXE .
Note: Your calculator may display a different value
of X at this stage. This is just the last value of X
stored in the calculator’s memory.
4. Press F6 (SOLV) to solve the equation.
The same formulas can be used to calculate the size of an angle if we are given two
side lengths in the triangle.
WORKED Example 2
Calculate the size of the angle marked θ in the
47 mm
figure on the right (correct to the nearest degree).
35 mm
THINK WRITE
1 Label the sides of the triangle. Opposite = 47 mm
Adjacent = 35 mm
2 Choose the tangent ratio and write the opposite side
tan θ = -------------------------------
formula. adjacent side
3 Substitute for the opposite side and the 47
tan θ = ------
adjacent side. 35
Make θ the subject of the formula.
θ = tan−1  ------
4 47
Calculate θ. 35
5
θ = 53°
Graphics Calculator tip! Using equation solver to find

the size of an angle
We can use the equation solver when we are finding the size of an angle.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).
3. Delete any existing equation, then enter the equation

tan X = 47 ab/c 35 and press EXE .
Using these results, we are able to solve problems that involve more than one right-
angled triangle.
WORKED Example 3
Greg stands 70 m from the base of a building and measures the
angle of elevation to the top of the building as being 35°. Julie is
standing 40 m from the base of the building on the other side of
the building as shown in the figure on the right. h
a Calculate the height of the building, correct to 2 decimal places. θ 35°
b Calculate the angle of elevation of the top of the building that 40 m 70 m
Julie would measure, correct to the nearest degree.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw the triangle showing the angle a
of elevation from where Greg is
standing and label the sides. h
35°
70 m
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
opposite side
2 Choose the tangent ratio and write tan θ = -------------------------------
adjacent side
the formula.
h
3 Substitute for θ and the adjacent tan 35° = ------
70
side.
4 Make h the subject of the formula. h = 70 × tan 35°
5 Calculate the value of h. h = 49.01 m
b 1 Draw the triangle from where Julie b

is standing and label the sides.
49.01 m
θ
40 m
opposite side
2 Choose the tangent ratio and write tan θ = -------------------------------
adjacent side
the formula.
49.01
3 Substitute for the opposite side and tan θ = -------------
40
the adjacent side.
θ = tan−1  -------------
49.01
4 Make θ the subject of the formula.
40
5 Calculate θ, correct to the nearest θ = 51°
degree.
remember
1. The formulas for the three trigonometric ratios are:
opposite side
• sin θ = -------------------------------
hypotenuse
adjacent side
• cos θ = -------------------------------
hypotenuse
opposite side
• tan θ = -------------------------------
adjacent side
2. To calculate the length of a side we need to be given one side length and one
acute angle.
3. To calculate the size of an angle we need to be given two side lengths.
4. Many problems involve solving two or more right-angled triangles.
5. After substitution, the value of the unknown can be found using the equation
solver on a graphics calculator.
Review of right-angled
3A triangles
WORKED 1 Calculate the length of the side marked with the pronumerals in each of the following, 3.1 SkillS
Example
1
HEET
a b b c Right-angled
13.2 cm trigonometry
— finding a
142 mm
c side length
23° 61°
a 38°
11.4 m Cabri Geo
met
ry
Sine,
d e f cosine and
314 mm
17° tangent
5°
d e f
19.2 cm
50° 9.1 m
WORKED 2 Calculate the size of each of the angles marked with the pronumerals, correct to the
Example
2
nearest degree.
a b c 3.2 SkillS
9.5 m 113 cm
HEET
θ
36 mm
Using the
inverse
cm
trigonometric
θ
61
11.4 m ratios
71 mm
θ
3 From the top of a cliff the angle of depression 100 m

to a boat sailing 100 m offshore is 32°. Calculate 32°
the height of the cliff, correct to the nearest metre.
h
4 Andrew walks 5 km from point P to point Q. At the same time Bianca walks from
P to R such that PQ is perpendicular to PR. Given that ∠PQR = 28°: 3.3 SkillS
HEET
a draw a diagram of ∆PQR

Rounding
b calculate the distance walked by Bianca, correct to the nearest metre angles
c calculate the distance that Andrew would need to walk in a straight line to to the
nearest
meet Bianca, correct to the nearest metre. degree
5 A lighthouse is 40 m tall and the beacon atop the 3.4 SkillS
lighthouse is sighted by a ship 150 m from shore, as
HEET
shown in the figure on the right. Calculate the angle 40 m Right-angled

of elevation at which the lighthouse is sighted, θ trigonometry —
correct to the nearest degree. 150 m finding an angle
6 From a point 65 m above the ground, a point is sighted on the ground at a distance of
239 m.
a Draw a diagram of this situation.
b Calculate the angle of depression at which the point is sighted.
WORKED 7 Sally and Tim are both sighting the top of a
Example
3 building, as shown in the figure on the right.
Sally is 40 m from the base of the building
h
and sights the angle of elevation to the top of
the building as 35°. Tim is 60 m from the
base of the building.
35°
a Calculate the height of the building, cor- 40 m 60 m
rect to 2 decimal places.
S
b Calculate the angle of elevation at which
Tim will sight the building.
8 George and Diego are both flying a kite
from the same point. George’s kite is flying G D
on 50 m of string and the string makes a 70°
angle with the ground. Diego’s kite is flying
on a 60 m piece of string and is at the same 50 m 60 m
height as George’s kite, as shown in the
figure on the right. Calculate the angle that
the string from Diego’s kite makes with the
ground. Give your answer correct to the
nearest degree. 70°
Bearings
A bearing is an angle used to describe direction. Bearings are used in navigation and
are a common application of trigonometry to practical situations. We can therefore
apply our trigonometrical formulas to make calculations based upon these bearings.
There are two types of bearing that we need to be able to work with: compass bearings
and true bearings.
Compass bearings
N
Compass bearings use the four points of the
compass. With compass bearings there are four NW NE
main directions: north, south, east and west. In
between each of these main directions there are
W E
four others: north-east, south-east, south-west and
north-west. Each of these directions is at 45° to
two of the four main directions. SW SE
Trigonometry can then be used to solve
S
problems about distances and angles using these
eight basic directions.
WORKED Example 4
A ship (A) is 10 nautical miles due east of a lighthouse. A second ship (B) bears SE of the
lighthouse and is due south of the first ship. Calculate the distance of the second ship from
the lighthouse, correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram labelling the sides of N adj

the triangle. L 10 M A
45°
opp
hyp
x
B
2 Choose the cosine ratio and write the adj
cos θ = ---------
formula. hyp
3 Substitute for θ and the adjacent 10
cos 45° = ------
side. x
4 Make x the subject of the equation. x cos 45° = 10
10
x = ------------------
cos 45°
5 Calculate the value of x, correct to = 14.1 M
1 decimal place.
6 Give a written answer. The second ship is 14.1 nautical miles from the
lighthouse.
These eight compass points do not allow us to make calculations about more precise
directions. For this reason an alternative method of describing bearings is needed for
any direction other than these basic eight points.
True bearings
A true bearing is an angle measured from north in a
clockwise direction. As there are 360° in a revolution, N
all true bearings are represented as a three-digit number
between 000° and 360°. For example, east is at a
bearing of 090°, south has a bearing of 180° and west
270°. 270° 090°
When given information about a bearing, we can
solve problems using trigonometry by constructing a
right-angled triangle. As most questions involving bear-
ings are in problem form, a diagram is necessary to 180°
solve the problem and an answer in words should be
given.
WORKED Example 5
A ship sails on a bearing of 130° for a distance of 10 nautical miles. Calculate how far
south of its starting point the ship is, correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram completing a N

right-angled triangle and label the
130°
sides.
50° hyp
adj 10 M
x
opp
2 Choose the cosine ratio and write the adj
cos θ = ---------
formula. hyp
3 Substitute for θ and the hypotenuse. x
cos 50° = ------
10
4 Make x the subject of the equation.
x = 10 cos 50°
5 Calculate. x = 6.43 M
6 Give a written answer. The ship is 6.43 nautical miles south of its
starting point.
We can also use our methods of calculating angles to make calculations about bearings.
After solving the right-angled triangle, however, we need to provide the answer as a
bearing.
WORKED Example 6
On a hike Lisa walked south for 3.5 km and then turned west for 1.2 km. Calculate Lisa’s
bearing from her starting point.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram and label the sides of N
the triangle.
θ
3.5 km
hyp
adj
1.2 km
opp
2 Choose the tangent ratio and write the opp
tan θ = ---------
formula. adj
THINK WRITE
3 Substitute for the opposite and adjacent 1.2

tan θ = -------
sides and simplify. 3.5
= 0.3429
4 Make θ the subject of the equation. θ = tan−1(0.3429)
5 Calculate θ. = 19°
6 From the diagram we can see the angle Bearing = 180° + 19°
lies between south and west. South has = 199°
a bearing of 180°, and so we must add
19° to 180° to calculate the true
bearing.
7 Give a written answer. Lisa is at a bearing of 199° from her starting
point.
remember
1. Bearings are used to describe a direction. We have used two types of bearings.
• Compass bearings use the four main points of the compass, north, south, east
and west, as well as the four middle directions, north-east, north-west, south-
east and south-west.
• True bearings describe more specific direction by using a three-digit angle,
which is measured from north in a clockwise direction.
2. Bearing questions are usually given in written form so you will need to draw a
diagram to extract all the information from the question.
3. Read carefully to see if the question is asking you to find a side or an angle.
4. Always give a written answer to worded questions.
5. Use 1 M = 1.852 km to convert beteen nautical miles and kilometres.
3B Bearings
WORKED 1 A road runs due north. A hiker leaves the road and walks for 4.2 km in a NW 3.5 SkillS
Example
4
direction.
HEET
a Draw a diagram of this situation. Converting

b How far due east must the hiker walk to get back to the road? (Give your nautical
answer correct to 3 decimal places.) miles to
kilometres
2 A driver heads due south for 34 km, then turns left and drives until he is SE of
his starting point.
a Draw a diagram to show the driver’s journey.
b Calculate the distance the driver travelled in an easterly direction from his
starting point.
3 Two boats, A and B, sail from a port. A heads due west, while B heads NW for a
distance of 43 nautical miles, where it drops anchor. Boat A drops anchor due south of
boat B.
a Draw a diagram showing the positions of boats A and B.
b Calculate the distance between boats A and B in nautical miles, correct to
1 decimal place.
c Calculate the distance in kilometres between A and B.
4 multiple choice
A true bearing of 315° is equivalent to a
compass bearing of:
A NE
B NW
C SE
D SW
5 multiple choice
A compass bearing of SE is equivalent to a true bearing of:
A 045° B 135° C 225° D 315°
WORKED 6 Two hikers, Adrian and Bertrand, set out on a
Example A d B
5
walk. Adrian walks 5 km due north to a point,
A, and Bertrand walks on a bearing of 052° to
a point, B. Bertrand lets off a flare and Adrian 5 km
notices Bertrand is now due east of him, as
shown in the diagram on the right. Calculate
52°
the distance between the two hikers, correct to
1 decimal place.
7 A yacht sights a lighthouse on a bearing of 060°. After sailing another eight nautical
miles due north, the yacht is due west of the lighthouse.
b Calculate the distance from the yacht to the lighthouse when it is due west of it
8 An aeroplane takes off from an airport and flies on a bearing of 220° for a distance of
570 km. Calculate how far south of the airport the aeroplane is (correct to the nearest
kilometre).
9 A camping ground is due east of a car park. Eden and Jeff walk 3.8 km due south
from the camping ground until the car park is on a bearing of 290°.
a Draw a diagram showing the car park, the camping ground, and Eden and Jeff’s
position.
b Calculate the distance Eden and Jeff need to walk directly back to the car park,
10 multiple choice
A ship is on a bearing of 070° from a lighthouse. The bearing of the lighthouse from
the ship will be:
A 070° B 160° C 200° D 250°
11 multiple choice
A camping ground is SW of a car park. The bearing of the car park from the camping
ground will be:
A NE B NW C SE D SW
WORKED 12 A search party leaves its base and head 4 km due west before turning south for 3.5 km.
Example
6
b Calculate the true bearing of the search party from its base, correct to the nearest
degree.
13 A ship is two nautical miles due west of a harbour. A yacht that sails 6.5 nautical miles
from that harbour is due north of the ship. Calculate the true bearing (correct to the
nearest degree) of the course on which the yacht sails from the harbour.
Trigonometric ratios for

obtuse angles
Many non-right-angled triangles have one obtuse angle. In the following sections
we will be solving non-right-angled triangles and will need to investigate the
trigonometric ratios for obtuse angles.
1 Use your calculator to give each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places.
a sin 100° b cos 100° c tan 100°
d sin 135° e cos 135° f tan 135°
g sin 179° h cos 179° i tan 179°
2 Which of the answers to question 1 are positive and which are negative?
3 Calculate the sine, cosine and tangent of several other obtuse angles and see if
the established pattern continues.
4 Can you develop a rule for the sign of trigonometric ratios of obtuse angles?
The sine rule

Finding side lengths
The trigonometry we have studied so far has been C
applicable to only right-angled triangles. The sine rule C
allows us to calculate the lengths of sides and the size of b a
angles in non-right-angled triangles. Consider the A B
triangle drawn on the right. A c B
The sine rule states that in any triangle, ABC, the ratio of each side to the sine of its
opposite angle will be equal.
a b c
------------- = ------------- = -------------
sin A sin B sin C
Derivation of the sine rule

A, B and C represent the three angles in the triangle ABC and a, b and c represent
the three sides, remembering that each side is named with the lower-case letter of
the opposite vertex.
Construct a line from C to a point, D, perpendicular to AB. CD is the
perpendicular height of the triangle, h.
C
b a
h
A B
A D B
c
Now consider ∆ACD and ∆BCD separately.
C C
b a
h h
A D D B
Use the formula for the sine ratio:
opp opp
sin θ = --------- sin θ = ---------
hyp hyp
h h
sin A = --- sin B = ---
b a
h = b sin A h = a sin B
We are now able to equate these two expressions for h.
a sin B = b sin A
Dividing both sides by sin A sin B we get:
a sin B b sin A
--------------------------- = ---------------------------
sin A sin B sin A sin B
a b
------------ = ------------
sin A sin B
c
Similarly, we are able to show that each of these is also equal to ------------- . Try it!
sin C
This formula allows us to calculate the length of a side in any triangle if we are given
the length of one other side and two angles. When using the formula we need to use
only two parts of it.
WORKED Example 7
Calculate the length of the side marked x in the A
triangle on the right, correct to 1 decimal place.
80°
16 cm
40°
B x C
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. a b
------------ = ------------
Substitute a = x, b = 16, A = 80° and sin A sin B
2
B = 40°. x 16
----------------- = -----------------
sin 80° sin 40°
16 sin 80°
3 Make x the subject of the equation by x = -------------------------
multiplying by sin 80°. sin 40°
4 Calculate. x = 24.5 cm
Graphics Calculator tip! Using equation solver to solve

sine rule problems (sides)
As with right-angled trigonometry, you can use the equation solver function on your
graphics calculator to solve the equation formed immediately after you substitute into
the equation. Consider worked example 7 above.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).
3. Delete any existing equation, enter the equation

X ÷ sin 80 = 16 ÷ sin 40, and then press EXE .

Note: Some questions may ask for you to give the answer in a form other than a
number and as such the graphics calculator method can not be used. For example, the
16 sin 80°
question above could be worded to, say, show x = ------------------------ , in which case you must
sin 40°
manipulate the equation to arrive at the desired expression.
To use the sine rule we need to know the angle opposite the side we are finding and
the angle opposite the side we are given. In some cases these are not the angles we are
given. In such cases we need to use the fact that the angles in a triangle add to 180° to
calculate the required angle.
WORKED Example 8 A
Calculate the length of the side labelled
m in the figure on the right, correct to 65°
4 significant figures. m
75°
B 16 m C
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the size of angle C. C = 180° − 65° − 75°
= 40°
2 Write the formula. a c
------------ = -------------
Substitute a = 16, c = m, A = 65° and sin A sin C
3
C = 40°. 16 m
----------------- = -----------------
Make m the subject of the equation. sin 65° sin 40°
4
16 sin 40°
m = -------------------------
Calculate. sin 65°
5
= 11.35 m
As mentioned in the previous investigation, we need to apply the sine rule to obtuse-
angled triangles. In such examples the method used is exactly the same with the sub-
stitution of an obtuse angle.
Using the sine rule allows us to solve a number of more complex problems. As with
our earlier trigonometry problems, we begin each with a diagram and give a written
answer to each.
WORKED Example 9 A
Georg looks south and observes an aeroplane at an angle of elevation
of 60°. Henrietta is 20 km south of where Georg is and she faces
x
north to see the aeroplane at an angle of elevation of 75°.
Calculate the distance of the aeroplane from Henrietta’s
observation point, to the nearest metre. 60° 75°
G 20 km H
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the size of ∠GAH. A = 180° − 60° − 75°
= 45°
THINK WRITE
2 Write the formula. g a
------------- = ------------
Substitute g = x, a = 20, G = 60° and sin G sin A
3
H = 75°. x 20
----------------- = -----------------
sin 60° sin 45°
20 sin 60°
4 Make x the subject. x = -------------------------
Calculate. sin 45°
5
x = 24.495 km
6 Give a written answer. The distance of the aeroplane from Henrietta’s
observation point is 24.495 km.
remember
a b c
1. The sine rule formula is ------------ = ------------ = ------------- .
sin A sin B sin C
2. The sine rule is used to find a side in any triangle when we are given the length
of one other side and two angles.
3. We need to use only two parts of the sine rule formula.
4. For written problems, begin by drawing a diagram and finish by giving a
written answer.
5. You can use the equation solver on a graphics calculator to find the value of the
unknown after substituting into the formula.
Using the sine rule to find

3C side lengths
1 Write down the sine rule formula as it applies to each of the triangles below. 3.6 SkillS
a A b X c P
HEET
Angle
sum of a
c b triangle
B a C Z Y
R Q
WORKED 2 Use the sine rule to calculate the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in 3.7 SkillS
Example
7
each of the following, correct to 3 significant figures.
HEET
a A b L c R Solving
fractional
x 63° 52° equations
16 cm 1.9 km t
50° 45°
B C 59° 84°
M q N T 89 mm S
omet
i Ge ry WORKED 3 In each of the following, use the sine rule to calculate the length of the side marked
Example
Cabr
with the pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place, by first finding the size of the third
8
Triangle angle.
a G x H b N c B
74° 74° 85° y
19.4 km
80° m
18.2 mm 62° P 27°
C
A
35.3 cm
I M
4 multiple choice
Look at the figure drawn on the right. 42 cm
Which of the following expressions gives 35° 28°
the value of m? m
42 sin 117° 42 sin 117°

A m = ---------------------------- B m = ----------------------------
sin 28° sin 35°
42 sin 28° 42 sin 35°
C m = ------------------------- D m = -------------------------
sin 117° sin 117°
5 multiple choice
Look at the figure drawn on the right. n
Which of the following expressions gives
the value of n? 35° 28°
42 m
42 sin 117° 42 sin 117°

A n = ---------------------------- B n = ----------------------------
sin 28° sin 35°
42 sin 28° 42 sin 35°
C n = ------------------------- D n = -------------------------
sin 117° sin 117°
6 ABC is a triangle in which BC = 9 cm, ∠BAC = 54° and ∠ACB = 62°. Calculate the
length of side AB, correct to 1 decimal place.
7 XYZ is a triangle in which y = 19.2 m, ∠XYZ = 42° and ∠XZY = 28°. Calculate x,
correct to 3 significant figures.
WORKED 8 X and Y are two trees, 30 m apart on one side of a river. Z is a tree on the opposite
Example
9 side of the river, as shown in the diagram below.
59° 72°
X 30 m Y
It is found that ∠XYZ = 72° and ∠YXZ = 59°. Calculate the distance XZ, correct to
1 decimal place.
9 From a point, M, the angle of elevation to the top of a building, B, is 34°. From a
point, N, 20 m closer to the building, the angle of elevation is 49°.
b Calculate the distance NB, correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the height of the building, correct to the nearest metre.
10 Look at the figure on the right.

a Show that XY can be given by the Y
80 sin 30°
expression ------------------------- .
sin 40°
b Show that h can be found using the h
80 sin 30° sin 70° 30° 70°

expression -------------------------------------------- . W Z
sin 40° 80 m X
c Calculate h, correct to 1 decimal place.
Finding angles
Using the sine rule result, we are able to calculate angle sizes as well. To do this, we
need to be given the length of two sides and the angle opposite one of them. For
simplicity, in solving the triangle we invert the sine rule formula when we are using it
to find an angle. The formula is written:
sin A sin B sin C

------------ = ------------ = -------------
a b c
Your formula sheet has the sine rule to find a side length. You need to invert this
formula when finding an angle. As with finding side lengths, we use only two parts of
the formula.
WORKED Example 10
Find the size of the angle, θ, in the figure on the right, A
correct to the nearest degree.
6 cm 110°
θ C
20 cm
B
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. sin A sin C

------------ = -------------
a c
2 Substitute A = 110°, C = θ, a = 20 and
c = 6. sin 110° sin θ
-------------------- = ------------
20 6
6 sin 110°
3 Make sin θ the subject of the equation. sin θ = -------------------------
20
4 Calculate a value for sin θ.
sin θ = 0.2819
5 Calculate sin−1(0.2819) to find θ. θ = 16°

sine rule problems (angles)
The same graphics calculator method can be used when finding an angle using the sine
rule. Consider worked example 10.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).

sin 110˚ ÷ 20 = sin X ÷ 6 and press EXE .
stored in the calculators memory.
Note: When using the graphics calculator, you do not need to remember to invert the
sine rule. If you enter 20 ÷ sin 110 = 6 sin x, the graphics calculator will still solve the
equation.
As with finding side lengths, some questions will be problems that require you to
draw a diagram to extract the required information and then write the answer.
WORKED Example 11
From a point, P, a ship (S) is sighted 12.4 km from P on a bearing of 137°. A point, Q, is
due south of P and is a distance of 31.2 km from the ship. Calculate the bearing of the ship
from Q, correct to the nearest degree.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram. P 137°
12.4 km
43° S
31.2 km
Q
THINK WRITE
2 Write the formula. sin Q sin P

------------- = ------------
q p
3 Substitute for p, q and P.
sin Q sin 43°
------------- = -----------------
12.4 31.2
4 Make sin Q the subject.
12.4 sin 43°
sin Q = ------------------------------
31.2
5 Calculate a value for sin Q.
sin Q = 0.271
−1
6 Calculate sin (0.271) to find Q. Q = 16°
7 Give a written answer. The bearing of the ship from Q is 016°.
remember
sin A sin B sin C
1. The sine rule formula for finding an angle is ------------ = ------------ = ------------- .
a b c
2. The formula sheet gives the sine rule in the form used to find a side. You have
to invert the formula when finding angles.
3. We can use this formula when we are given two sides and the angle opposite
one of them.
4. Worded questions should begin with a diagram and finish with a written
answer.
Using the sine rule to find

3D angles
WORKED 1 Find the size of the angle marked with a pronumeral in each of the following, correct to
Example
10
the nearest degree.
a A b P c L
φ
100° 32 cm
29.5 m 153 mm
θ 79 mm
B C
46 cm
Q 60° R 117° α
18.9 m M N
d V e X f 27 mm
170°
16.5 cm
23.6 km 23.6 km 27.6 cm θ 156 mm
75° θ 86° β
U W Y Z
2 multiple choice
7 13
Which of the statements below give the
36° θ
correct value for sin θ ?
13 sin 36° 7 sin 36°
A sin θ = ------------------------- B sin θ = ----------------------
7 13
36 sin 13° 7 sin 13°
C sin θ = ------------------------- D sin θ = ----------------------
7 36
3 multiple choice
In which of the triangles below is the information insufficient to use the sine rule?
A B θ
θ
14.8 m 12.7 m
57° 45°
12.6 m 16.2 m
C D 8.7 m
115° 6.2 m 12.7 m
θ 9°
θ
12.9 m
4 In ∆PQR, q = 12 cm, r = 16 cm and ∠PRQ = 56°. Find the size of ∠PQR, correct to
the nearest degree.
5 In ∆KLM, LM = 4.2 m, KL = 5.6 m and ∠KML = 27°. Find the size of ∠LKM, correct
to the nearest degree.
WORKED 6 A, B and C are three towns marked on a map. Judy calculates that the distance between
Example
11
A and B is 45 km and the distance between B and C is 32 km. ∠CAB is 45°. Calculate
∠ACB, correct to the nearest degree.
7 A surveyor marks three points X, Y and Z in the ground. The surveyor measures XY to
be 13.7 m and XZ to be 14.2 m. ∠XYZ is 60°.
a Calculate ∠XZY to the nearest degree.
b Calculate ∠YXZ to the nearest degree.
8 Two wires support a flagpole. The

first wire is 8 m long and makes a
65° angle with the ground. The
second wire is 9 m long. Find the
angle that the second wire makes
with the ground.
SHEE
T 3.1
Work
1
1 Find a in the triangle below, 2 Find b in the triangle below,
correct to 1 decimal place. correct to the nearest
23°
millimetre.
a
346 mm
11.4 m 63°
b
3 Find c in the triangle below, 4 Find θ in the triangle below,

correct to 3 significant figures. correct to the nearest degree.
42 cm
12 m
37°
c
7m
θ
In questions 5 to 7 find the size of the side marked with a pronumeral, correct to
2 significant figures.
5 6 7 12°
80° 46 m
x y z
75° 150°
30° 23° 6.1 cm
1700 mm
In questions 8 to 10 find the size of the angle marked θ, correct to the nearest degree.
8 9 10
θ 44 cm
65 cm 23°
41 m θ 4.9 m
31°
60° θ
32 m 3.6 m
Area of a triangle
You should be familiar with finding the area of a triangle using A
the formula Area = 1--2- bh . In this formula, b is the base of the
triangle and h is the perpendicular height. This formula can’t
be used in triangles where we do not know the perpendicular c b
h
height. Trigonometry allows us to find the area of such
triangles when we are given the length of two sides and the B C
included angle. D
a
Consider the triangle drawn on the right. In this triangle:
Area = 1--2- ah [1]
(a = base of triangle, h = height)
Now consider ∆ACD. Since this triangle is right angled:
opp
sin C = ---------
hyp
h
sin C = ---
b
h = b sin C
Substituting for h in [1]:
Area = 1--2- ab sin C
This becomes the formula for the area of a triangle. There are three equivalent formulas
for the area of a triangle.
Area = 1--2- ab sin C
Area = 1--2- ac sin B
Area = 1--2- bc sin A
The formula sheet gives the first version of this formula only. The others are an
adaptation of the same rule. These formulas allow us to find the area of any triangle
where we are given the length of two sides and the included angle. The included angle
is the angle between the two given sides. The formula chosen should be the one that
uses the angle you have been given.
WORKED Example 12 A
Find the area of the triangle on the right, correct to
2 decimal places. 12 cm
60°
B C
16 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula that uses sin B. Area = 1--- ac sin B
2
2 Substitute a = 16, c = 12 and B = 60°. Area = 1
--- × 16 × 12 × sin 60°
2
3 Calculate. Area = 83.14 cm2
As with all other trigonometry we can use this formula to solve practical problems.
WORKED Example 13
Two paths diverge at an angle of 72°. The paths’ lengths are 45 m and 76 m respectively.
Calculate the area between the two paths, correct to the nearest square metre.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram.
45 m
72° 76 m
2 Write the formula. Area = 1--- ab sin C

2
3 Substitute a = 45, b = 76 and C = 72°. Area = 1
--- × 45 × 76 × sin 72°
2
4 Calculate. Area = 1626 m2
5 Give a written answer. The area between the paths is 1626 m2.
remember
1. The area of a triangle can be found when you are given the length of two sides
and an included angle.
2. The formulas to use are: Area = 1--- ab sin C
2
Area = 1--- ac sin B

2
Area = 1--- bc sin A

2
3. Where possible you should still use Area = 1--- bh.

2
4. Begin worded problems with a diagram and finish them with a written answer.
3E Area of a triangle
1 Write down the formula for the area of a triangle in terms of each of the triangles
drawn below. Write the formula using the boldfaced angle.
a B b X c A
A C Y Z G M
2 For each of the triangles drawn below, state whether the area would be best found
using the formula Area = 1--- ab sin C or Area = 1--- bh.
2 2
a b
6 cm
60° 1.9 m
12 cm
2.6 m
c d
6.2 m
8.3 m
9.1 m
60°
12.4 m
WORKED 3 Find the area of each of the following triangles, correct to 1 decimal place.
Example
12
a b c
11 cm
196 mm 207 mm
117 mm
40° 120°
10°
12 cm 92 mm
4 Use either Area = 1--- ab sin C or Area = 1--- bh to find the area of each of the following
2 2
triangles. Where necessary, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
32 cm 38 cm
19 cm
66°
14 cm 38 cm 32 cm
5 multiple choice
In which of the following triangles can the formula Area = 1--- ab sin C not be used to
2
find the area of the triangle?
A B
4 cm
4 cm
60°
9 cm
9 cm
C D
4 cm 75°
9 cm
120°
4 cm 9 cm
6 multiple choice
The area of the triangle on the right
(correct to 1 decimal place) is:
A 4.4 cm2 5 cm 7 cm
B 14.7 cm2
C 17.1 cm2
78°
D 20.5 cm2
6 cm
7 In ∆PQR, p = 4.3 cm, q = 1.8 cm and ∠PRQ = 87°. Calculate the area of ∆PQR,
8 The figure on the right is of a parallelogram, ABCD. A B

a Copy the diagram into your workbook and draw
the diagonal AC on your diagram. 2.5 m
b By considering the parallelogram as two equal 70°
triangles, calculate its area, correct to 1 decimal D 5.2 m C
place.
9 On the right is a diagram of a pentagon

inscribed in a circle of radius 5 cm.
a Calculate the size of each of the angles
made at the centre.
b Calculate the area of the pentagon,
correct to the nearest square centimetre.
WORKED 10 A surveyor sights the four corners of a

Example
13
block of land and makes the following
notebook entry. Calculate the area of the 18 m
block of land, correct to the nearest 90° 20 m
square metre. 80° 70°
15 m
120°
25 m
The cosine rule

Finding side lengths
When given the length of one side and two angles in a triangle, we can use the sine rule
to find another side length. However, in many cases we do not have this information
and need another method of calculating the side lengths. The cosine rule allows us to
calculate the length of the third side of a triangle when we are given the length of the
other two sides and the included angle.
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
The formula sheet gives the third version of this formula only. The others are an
adaptation of the same rule.
It is important to notice that the formula is given in terms of a2, b2 or c2. This means
that to find the value of a, b or c we need to take the square root of our calculation.
Derivation of the cosine rule

Consider ∆ABC on the right. In this C
triangle, h is the perpendicular
height of the triangle and meets a b
AB at D. We will let AD = x, and h
therefore BD = c − x.
B c– x x A
D
c
Using Pythagoras’ theorem on ∆BCD: a2 = (c − x)2 + h2

a2 = c2 − 2cx + x2 + h2 [1]
From ∆ACD: b2 = x2 + h2
Therefore: h2 = b2 − x2
Substituting for h2 in [1]: a2 = c2 − 2cx + x2 + b2 − x2
a2 = c2 − 2cx + b2 [2]
x
Now in ∆ACD: cos A = ---
b
Therefore: x = b cos A
Substituting for x in [2]: a2 = c2 − 2c(b cos A) + b2
a2 = c2 + b2 − 2bc cos A
This becomes the formula for the cosine rule. A similar formula can be used for
finding sides b and c. You may like to try it for yourself.
1 Start with ∆ABC and draw a perpendicular line from A to BC.
2 Use this diagram and follow the method shown to obtain the following version
of the cosine rule: b2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2ac cosB.
3 Can you obtain c2 = a2 + b 2 − 2ab cosC?
WORKED Example 14 B
Find the length of the side marked b in the triangle
70°
on the right, correct to 1 decimal place.
10 m 12 m
A b C
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula with b2 as the b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B

subject.
2 Substitute a = 12, c = 10 and B = 70°. = 122 + 102 − 2 × 12 × 10 × cos 70°
3 Calculate the value of b2. = 161.915
4 Find b by taking the square root of b2. b = 161.915
= 12.7 m

cosine rule problems (sides)
Using the equation solver method for the cosine rule is a very useful method as many
students forget the final step of the solution, which is to take the square root of a2, b2
or c2.
In the same way as with earlier questions we write the formula and then substitute the
appropriate values, leaving one unknown. Hence we have an equation, which can be typed
into the equation solver of the graphics calculator. Consider worked example 14 above.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).
3. Delete any existing equation, enter

B2 = 122 + 102 – 2 × 12 × 10 × cos 70
and then press EXE .

As with sine rule questions, we can apply the cosine rule to obtuse-angled triangles.
You should recall from the earlier investigation that the cosine ratio of an obtuse angle
is negative. The method of solution remains unchanged.
WORKED Example 15 P
Find the length of side PQ in the triangle
on the right, correct to the nearest
millimetre. 68 mm
122°
R 92 mm Q
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula with r 2 as the r 2 = p2 + q2 − 2pq cos R

subject.
2 Substitute p = 92, q = 68 and R = 122°. = 922 + 682 − 2 × 92 × 68 × cos 122°
3 Calculate the value of r 2. = 19 718.35
4 Find r by taking the square root of r 2. r = 19 718.35
= 140 mm
The cosine rule also allows us to solve a wider range of practical problems. The
important part of solving such problems is marking the correct information on your
diagram. If you can identify two side lengths and the included angle, you can use the
cosine rule.
WORKED Example 16
A surveyor standing at a point, X, sights a point, M, 50 m away and a point, N, 80 m away.
If the angle between the lines XM and XN is 45°, calculate the distance between the points
M and N, correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram and mark all given X

information on it.
45° 80 m
50 m
N
M
2 Write the formula with x2 as the x2 = m2 + n2 − 2mn cos X
subject.
3 Substitute m = 80, n = 50 and X = 45°. = 802 + 502 − 2 × 80 × 50 × cos 45°
4 Calculate the value of x2. = 3243.15
5 Calculate x by taking the square root of x = 3243.15
x2.
6 Give a written answer. = 56.9 m
remember
1. To use the cosine rule to find a side length, you need to be given the length of
two sides and the included angle.
2. The cosine rule formulas are:
• a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
• b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
• c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C.
3. In the solution to cosine rule questions, your final answer is found by taking the
square root of the calculation.
4. Begin worded questions by drawing a diagram and finish them by giving a
written answer.
Using the cosine rule to find

3F side lengths
1 Write down the cosine rule formula as it applies to each of the triangles below. In
each case, make the boldfaced pronumeral the subject.
a A b P c n
L M
r q m
c b
l
Q R
B C p
a
N
WORKED 2 Find the length of the side marked with a pronumeral in each of the following, correct
Example
14
to 3 significant figures.
a A b P c X
x 13 cm
12 m r 60°
C 12 m 12 m
35° 42°
14 m Q 21 cm R
B
Y x Z
WORKED 3 In each of the following obtuse-angled triangles, find the length of the side marked
Example
15
with the pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place.
a X bA c R
114 cm b q
112 cm 110°
6.1 m 63 mm
Z 130° 160°
B C P
x 9.7 m 43 mm Q
Y
4 multiple choice
In which of the following triangles are we unable to use the cosine rule to find x?
A B 14.8 cm
16.4 m 16.2 cm 132°
x
x
32°
18.2 m
C D
63°
8.3 km 9.6 km 10.5 m 9.7 m
63°
x x
5 multiple choice
Look at the triangle drawn on the right.
50°
The value of x, correct to 1 decimal place, is: 8m 9m
A 7.2 m B 7.3 m
C 52.4 m D 52.5 m
x
6 multiple choice
Lieng is asked to find the value of a, correct to 1 decimal place,
in the figure drawn on the right. Below is Lieng’s solution.
Line 1: a2 = 122 + 82 − 2 × 12 × 8 × cos 60° 60°
Line 2: = 144 + 64 − 192 × cos 60° 8 cm 12 cm
Line 3: = 208 − 192 cos 60°
Line 4: = 16 × cos 60°
Line 5: =8
a
Line 6: a = 2.8 m
Lieng’s solution is incorrect. In which line did she make her error?
A Line 2 B Line 3 C Line 4 D Line 5
7 In ∆ABC, a = 14 cm, c = 25 cm and ∠ABC = 29°. Calculate b, correct to 1 decimal place.
8 In ∆PQR, PQ = 234 mm, QR = 981 mm and ∠PQR = 128°. Find the length of side
PR, correct to 3 significant figures.
WORKED 9 Len and Morag walk separate paths that diverge from one another at an angle of 48°.
Example
16
After three hours Len has walked 7.9 km and Morag 8.6 km. Find the distance
between the two walkers at this time, correct to the nearest metre.
10 A cricketer is fielding 20 m from the batsman and at an angle of 35° to the pitch. The
batsman hits a ball 55 m and straight behind the bowler. How far must the fieldsman
run to field the ball? (Give your answer to the nearest metre.)
11 The sides of a parallelogram are 5.3 cm and 11.3 cm. The sides meet at angles of 134°
and 46°.
a Draw a diagram of the parallelogram showing this information and mark both
diagonals on it.
b Calculate the length of the shorter diagonal, correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the length of the long diagonal, correct to 1 decimal place.
12 The cord supporting a picture frame is 58 cm
long. It is hung over a single hook in the 58 cm
centre of the cord and the cord then makes an
145°
angle of 145° as shown in the figure on the
right. Calculate the length of the backing of
the picture frame, to the nearest centimetre.
?
Finding angles
We can use the cosine rule to find the size of the angles within a triangle. Consider the
cosine rule formula.
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
We now make cos A the subject of this formula.
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
a + 2bc cos A = b2 + c2
2
2bc cos A = b2 + c2 − a2
b2 + c2 – a2
cos A = ----------------------------
2bc
In this form, we can use the cosine rule to find the size of an angle if we are given all
three side lengths. We should be able to write the cosine rule in three forms depending
upon which angle we wish to find.
b2 + c2 – a2
cos A = ----------------------------
2bc
a2 + c2 – b2
cos B = ----------------------------
2ac
a2 + b2 – c2
cos C = ----------------------------
2ab
Again, the formula sheet gives the third version of this formula only. The others are an
adaptation of the same rule.
WORKED Example 17
A
Find the size of angle B in the triangle
on the right, correct to the nearest degree.
7 cm 5 cm
B C
9 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula with cos B as the a2 + c2 – b2
cos B = ----------------------------
subject. 2ac
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
2 Substitute a = 9, b = 5 and c = 7. 92 + 72 – 52
cos B = ----------------------------
2×9×7
3 Calculate the value of cos B.
105
cos B = ---------
126
= 0.8333
4 Make B the subject of the equation. B = cos−1(0.8333)
5 Calculate B. B = 34°

cosine rule problems (angles)
As with all of the trigonometric applications we can use the equation solver to find the
required answer. Consider worked example 17.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).

cos B = (92 + 72 – 52) ÷ (2 × 9 × 7),
and then press EXE .
Your formula sheet will give you two versions of the cosine rule, one for finding a side
length and one for finding an angle. When using the equation solver it does not matter
which version you use to find a side or an angle.
Try using the solver on the equation 52 = 92 + 72 – 2 × 9 × 7 × cos B.
As we found earlier, the cosine ratio for an obtuse angle will be negative. So, when
we get a negative result to the calculation for the cosine ratio, this means that the angle
we are finding is obtuse. Your calculator will give the obtuse angle when we take the
inverse.
WORKED Example 18
Find the size of angle Q in the triangle Q
on the right, correct to the nearest 4 cm 3 cm
degree.
P R
6 cm
THINK WRITE
p2 + r 2 – q2
1 Write the formula with cos Q as the cos Q = ----------------------------
subject. 2 pr
32 + 42 – 62
2 Substitute p = 3, q = 6 and r = 4. cos Q = ----------------------------
2×4×3
– 11
3 Calculate the value of cos Q. cos Q = ---------
24
= −0.4583
4 Make Q the subject of the equation. Q = cos−1(−0.4583)
5 Calculate Q.
Q = 117°
In some cosine rule questions, you need to work out which angle you need to find. For
example, you could be asked to calculate the size of the largest angle in a triangle. To
do this you do not need to calculate all three angles. The largest angle in any triangle
will be the one opposite the longest side. Similarly, the smallest angle will lie opposite
the shortest side.
WORKED Example 19 R
Find the size of the largest angle in
the triangle drawn on the right. 3.4 m 4.9 m
S
5.7 m T
THINK WRITE
1 ST is the longest side, therefore angle R
is the largest angle.
s2 + t 2 – r 2
2 Write the formula with cos R the cos R = --------------------------
subject. 2st
4.9 2 + 3.4 2 – 5.7 2
3 Substitute r = 5.7, s = 4.9 and t = 3.4. cos R = ------------------------------------------
2 × 4.9 × 3.4
3.08
4 Calculate the value of cos R. cos R = -------------
33.32
= 0.0924
5 Make R the subject of the equation. R = cos−1(0.0924)
6 Calculate R. R = 85°
7 Give a written answer. The largest angle in the triangle is 85°.
Many problems that require you to find an angle are solved using the cosine rule. As
always, these begin with a diagram and are finished off by giving a written answer.
WORKED Example 20
Two paths diverge from a point, A. The first path goes for 1.25 km to a point, B. The
second path goes for 1.4 km to a point, C. B and C are exactly 2 km apart. Find the angle
at which the two paths diverge.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram. B
1.25 km 2 km
A
1.4 km C
b2
+ – c2 a2
2 Write the formula with cos A as the cos A = ----------------------------
subject. 2bc
1.4 2 + 1.25 2 – 2 2
3 Substitute a = 2, b = 1.4 and c = 1.25. cos A = ----------------------------------------
2 × 1.4 × 1.25
– 0.4775
4 Calculate the value of cos A. cos A = -------------------
3.5
= −0.1364
5 Make A the subject of the equation. A = cos−1(−0.1364)
6 Calculate the value of A. = 98°
7 Give a written answer. The roads diverge at an angle of 98°.
remember
1. The cosine rule formulas are:
b2 + c2 – a2
• cos A = ----------------------------
2bc
a2 + c2 – b2
• cos B = ----------------------------
2ac
a2 + b2 – c2
• cos C = ----------------------------
2ab
2. If the value of the cosine ratio is negative, the angle is obtuse.
3. In any triangle, the largest angle lies opposite the largest side and the smallest
angle lies opposite the smallest side.
4. Worded problems begin with a diagram and end with a written answer.
Using the cosine rule to find
3G angles
1 For each of the following, write the cosine rule formula as it applies to the triangle
drawn with the boldfaced angle as the subject.
a A b P c
A
P M
B C R Q
WORKED 2 Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following
Example
17
triangles, correct to the nearest degree.
a A b B c M
θ θ
8 cm 11 cm 3.2 m 2.8 m
4.5 m 5.4 m
C
B C N
θ O
A 4.0 m
13 cm 6.2 m
WORKED 3 In each of the obtuse-angled triangles below find the size of the angle marked with the
Example
18
pronumeral, to the nearest degree.
a b c
θ 9.6 m
6m 8m θ
4.2 m 12.9 m
α 9.2 m
11 m 6.1 m
4.2 m
4 multiple choice
Look at the figure drawn below.
3 cm 5 cm
θ
7 cm
Which of the following correctly represents the value of cos θ?
32 + 72 – 52 32 + 72 – 52
A cos θ = ---------------------------- B cos θ = ----------------------------
2×3×7 2×5×7
32 + 52 – 72 52 + 72 – 32
C cos θ = ---------------------------- D cos θ = ----------------------------
2×3×5 2×5×7
5 multiple choice
In which of the following is the angle θ obtuse?
A B
θ θ
3 cm 4 cm 3 cm 4 cm
5 cm 4 cm
C D
θ
3 cm 4 cm 3 cm 4 cm
θ 6 cm
4 cm
6 In ∆PQR, p = 7 m, q = 9 m and r = 6 m. Find ∠QRP, correct to the nearest degree.
7 In ∆KLM, k = 85 mm, l = 145 mm and m = 197 mm. Find the size of the smallest
angle, correct to the nearest degree.
WORKED 8 Calculate the size of all three angles (correct to the nearest degree) in a triangle with
Example
19
side lengths 12 cm, 14 cm and 17 cm.
9 WXYZ is a parallelogram. WX = 9.2 cm and XY = 13.6 cm. The diagonal
WY = 14 cm.
a Draw a diagram of the parallelogram.
b Calculate the size of ∠WXY, correct to the nearest degree.
WORKED 10 Two roads diverge from a point, P. The
Example
20
first road is 5 km long and leads to a
point, Q. The second road is 8 km long
and leads to a point, R. The distance
between Q and R is 4.6 km. Calculate
the angle at which the two roads
diverge.
11 A soccer goal is 8 m wide.
a A player is directly in front of the
goal such that he is 12 m from each
post. Within what angle must he kick
the ball to score a goal?
b A second player takes an angled shot.
This player is 12 m from the nearest
post and 17 m from the far post.
Within what angle must this player
kick to score a goal?
12 The backing of a picture frame is 50 cm long and is 52 cm
hung over a picture hook by a cord 52 cm long as θ
shown in the figure on the right. Calculate the angle
made by the cord at the picture hook.
50 cm
2
1 Find the size of the side marked x, 2 Find the size of the side marked y,
correct to the nearest millimetre. correct to 3 significant figures.
4.1 m
y
40° 11°
346 mm x
θ
3 Find the angle marked θ, correct
to the nearest degree. 5.8 km
4.9 km
4 Write down the sine rule formula as used to find a side.
5 Use the sine rule to find a, 6 Use the sine rule to find θ,
correct to 1 decimal place. correct to the nearest degree.
68° 4.2 km 83°

a
θ
57° 7.9 km
14 m
7 Write down the cosine rule formula as used to find a side length.
8 Use the cosine rule to find m,

correct to 2 significant figures. m 250 m
40°
320 m
9 Write down the cosine rule as used to find an angle.
10 Use the cosine rule to find θ,

correct to the nearest degree. 9m
13 m
θ
17 m
Radial surveys
In the preliminary course we examined the offset survey. In this survey method an area
is measured by drawing a traverse line and measuring offsets at right angles to the trav-
erse line. Because the offset survey created right-angled triangles, the length of each
boundary could be calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem and the area could be calcu-
lated using the formula Area = 1--- bh.
2
An alternative survey method to this is a radial survey. One type of radial survey is
the plane table radial survey. The following steps are taken in a plane table survey.
1. A table is placed in the centre of the 2. The distance from the plane
field to be surveyed, each corner of table to each corner is then
the field is sighted and a line is ruled measured.
on the paper along the line of sight.
m
25
20
m
28
m
26 m
3. The angle between each radial
m
line is then measured and the 25
radial lines joined to complete 20
m 115°
the diagram. 60°
115°
70° 28
m
26 m
The field will then be divided into triangles. The length of each side of the field can
then be calculated by using the cosine rule. The perimeter of the field is then found by
adding the lengths of each side.
WORKED Example 21 A
The figure on the right is a plane table survey B
23
30 m
m
of a block of land. Calculate the perimeter of
110°
the block of land, correct to the nearest metre. 125° 40°17 m
85°
C
X
28 m
D
THINK WRITE
1 Apply the cosine rule in ∆AXB to For ∆AXB:
calculate the length of AB. x2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos X
= 302 + 232 − 2 × 30 × 23 × cos 110°
= 1900.99
x = 43.6 m
The length of AB is 43.6 m.
2 Apply the cosine rule in ∆BXC to For ∆BXC:

calculate the length of BC. x2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos X
= 172 + 302 − 2 × 17 × 30 × cos 40°
= 407.63
x = 20.2 m
The length of BC is 20.2 m.
3 Apply the cosine rule in ∆CXD to For ∆CXD:

calculate the length of CD. x2 = c2 + d 2 − 2cd cos X
= 282 + 172 − 2 × 28 × 17 × cos 85°
= 990.03
x = 31.5 m
The length of CD is 31.5 m.
4 Apply the cosine rule in ∆DXA to For ∆DXA:

calculate the length of DA. x2 = d2 + a2 − 2da cos X
= 232 + 282 − 2 × 23 × 28 × cos 125°
= 2051.77
x = 45.3 m
The length of DA is 45.3 m.
5 Calculate the perimeter by adding the Perimeter = 43.6 + 20.2 + 31.5 + 45.3
length of each side and rounding the Perimeter = 140.6 m
answer to the nearest metre. Perimeter = 141 m (correct to the nearest metre)
A similar approach is used to calculate the area of such a field. The area of each
triangle is found using the formula Area = 1--- ab sin C. The total area is then found by
2
adding the area of each triangle.
WORKED Example 22 A
Calculate the area of the field on the right.
52
m B
48
m
Give your answer correct to the nearest 96°
square metre. 144° 120°
67 m
X
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the area of ∆AXB. For ∆AXB: Area = 1--- ab sin X
2
= 1
--- × 48 × 52 × sin 96°
2
= 1241.2 m2
2 Calculate the area of ∆BXC. For ∆BXC: Area = 1--- bc sin X
2
= 1
--- × 67 × 48 × sin 120°
2
= 1392.6 m2
3 Calculate the area of ∆CXA. For ∆CXA: Area = 1--- ca sin X
2
= 1
--- × 52 × 67 × sin 144°
2
= 1023.9 m2
4 Calculate the total area by adding the Total area = 1241.2 + 1392.6 + 1023.9
area of each triangle. Total area = 3657.7 m2
Total area = 3658 m2 (correct to the nearest m2)
An alternative to the plane table radial survey is the compass radial survey. In this
survey the bearing of each radial line is calculated and this bearing is used to calculate
the angle between each radial, as in the worked example below. The method of calcu-
lating the perimeter and area of the field is then the same as for the plane table radial
survey.
WORKED Example 23 A
338°
The figure on the right shows a compass radial B
067°
58
survey of a block of land.

m
m
a Calculate the size of ∠AXB.

49
b Hence, calculate the distance AB, 57 m

correct to the nearest metre. m
55 X C
D 114°
239°
THINK WRITE
a A is 22° west of North, B is 67° east a 22° + 67° = 89°
of North.
THINK WRITE
b 1 Write the cosine rule formula. b For ∆AXB: x2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos X
2 Substitute for a, b and X. = 492 + 582 − 2 × 49 × 58 × cos 89°
3 Calculate the value of x2. = 5665.8
4 Calculate x. x = 75 m (correct to the nearest metre)
5 Write your answer. The distance AB is 75 m.
remember
1. In a radial survey, radial lines are drawn and measured from a point in the
centre of an area.
2. In a plane table radial survey, radial lines are drawn on a table by sighting
each corner of the field. The length of each line and the angle between the
lines is then measured.
3. A compass radial survey is similar but the bearing of each radial line is
measured.
4. Each survey divides the area into triangles and the length of each boundary
can be calculated using the cosine rule.
5. The area of each triangle can be calculated using the formula
Area = 1--- ab sin C.
2
3H Radial surveys
WORKED 1 The figure on the right is a plane table radial
15
m
Example
survey of a block of land. Use the cosine m
10
100°
21 70° 80°
rule to calculate the perimeter of the block 110° 25
of land, correct to the nearest metre. m m
20
2 Calculate the perimeter of each of the following areas, correct to the nearest metre.
a b c
114
60
100 m
m
1
m
12
m
45
70°
95° 75 m 90° 40°
85° 80° 115° 60°
125° 45 150° 89 m
55 m m 92 m 140° 30°
m
78
80
m
WORKED 3 The figure on the right is a plane table survey 160°

Example 90 m 0m
of a block of land. Calculate the area of the 60° 100° 8
22
block, correct to the nearest square metre. 40°
0m
100 m
11
4 For each of the plane table surveys shown in
question 2 calculate the area, correct to the
nearest square metre. A
315°
B
WORKED 5 The figure on the right is a compass radial 040°
50
Example m
60
m
23
survey of a field. X
a Calculate the size of ∠AXB. 70 m
40 m
b Hence, use the cosine rule to calculate the
distance AB, correct to the nearest metre. 110° C
170°
D
350°
6 Calculate the perimeter of the field given by

the compass radial survey on the right. Give
100 m
your answer correct to the nearest metre.
90 m
30 m
110°
250°
7 Calculate the perimeter of each of the compass radial surveys shown below.
a 327° 030° b 339° c 319°
020°
052°
114
m
53
m
m
72
m
42
m
63
m
10
38 m 49 m 085°
24 m m
99 m
29
38
215° 097°
226°
m
SHEE
T 3.2 196° 170°
Work
8 For each of the compass radial surveys in question 7 calculate the area, correct to the
nearest square metre.
Conducting a radial survey

Choose an appropriate area in or near your school to conduct a radial survey.
1 Set up a table in the centre of the area and tape a large piece of paper to the table.
2 Mark a point in the middle of the piece of paper and sight each corner of the
field from this point, ruling a line from the point in that direction.
3 Use a tape or trundle wheel to measure the distance from the table to each
corner of the field.
4 Use your protractor to measure the angle between each radial line.
5 Calculate the area and the perimeter of the field.
summary
Right-angled triangles
• The formulas to be used when solving right-angled triangles are:
opposite side
sin θ = -------------------------------
hypotenuse
adjacent side
cos θ = -------------------------------
hypotenuse
opposite side
tan θ = -------------------------------
adjacent side
• To calculate a side length, you need to be given the length of one other side and one
angle.
• To calculate the size of an angle, you need to be given two side lengths.
• If a question is given as a problem, begin by drawing a diagram and give a written
answer.
Bearings
• Bearings are a measure of direction.
• A compass bearing uses the four main points of the compass, north, south, east and
west, as well as the four intermediate directions, north-east, north-west, south-east,
south-west.
• More specific directions are given using true bearings. A true bearing describes a
direction as a three-digit angle taken in a clockwise direction from north.
• Most bearing questions will require you to draw a diagram to begin the question
and require a written answer.
Sine rule C
• The sine rule allows us to calculate sides and C
angles in non-right-angled triangles. b a
• When finding a side length you need to A B
be given the length of one other side and two angles. A c B
a b c
• The sine rule formula is ------------ = ------------ = ------------- .
sin A sin B sin C
• When finding an angle you need to be given two side lengths and one angle.
sin A sin B sin C
• The sine rule formula when finding an angle is ------------ = ------------ = ------------- .
a b c
Area of a triangle
• When you do not know the perpendicular height of a triangle, you can calculate the
area using the formula Area = 1--- ab sin C .
2
• To calculate the area using this formula, you need to be given the length of two
sides and the included angle.
Cosine rule
• The cosine rule allows you to calculate the length of sides and size of angles of
non-right-angled triangles where you are unable to use the sine rule.
• To find a side length using the cosine rule, you need to be given the length of two
sides and the included angle and use the formula c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C .
• To find an angle using the cosine rule, you need to be given the length of all three
a2 + b2 – c2
sides and use the formula cos C = ---------------------------- .
2ab
Surveying
• A plane table radial survey sights each corner of a
field and draws a radial line in that direction. This m
25
divides the field into triangles. The length of each 20
m 115°
radial line and the angle between radial lines are 60°
115°
then measured. 70° 28
m
• The cosine rule can then be used to calculate the
26 m
length of each boundary.
• The formula Area = 1--- ab sin C can be then used to
2
calculate the area of the field.
• A compass radial survey takes the bearing of each radial line and this is then used
to calculate the angles between them.
A
338°
B
067°
58
m
m
49
57 m
m
55 X C
D 114°
239°
CHAPTER
review
1 Find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of the right-angled triangles
below, correct to 1 decimal place. 3A
a b t c
72° 7.9 cm
17.2 cm
42 km
m
60° 45°
x
2 In each of the following right-angled triangles, find the size of the angle marked with the
pronumeral, correct to the nearest degree. 3A
a b 8.3 km c
α
16 m 35 cm
20.1 km 24.8 cm
φ θ
9m
3 An aeroplane at an altitude of 2500 m sights a ship

at an angle of depression of 39°. Calculate, to the 3A
nearest metre, the horizontal distance from the
aeroplane to the ship.
4 When a yacht is 500 m from shore, the top of a cliff
is sighted at an angle of elevation of 12°. 3A
a Calculate the height of the cliff, correct to the
nearest metre.
b Calculate what the angle of elevation of the top of
the cliff will be when the yacht is 200 m from
shore.
5 Two aircraft are approaching an airport. The Qantas
plane (Q) is 40 km due north of the runway (R), 3B
while a Jetstar plane (J) is due east of the Qantas
plane and north-east of the runway. Calculate the
distance of the Jetstar plane from the runway. (Give
your answer correct to the nearest metre.)
6 A car rally requires cars to travel for 25 km on a
bearing of 240°. The cars are then required to travel 3B
due north until they are due west of the starting
point. Calculate the distance from the cars to the
starting point. (Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.)
7 A yacht sails due west for 45 nautical miles before turning north for 23 nautical miles.
3B a Calculate the bearing of the yacht from its starting point.
b On what bearing must the yacht sail to return to its starting point?
8 Use the sine rule to calculate each of the sides marked with a pronumeral, correct to
3C 3 significant figures.
a a
b c e
d
117° 19°
70° 31° 28° 4.6 km
4.6 cm
136 mm
20°
9 In ∆XYZ: x = 9.2 cm, ∠XYZ = 56° and ∠YXZ = 38°. Find y, correct to 1 decimal place.
3C
10 Use the sine rule to calculate the size of the angle marked with a pronumeral, correct to the
3D nearest degree.
a b c
α
9.7 cm 7.1 m 9°
8 cm 9 cm
123° φ
63° θ 4.1 cm 1.2 m
11 In ∆ABC: b = 46 cm, c = 37 cm and ∠BAC = 72°. Find the area of the triangle, correct to
3E the nearest square centimetre.
12 Find the area of a triangular field with two sides of 80 m and 98 m, which meet at an angle
3E of 130° (correct to the nearest hundred square metres).
13 Use the cosine rule to find each of the following unknown sides, correct to 3 significant
3F figures.
a b c 6.9 cm
6.2 cm 128°
9m
b
a 5.7 m c
50°
117°
11 m 4.6 m
14 In ∆LMN: LM = 63 cm, MN = 84 cm and ∠LMN = 68°. Find the length of LN, correct to
3F 1 decimal place.
15 During a stunt show two
3F aeroplanes fly side by side until
they suddenly diverge at an
angle of 160°. After both planes
have flown 500 m what is the
distance between the planes,
correct to the nearest metre?
16 Use the cosine rule to find the size of the angle in each of the following, correct to the
nearest degree. 3G
a b c θ
θ 4.2 m θ 9 cm
5.3 m
7 cm
6 cm
6 cm 15 cm
7.9 m
6 cm
17 In ∆XYZ: x = 8.3 m, y = 12.45 m and z = 7.2 m. Find ∠YZX, to the nearest degree.
3G
18 Two wooden fences are 50 m and 80 m long respectively. Their ends are connected by a
barbed wire fence 44 m long. Find the angle at which the two wooden fences meet. 3G
19 The figure below is a plane table radial survey of a field.
3H
60 m
m
40
80°
120° 50°
110° 70 m
m
30
a Use the cosine rule to calculate the perimeter of the field.

b Calculate the area of the field.
340°
20 The figure on the right is a compass
15
3H
0
radial survey.
m
160 m 080°
a Calculate the perimeter of the field. 90 m
260°
b Calculate the area of the field.
140 m
190°

1 multiple choice
In the figure on the right, which of the
following will give the value of x?
13 sin 36°
A x = -------------------------
sin 64°
13 sin 64° 13 m
B x = ------------------------- 64°
sin 36°
13 sin 64°
C x = ------------------------- x
sin 80° 36°
13 sin 80°
D x = -------------------------
sin 64°
2 multiple choice
In the figure on the right, which of the
following will give the value of cos θ? 6m 7m
62 + 72 – 82 62 + 82 – 72
A cos θ = ---------------------------- B cos θ = ----------------------------
2×6×7 2×6×8
θ
72 + 82 – 62 62 + 72 – 82 8m
C cos θ = ---------------------------- D cos θ = ----------------------------
2×7×8 2×7×8
3 multiple choice
Maurice walks 3 km on a true bearing of 225°. To return to his starting point he must walk on
a compass bearing of:
A north-east B north-west
C south-east D south-west
4 multiple choice B 80°

305° A
The figure on the right is a compass
radial survey.
∠AXB is: X
A 35°
B 55°
C 85°
C 174°
D 135°
5 The distance between football goal posts is 7 m. If Soon Ho is 20 m from one goal post and
25 m from the other:
a draw a diagram showing the goal posts and Soon Ho’s position.
b calculate the angle within which Soon Ho must kick to score a goal. (Give your answer
correct to the nearest degree.)
6 An observer sights the top of a building at an angle of T
elevation of 20°. From a point 30 m closer to the building,
the angle of elevation is 35° as shown in the figure on h
the right. 20° 35°
A 30 m B C
a Calculate the size of ∠ATB.
b Show that the distance BT can be given by the expression
30 sin 20°
BT = ------------------------- .
sin 15°
c Show that the height of the building can be given by the expression
30 sin 20° sin 35°
h = -------------------------------------------- A 345°
sin 15°
d Calculate the height of the building correct to 1 decimal place.
7 The figure on the right shows a compass radial survey
110 m
of a field.
a Calculate the length of the boundary CD, correct to
test
yourself 1 decimal place. X 30 m B
30 085°
80 m
CHAPTER
m
b Calculate the area of LAXB, correct to the nearest square
3 metre. D 250° 125° C
Interpreting
sets of data
4
syllabus reference
Data analysis 5
• Interpreting sets of data
In this chapter
4A Measures of location and
spread
4B Skewness
4C Displaying multiple data
sets
4D Comparison of data sets
areyou
a copy.
4.1 Finding the mean

1 Find the mean of the following sets of scores.
a 3, 5, 8, 3, 9, 4, 3, 5 b Stem Leaf c
Score Frequency
0 9
1 22367 1 9
2 457
2 14
3 00
4.2 Finding the mode 3 32
2 For each of the data sets in question 1 find the mode. 4 27
5 18
4.3 Finding the median
3 Find the median of the data sets in question 1.
4.4 Finding the range

4 Find each of the data sets in question 1 find the range.
4.5 Finding the interquartile range

5 For each of the data sets in question 1 find the interquartile range.
4.6 Choosing the appropriate standard deviation

6 For each of the following choose and find the appropriate measure of the standard deviation.
a At the end of a movie 10 viewers were chosen and asked to rate the movie from 1 to 5 stars.
The results were: 3, 4, 2, 3, 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, 5.
b At Yass High School there are 80 students who study General Mathematics. They all sat for a
test scored out of 20, and the results obtained are given in the table below.
Score 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Frequency 3 9 15 24 18 7 4
4.7
Compiling a stem-and-leaf plot
7 The scores below show the number of customers each day in a car yard.
23, 32, 27, 31, 19, 45, 22, 26, 38, 41, 27, 40, 9, 34, 37, 21,
4.9 22, 30, 39, 19, 14, 32, 20, 40, 23, 27, 26, 28, 11, 15, 28, 33
Display the data in a stem-and-leaf plot.
Drawing a box-and-whisker plot
8 For the data set in question 6, display the results using a box-and-whisker plot.
Chapter 4 Interpreting sets of data 131
Measures of location and spread
Consider the following set of scores that are the exam results for 10 students.
55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60, 62, 63, 63, 65
To identify a score that is typical in this data set, we can use the mean or median.
• The mean is calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores
in the set.
When the data is a small set of scores the mean is found using the formula
–x = Σx
------
n
where –x = mean
x = individual scores (Therefore, Σx represents the sum of individual scores.)
n = number of scores
Where the data is presented in a frequency table we use the formula
–x = Σfx
--------
Σf
where –x = mean
x = individual scores
f = frequency
In this formula Σfx represents the sum of the frequency × score column on the fre-
quency table and Σf represents the sum of frequency column.
• The median is the middle score (odd number of scores) or the average of the two
middle scores (even number of scores).
For this set of scores:
Mean = 600 ÷ 10
= 60
Median = 60
Both the mean and median are a measure of location within a data set.
WORKED Example 1
For the set of scores 13, 19, 31, 40, 55, 65, 90, 92, 95, 100 calculate:
a the mean
b the median.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Find the total of the scores. a Total = 600
2 Divide the total by the number of Mean = 600 ÷ 10
scores. Mean = 60
b Average the two middle scores. b Median = (55 + 65) ÷ 2

= 60
We have now examined two data sets. Look at these data sets side by side.
Set A: 55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60, 62, 63, 63, 65
Set B: 13, 19, 31, 40, 55, 65, 90, 92, 95, 100
Although both sets of scores have the same mean and median, they are very different
sets of scores. Clearly, in Set B the scores are more spread out than in Set A. To
measure the spread of a set of scores, we use one or all of the following.
• Range: Highest score − lowest score
Set A: Range = 65 − 55 Set B = 100 − 13
Set A: Range = 10 Set B = 87
• Interquartile range (IQR): The difference between the upper quartile and lower quartile.
Set A: Interquartile range = 63 − 57 Set B: Interquartile range = 92 − 31
Set A: Interquartile range = 6 Set B: Interquartile range = 61
• Standard deviation: Found using the σn (population) or sn (sample) functions on the
calculator.
Set A: σn = 3.07 Set B: σn = 31.51
Each of these measures of spread show that in Set B the scores are more scattered than
in Set A.
WORKED Example 2
For the set of scores 45, 62, 75, 69, 50, 87, 92 calculate:
a the range b the interquartile range c the standard deviation.
THINK WRITE
a Subtract the lowest score from the a Range = 92 − 45
highest score. Range = 47
b 1 Write the scores in ascending order. b 45, 50, 62, 69, 75, 87, 92
2 Divide the data in two halves, 45, 50, 62, 75, 87, 92
leaving the middle score out of both
sets.
3 The lower quartile is the median of Lower quartile = 50 Upper quartile = 87
the lower half; the upper quartile is
the median of the upper half.
4 Subtract the lower quartile from the Interquartile range = 87 − 50
upper quartile. Interquartile range = 37
c Enter the set of scores into your c σn = 16.36
calculator using the statistics function.
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding all summary statistics

Your graphics calculator can be used to find all of the important measures of central
tendency and spread. This is demonstrated in worked example 3.
WORKED Example 3
Nadia is a gymnast. For a routine she is given the following scores by 10 judges.
9.0 8.7 9.2 9.3 9.8 9.2 8.8 9.4 9.0 9.1
Use your graphics calculator to find
a the mean b the median
c the mode d the range
e the interquartile range f the population standard deviation
g the sample standard deviation.
THINK WRITE
1 From the MENU select STAT.
2 Delete any existing data, and enter the

scores above in List 1.
3 Press F2 (CALC). You may need to

first press F6 for more options.
4 Press F6 (SET). Check that 1Var Xlist

is set to List 1 and 1Var Freq is set to 1.
5 Press EXE to return to the previous Mean

screen, and then press F1 (1Var). All Population standard
statistics will now be on display using deviation
the scroll function. Sample standard
deviation
Number of scores
Lowest score
Lower quartile
Median
Upper quartile
Highest score
Mode
Continued over page

THINK WRITE
a The mean is denoted by the symbol –x . a –x = 9.15
b The median is denoted by Med. b Median = 9.15
c The mode is displayed by Mod. Check c Mode = 9.0 and 9.2
the scores for yourself as the data is
bimodal only the largest mode is
displayed.
d The range is the highest score (maxX) d Range = 9.8 – 8.7
minus the lowest score (minX). Range = 1.1
e The interquartile range is the upper e Interquartile range = 9.3 – 9
quartile (Q3) minus the lower quartile Interquartile range = 0.3
(Q1).
f The population standard deviation is f σn ≈ 0.297
denoted by xσn.
g The sample standard deviation is g σn – 1 ≈ 0.314
denoted by xσn–1.
Having identified that the mean and median are measures of location and that range,
interquartile range and standard deviation are measures of spread, it is important that
you can recognise the effect that the members of a set have on these measures.
Consider the case of a
basketball team. There are five
players on the team, whose
heights are: 1.91 m, 1.85 m,
1.52 m, 1.93 m and 1.99 m.
The team’s mean height is
1.84 m. Only one of the five
players in the team is shorter
than the mean height. This is
because there is one member
of the data set whose height is
much less than the others. A
score in a data set that is
either much less or much
greater than all others is called
an outlier.
An outlier will either
reduce or increase the mean
such that the mean is no
longer typical of the data set.
In such cases, the median is a
better measure of location
than the mean.
WORKED Example 4
In a small street there are five houses. The values of these houses are:
$450 000, $465 000, $465 000, $480 000, $495 000.
A new house is built and valued at $750 000. Describe the effect that this outlier
has on the:
a mean
b median
c mode (the score that occurs most often).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Calculate the mean before the new a Before new house is built:
house is built. Total = $2 355 000
Mean = $2 355 000 ÷ 5
= $471 000
2 Calculate the mean after the new After new house is built:
house is built. Total = $3 105 000
Mean = $3 105 000 ÷ 6
= $517 500
3 Comment on the change in the mean The outlier has caused the mean to increase
caused by the outlier. by $46 500. Only the new house is valued
at more than the mean and, as such, has
made the mean a poor measure of the
typical price.
b 1 Calculate the median before the new b Before new house is built:
house is built. Median = $465 000
2 Calculate the median after the new After new house is built:
house is built. Median = ($465 000 + $480 000) ÷ 2
Median = $472 500
3 Comment on the change in the The outlier has caused only a small increase
median caused by the outlier. in the median and, as such, the median
remains a good measure of the typical score
in this data set.
c 1 Calculate the mode before the new c Before new house is built:
house is built. Mode = $465 000
2 Calculate the mode after the new After new house is built:
house is built. Mode = $465 000
3 Comment on the change in the mode The outlier has had no effect on the mode.
caused by the outlier.
Generally the mean is the most vulnerable measure of location when an outlier is added
to a data set. The median is affected only by the addition of the extra score and is not
affected by the size of that score. The outlier will have no effect on the mode.
remember
1. The mean and median are measures of location in a data set.
• The mean is calculated by adding the scores and then dividing by the number
of scores. The mean is calculated using the formulas:
–x = Σx
------ or –x = Σfx
--------
n Σf
• The median is the middle score or the average of the two middle scores in a
data set.
2. The range, interquartile range and standard deviation are measures of spread.
• The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores.
• The interquartile range is the difference between the upper and lower
quartiles.
• The standard deviation is found using the σn (population) or sn (sample)
functions on the calculator.
3. An outlier is a score in a data set that is either much less or much greater than
all other scores in the set.
4. All important summary statistics can be found by entering data into a graphics
calculator.
Measures of location and

4A spread
4.1 WORKED 1 The number of goals scored by a team in 10 games of soccer are:
HEET Example
2, 1, 3, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 6, 1.
SkillS
1
Finding a Calculate the mean number of goals scored.
the b Calculate the median number of goals scored.
mean
2 For each of the following sets of scores, calculate the mean, median and mode (if one
HEET
4.2 exists).
SkillS
a 56, 75, 88, 20, 37, 23, 44

Finding b 2, 1, 7, 4, 6, 1, 1, 4, 5, 3
the
mode c 9.9, 9.4, 9.8, 9.6, 9.0, 9.2, 9.8, 9.9
d 13, 15, 16, 17, 10, 13, 15, 14, 19, 20
HEET
4.3 3 The table at right shows the scores out of 10 by
Score Frequency
SkillS
a class of 30 students on a spelling test.

Finding
the a Use the statistics function on your calculator 4 2
median to find the mean score.
b Add a cumulative frequency column to the 5 6
reads
L Sp he table and use it to calculate the median score.
et
EXCE
6 7
One c State the mode.
variable 7 9
statistics
8 3
9 2
10 1
4 The table below shows the scores achieved by a football team over a season. am
progr –C
GC
asio
Cumulative UV Stats
Score Class centre Frequency frequency
1–5 2
program
GC
–TI
6–10 4
UV Stats
11–15 8
16–20 7
21–25 3
26–30 1
a Copy and complete the table.

b Calculate the mean.
c Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon and use them to estimate the
median.
WORKED 5 Below is the number of students in each class at a small primary school. 4.4 SkillS
Example
2
28, 29, 27, 28, 30, 28, 25, 27, 23, 28, 27, 28
HEET
a Calculate the range of the distribution. Finding
b Calculate the interquartile range. the
c Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and standard range
deviation.
4.5 SkillS
6 The table below shows the number of cars sold in a car yard each week over one year.
HEET
Finding
No. of cars Frequency the
interquartile
6 3 range
7 5
8 9
9 15
10 11
11 8
12 1
4.6lS Skil
a Calculate the range of the number of cars sold.
HEET
b Add a cumulative frequency column to the table and use the table to calculate: Choosing the
i the median appropriate
ii the upper and lower quartiles standard
deviation
iii the interquartile range.
c Use the statistics function on the calculator to find: L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
i the mean
Boxplots
ii the standard deviation.
d Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
7 The table below shows crowds at each match for a team during football season.
Cumulative
Crowd Class centre Frequency frequency
10 000–15 000 5
15 000–20 000 8
20 000–25 000 6
25 000–30 000 4
30 000–35 000 3

b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
c Use the graph in part b to estimate the interquartile range.
d Find the mean and standard deviation. (Give your answer correct to 2 significant
figures.)
WORKED 8 Below are the scores of two rugby league teams over a period of 10 matches.
Example
3
Team A: 14, 16, 16, 20, 10, 12, 18, 16, 18, 20
Team B: 28, 12, 32, 2, 0, 8, 40, 10, 12, 16
a For each team calculate the mean score.
b For each team calculate:
i the range
ii the interquartile range
iii the standard deviation.
c Comment on the difference between the performance of the two teams over this
10-game period.
The information below is to be used for questions 9 to 12.
A basketball squad has eight players. The mean height of the eight players is 1.8 m, and
the standard deviation in the heights of the players is 0.1 m. In the first game the tallest
player, who is 1.9 m tall, is injured and replaced in the squad by a player who is 1.98 m tall.
9 multiple choice
The mean height of the basketball squad will now be:
A 1.8 m B 1.81 m C 1.86 m D 1.96 m
10 multiple choice
As a result of the substitution:
A the standard deviation will increase
B the standard deviation will decrease
C the standard deviation will be unchanged
D the effect on the standard deviation cannot be calculated
11 multiple choice
A the range will increase
B the range will decrease
C the range will be unchanged
D the effect on the range cannot be calculated
12 multiple choice
A the interquartile range will increase
B the interquartile range will decrease
C the interquartile range will be unchanged
D the effect on the interquartile range cannot be calculated
WORKED 13 James recorded the following five marks on his Maths tests during the year:
Example
4 78, 77, 80, 85 and 80.
a Calculate:
i the mean ii the median iii the mode.
b In James’ final exam he scored only 20. For the six test results calculate:
i the mean ii the median iii the mode.
c Describe the effect that the outlier had on the mean, median and mode.
14 The mean of a set of five scores is 60. A score of 90 is added to the data set. Describe
the effect that this outlier will have on the mean.
15 multiple choice
Julie is currently in Year 12. The table below shows the number of days that Julie has
been absent from school in each
of the previous five years.
No. of days
Year absent
7 0
8 1
9 3
10 2
11 0
During Year 12, Julie became seriously ill and was forced to have 37 days off school.
According to statistics calculated on Julie’s absences over six years, this outlier will
have the greatest effect on:
A the mean B the median C the mode D all of the above
16 A small company has four employees who each earn $397.50 per week. Later, a
manager is employed who earns $1645.00 per week.
a Calculate the mean, median and mode wages.
b What effect does the manager’s wage have on the:
i mean? ii median? iii mode?
c A wage debate is conducted with the employees asking for a rise. Would the mean,
median or mode be quoted:
i in support of a wage rise by the employees?
ii against a wage rise by the employer?
Explain your answers.
Skewness 8
7
By looking at a graph, we can make judgements 6
Frequency
about the nature of a data set. Consider the first 5
4
graph shown on the right. 3
This graph is symmetrical and we can see that 2
1
the mean, median and mode are all equal to 3. The 0
majority of scores are clustered around the mean. 1 2 3 4 5
This is an example of a normal distribution.
We can compare the standard deviation of data
sets by looking at such graphs. The more clustered 6
the data set, the smaller the standard deviation. 5
Frequency
4
The second graph is still normally distributed 3
with the mean, median and mode still equal to 3. 2
However, there are more scores which are further 1
away from the mean and, hence, the standard 0
1 2 3 4 5
deviation of the data set is greater.
The third graph shows a data set where the
scores are not clustered and there are two modes
at either end of the distribution. 6
5
In this example, although it is still symmetrical
Frequency
4
there are two modes, 1 and 5, while the mean and 3
median are still 3. The standard deviation in this 2
distribution is greater than either of the two pre- 1
0
vious examples as there are more scores further 1 2 3 4 5
away from the mean.
The mean and median can be seen from the graph only because it is symmetrical.
WORKED Example 5
The figure on the right shows the distribution of
5
a set of scores on a spelling test.
Frequency
4
a Is the graph symmetrical? 3
b What is the mode(s)? 2
c Can the mean and median be seen from the 1
graph? 0
6 7 8 9 10
Score
THINK WRITE
a The columns either side of the middle a The graph is symmetrical.
are equal.
b The scores that occur the most often are b Mode = 7 and 9
7 and 9.
c The middle score will be the mean and c Mean = 8, median = 8

median.
When a graph is not symmetrical, the mean and median cannot be easily seen from the
graph. Consider the distribution in the graph below left.
The way in which the data are gathered to one end of the distribution is called the
skewness. A greater number of scores are distributed at the lower end of the distribution.
In this case, the data are said to be positively skewed. Similarly, when most of the scores
are distributed at the upper end, the data are said to be negatively skewed, as shown in
the graph below right.
8 8
7 7
6 6
Frequency
Frequency
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
WORKED Example 6
20
The distribution on the right shows the results of the
Frequency
16
Maths Trial HSC at a certain school. 12
a What is the modal class? 8
b Describe the skewness of the data set shown 4
on the right. 0
00
61 0
71 0
81 80
91 –90
–6
–7
–1
–
51
Maths results
THINK WRITE
a The class occurring the most often is the a Modal class = 81 − 90
81–90 class.
b The majority of data are at the upper end b The data are negatively skewed.
of the distribution.
remember
1. A distribution is symmetrical when the data are equally distributed around the
mean.
2. When the data are symmetrical, the median and mean will both be the middle
score.
3. When the data are clustered around the mean, the standard deviation is smaller.
4. When the majority of scores are at the lower end of a distribution, it is said to
be positively skewed.
5. When the majority of scores are at the upper end of the distribution, it is said to
be negatively skewed.
4B Skewness 12
10
Frequency
8
WORKED 1 In the distribution on the right: 6
Example
5
a is the graph symmetrical? 4
b what is the modal class(es)? 2
0
c can the mean and median be seen from the 1 2 3 4 5
graph? and, if so, what are their values?
7
2 For the distribution shown on the right: 6
a are the data symmetrical? 5
Frequency
b what is the modal class(es)? 4
c can the mean and median be seen from the 3
graph? and, if so, what are their values? 2
1
0
25 24
9
4
10 9
15 14
20 9
–2
5–
–1
0–
–
–
3 The table on the right shows the number of
No. of goals Frequency
goals scored by a hockey team throughout
a season. 0 6
a Show this information in a frequency 1 4
histogram.
b Are the data symmetrical? 2 4
c What is the mode(s)? 3 4
d Can the mean and median be seen for
4 4
this distribution? and, if so, what are their
values? 5 6
WORKED 4 For the distribution shown on the right: 12

Example
6
a what is the modal class(es)? 10
Frequency
b describe the skewness of the distribution. 8

6
4
2
0
5
2
3
4
1
4–
1–
2–
3–
0–
5 For each of the following dot plots describe the skewness of the distribution.
a • b c
•• •• •• •• ••
• • • •• •• • •• • •• • •• • • • •• • • •
0 1 2 3 4 5 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 10
6 For the stem-and-leaf plots drawn below describe the distribution
a Key 3|5 = 35 b Key 4|3 = 4.3 4*|6 = 4.6
Stem Leaf Stem Leaf
2 259 2* 9
3 0012589 3* 0 4
4 2289 3* 5 5 8 8
5 09 4* 0 0 0 1 1 3 4 4
6 0 4* 5 5 5 6 7 8 8 9 9
7 The table below shows the number of
goals scored by a basketball team
throughout a season.
No. of goals Frequency
11–20 3
21–30 6
31–40 7
41–50 23
51–60 21
a Draw a frequency histogram of the

data.
b Describe the data set in terms of its
skewness.
8 multiple choice
Which of the distributions below has the smallest standard deviation?
A 10
B 6
5
Frequency
Frequency
8
6 4
4 3
2
2 1
0 0
1 23 4 5 12345
C 6 D
8
5
Frequency
4 7
3 6
Frequency
2 5
1 4
0 3
1 23 4 5
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5
9 multiple choice
The distribution represented by the graph on the 16
right is: 14
A positively skewed 12
Frequency
10
B negatively skewed 8
C symmetrical 6
D normally distributed 4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
10 A movie is shown at a cinema 30 times during the week. The number of people
attending each session of the movie is shown in the table below.
No. of people Frequency

1–50 2
51–100 3
101–150 5
151–200 10
201–250 10
a Present the data in a frequency histogram.

b Are the data symmetrical?
c What is the modal class(es)?
d Describe the skewness of the distribution.
11 Year 12 at Wallarwella High School sit exams in Chemistry and Maths. The results are
shown in the table below.
Mark Chemistry Maths
31–40 2 3
41–50 9 4
51–60 7 6
61–70 4 7
71–80 7 9
81–90 9 7
91–100 2 4
a Is either distribution symmetrical?

b If either distribution is not symmetrical, state whether it is positively or negatively
skewed.
c State the mode of each distribution.
d In which subject is the standard deviation greater? Explain your answer.
12 Draw an example of a graph which is:
SHEE
T 4.1 a symmetrical
Work
b positively skewed with one mode

c negatively skewed with two modes.
1
Consider the following set of scores: 23, 45, 24, 19, 22, 16, 16, 27, 20, 21. Calculate the
following measures of location and spread.
1 Mean
2 Median
3 Mode
4 Range
5 Interquartile range
6 Standard deviation
7 For the data set, describe the skewness of the distribution.
8 Does the data set have an outlier?
9 Which measure of central tendency is the best measure of location in this data set?
10 Explain why the interquartile range is a better measure of spread than the range.
Displaying multiple data sets

Two data sets can be compared using a number of the displays that have been studied
in earlier parts of this course. Presenting both sets of data on the same display gives a
quick and easy comparison.
Stem-and-leaf plots
Two sets of data can be displayed on the same stem-and-leaf plot. This is done by
having the stem in the centre of the plot, with both sets of data back to back.
WORKED Example 7
The data shown below display the marks of 15 students in both English and Maths.
English: 45 67 81 59 66 61 78 71 74 91 60 49 58 62 70
Maths: 85 71 49 66 64 68 75 71 69 60 63 80 87 54 59
Display the data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
THINK WRITE
1 Write a key at the top of the Key: 45 = 45
stem-and-leaf plot. English Maths
2 Draw the stem showing categories of 95 4 9
10 in the centre of the page. 98 5 49
3 Display the information for English on 76210 6 034689
the left of the stem. 8410 7 115
4 Display the information for Maths on 1 8 057
the right of the stem. 1 9
This stem-and-leaf plot allows for both distributions to be easily seen, and for a judge-
ment on the skewness of the distribution to be made.
Box-and-whisker plots
A single scale can be used. Draw two box-and-whisker plots on that scale that will
allow the comparison of the median, range and interquartile range of two distributions
to be compared.
WORKED Example 8
Use the back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot drawn in worked example 7 to:
a calculate the median of each distribution
b calculate the range of each distribution
c calculate the interquartile range of each distribution
d draw a box-and-whisker plot of each distribution on the same scale.
THINK WRITE
a The median will be the eighth score in a English median = 66
each distribution. Maths median = 68
b To calculate the range of each b English range = 91 − 45

distribution, subtract the lowest score English range = 46
from the highest score. Maths range = 87 − 49
Maths range = 38
c 1 The lower quartile will be the fourth c English lower quartile = 59
score. Maths lower quartile = 60
2 The upper quartile will be the English upper quartile = 74
twelfth score. Maths upper quartile = 75
3 The interquartile range is the English interquartile range = 74 − 59
difference between the quartiles. English interquartile range = 15
Maths interquartile range = 75 − 60
Maths interquartile range = 15
d 1 Draw a scale. d
English
2 Draw the English box-and-whisker
plot. Maths
3 Draw the Maths box-and-whisker 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Scale
plot.
Examining exam results

Collect data on the most recent exam that has been done in your class.
1 Display the data in a stem-and-leaf plot.
2 Find all the information needed to display the data in a box-and-whisker plot.
3 Is there any skewness evident in the data?
4 Which measure of location best describes the typical score in this data set?
Graphics Calculator tip! Storing multiple data sets

Your graphics calculator can store two sets of data at the same time. Consider worked
example 8, which uses the data from worked example 7. By graphing each data set
using a box-and-whisker-plot we can also easily retrieve the rest of the required infor-
mation by using the trace function.
1. From the MENU select STAT.
2. Enter the data for English in List 1 and the data for
Maths in List 2.
3. Press F1 (GRPH), and then F6 (SET). We will set

the English data as GPH1 and the Maths data as
GPH2. Press F1 (GPH1) and enter the settings
shown in the screen at right.
4. Press EXE once these settings have been entered.

Press F6 (SET) and F2 (GPH2), and again enter
the settings shown at right.
5. To show both graphs on the same screen press

EXE after entering the settings above, press F4
(SEL), and set both StatGraph1 and StatGraph2 to
DrawOn as shown.
6. Press F6 (DRAW) to draw both graphs.
7. Press SHIFT F1 (TRACE), and use the arrow keys

to move around to the five key points on each graph.
The screen at right displays the median for the Maths
data.
Multiple sets of data can be displayed on the same set of axes for many different
graphs. This is particularly useful when comparing data suitable for display on a radar
chart.
WORKED Example 9
The table below shows the number of admissions to two hospitals, each month, over a
one-year period. Display both sets of data on a radar chart.
Month Hospital A Hospital B
January 3 15
February 6 12
March 7 9
April 9 10
May 10 8
June 15 7
July 14 9
August 16 6
September 10 8
October 5 5
November 3 9
December 7 2
THINK WRITE
1 Draw the radar with a 30° angle Hospital A Hospital B
between the months. Jan
Draw a scale around the radar. Dec 20 Feb
2
15
3 Plot each set of points. Nov 10 March
5
Oct 0 April
Sep May
Aug June
July
Area charts are another method of comparing information. In an area chart, line
graphs are stacked on top of each other, thus allowing the area between each line graph
to serve as the comparison between the data sets.
WORKED Example 10
The table below shows the amount of rainfall, in millimetres, in Sydney, Melbourne and
Brisbane each month throughout a year.
January February March April May June

Sydney 103 117.1 133.7 126.6 120.4 131.7
Melbourne 49 47.7 51.8 58.4 57.2 50.2
Brisbane 159.6 158.3 140.7 92.5 73.7 67.8
July August September October November December
Sydney 98.2 79.8 69.9 77.5 83.1 79.6
Melbourne 48.7 50.6 59.4 67.7 60.2 59.9
Brisbane 56.5 45.9 45.7 75.4 97 133.3
Show this information in an area chart.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a pair of axes. The vertical axis will need

to be at least the rainfall total of all three cities
in the wettest month.
2 Draw a line graph of Sydney’s rainfall, and
shade the area below it.
Brisbane Melbourne Sydney
3 Add Melbourne’s rainfall to Sydney’s rainfall, 350
and draw a line graph showing these figures. 300
Rainfall (mm)
Colour the area between the two graphs, as this 250

200
area represents Melbourne’s rainfall. 150
Add Brisbane’s rainfall to the previous total. 100
4
50
Colour the area above the previous line, as this 0
area represents Brisbane’s rainfall.
n
b
Apr
Mr
ay
n
Au l
g
p
No t
v
c
Ju
Oc
a
De
Ja
Fe
Ju
Se
M
remember
1. Data can be compared by showing two sets of data on the same display.
2. Two sets of data are shown on a stem-and-leaf plot by displaying the data back
to back.
3. Two box-and-whisker plots can be drawn on the same scale to compare the
ranges, interquartile ranges and medians.
4. A radar chart can be used to compare trends over a period of time by plotting
two sets of data on one radar chart.
5. An area graph can be used to compare multiple sets of data. The area in each
section of the graph allows for comparison between quantities.
4C Displaying multiple data sets

WORKED 1 In a class of 30 students there are 15 boys and 15 girls. Their heights are measured
HEET
4.7 Example
and are listed below.
7
SkillS
Boys: 1.65, 1.71, 1.59, 1.74, 1.66, 1.69, 1.72, 1.66, 1.65, 1.64, 1.68, 1.74, 1.57, 1.59,
Compiling a
stem-and- 1.60
leaf plot Girls: 1.66, 1.69, 1.58, 1.55, 1.51, 1.56, 1.64, 1.69, 1.70, 1.57, 1.52, 1.58, 1.64, 1.68,
1.67
Display this information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
HEET
4.8
SkillS
2 The number of points scored in each match by two rugby union teams are shown
Finding the below.
mean, median,
mode from a Team 1: 34, 32, 24, 25, 8, 18, 17, 23, 29, 40, 19, 42
stem-and-leaf Team 2: 23, 20, 35, 21, 46, 7, 9, 24, 27, 38, 41, 30
plot
Display these data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
WORKED 3 The stem-and-leaf plot below is used to display the number of vehicles sold by the
HEET
4.9 Example
Ford and Holden dealerships in a Sydney suburb each week for a three-month period.
8
SkillS
Key: 15 = 15
Drawing a Ford Holden
box-and-
whisker plot 74 0 39
952210 1 111668
8544 2 2279
0 3 5
a State the median of both distributions.
b Calculate the range of both distributions.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both distributions.
d Show both distributions on a box-and-whisker plot.
4 A motoring organisation tests two different brands of tyres. Twenty tyres of each
brand are tested to find out the number of kilometres each tyre could travel before the
tread had worn down. The results are shown in the stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 12 = 12 000 km 1*7 = 17 000 km
Brand A Brand B
9 8 0*
43110 1 0011224
7 7 7 6 6 5 1* 5 6 7 8 8 8 9
4431100 2 0134
2* 5 5
Draw two box-and-whisker plots on the same scale to display this information.
5 The figures below show the ratings of two radio stations each week over a three-
month period.
Station A: 9.2, 9.4, 9.2, 9.5, 9.7, 9.9, 10.1, 9.1, 8.8, 8.7, 9.0, 8.5, 9.3
Station B: 8.5, 8.1, 8.2, 8.9, 9.0, 9.2, 8.4, 8.7, 8.8, 10.5, 11.2, 11.4, 8.7
a Display the information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b Use the stem-and-leaf plot to display both sets of data on the same box-and-
whisker plot.
6 The box-and-whisker plot drawn on the Team A
right displays statistical data for two AFL
teams over a season. Team B
a Which team had the higher median 50 60 70 80 90 100110120130140 150 160 Scale
score?
b What was the range of scores for each team?
c For each team calculate the interquartile range.
7 The two five-number summaries below show the performance of Emad and Larry on
their Mathematics exams throughout the year.
Emad: 45, 64, 68, 76, 80
Larry: 51, 58, 65, 72, 75
a Compare the performance of Emad and Larry on a box-and-whisker plot.
b What is the range for both students?
c What is the interquartile range for both students?
8 multiple choice
The box-and-whisker plot drawn on the right Physics
shows Emma’s performance in her Physics Chemistry
and Chemistry exams. Which of the following
statements is correct? 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Scale
A The median of Emma’s mark in Physics is greater than for Chemistry.

B The range of Emma’s marks in Physics is greater than in Chemistry.
C The interquartile range of Emma’s marks in Physics is greater than in Chemistry.
D All of the above.
WORKED 9 This radar chart shows the average daily maximum temperature Sydney temperature (°C)
Example Melbourne temperature (°C)
9
for both Sydney and Melbourne for each month of a year. D 30
J
F
N 20 M
a Which month had the lowest temperature in Sydney? 10
O 0 A
b What was the range of temperatures in Melbourne?
S M
c What was the average of the temperatures in Sydney? A
J
J
10 This radar chart shows the number of customers in two different Supermarket X Supermarket Y
12 midnight
supermarkets at two-hour intervals. 10 pm 120
100
2 am
80
60
a Find the range for each supermarket. 8 pm 40
20
4 am
0
b Describe the general pattern at each supermarket. 6 pm 6 am
4 pm 8 am
2 pm 10 am
12 noon
WORKED 11 This area chart shows the average number of rainy days Brisbane Melbourne Sydney
Example
each month in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Display 40
Average no. of rainy days
10 35
30
this information as a table.
per month
25
20
15
10
5
0
Jan
b
Apr
Ma r
y
Jun
Au l
g
p
No t
c
Dev
Ju
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Ma
Fe
Se
Computer Application 1 Displaying statistical data

reads 1. From the Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course CD-ROM, access the
L Sp he
et
spreadsheet Fast Food Sales.

EXCE
Fast
Food
Sales
2. In cell B12 use the spreadsheet’s inbuilt statistical function to find McDonald’s
average daily sales. [=AVERAGE(B4:B10)]
3. In cell B13 use the spreadsheet’s inbuilt statistical function to find the standard devi-
ation of McDonald’s daily sales. [=STDEV(B4:B10)]
4. Under Edit, use the Fill and Right functions to copy these formulas for KFC and Pizza
Hut.
5. Use the charting facility to draw an area chart of the figures presented.
Comparison of data sets

When multiple data displays are used to display similar sets of data, comparisons and
conclusions can then be drawn about the data.
Multiple displays such as stem-and-leaf plots and box-and-whisker plots allow for
comparison of statistics such as the median, range and interquartile range, while radar
charts and area charts allow for trends and overall quantities to be compared.
WORKED Example 11
A bank surveys the average morning and Key: 12 = 1.2 minutes
afternoon waiting time for customers. Morning Afternoon
The figures were taken each Monday to 7 0 788
Friday in the morning and afternoon for 86311 1 1124456667
one month. The stem-and-leaf plot at right 9 6 6 6 5 5 4331 2 2558
shows the results. 952 3 16
a Find the median morning waiting time 5 4
and the median afternoon waiting time. 5 7
b Calculate the range for morning waiting times and the range for afternoon waiting
times.
c What conclusions can be made from the display about the average waiting time at the
bank in the morning compared with the afternoon?
THINK WRITE
a There are 20 scores in each set and so a Morning: Median = (2.4 + 2.5) ÷ 2
the median will be the average of the = 2.45 minutes
10th and 11th scores. Afternoon: Median = (1.6 + 1.6) ÷ 2
= 1.6 minutes
b For each data set, subtract the lowest b Morning: Range = 4.5 − 0.7
score from the highest score. = 3.8 minutes
Afternoon: Range = 5.7 − 0.7
= 5 minutes
c Conclude that waiting time in the c The waiting time is generally shorter in the
afternoon is generally less and more afternoon. There is one outlier in the
consistent except for one outlier. afternoon scores which causes the range to
be larger. However, apart from this outlier
the afternoon scores are less spread.
Two-way tables can also be a meaningful way of displaying data. A two-way table
allows for two variables to be compared.
WORKED Example 12
A survey of 25 000 people is taken. The sex of each respondant is noted and whether they are
a smoker or non-smoker is also noted. The results are displayed in the two-way table below.
Males Females Totals
Smokers 4 125 4 592 8 717
Non-smokers 8 436 7 847 16 283
Totals 12 561 12 439 25 000
a What percentage of the females surveyed were smokers?
b What percentage of the smokers surveyed were female?
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a Write 4592 as a percentage of 12 439. a Percentage of females who smoke

4592
= ---------------- × 100%
12 439
= 36.9%
b Write 4592 as a percentage of 8717. b Percentage of smokers who are female

4592
= ------------ × 100%
8717
= 52.7%
The most common method, however, for comparing data sets is to compare the sum-
mary statistics from the data sets. The measures of location such as mean and median
are used to compare the typical score in a data set. Measures of spread such as range,
interquartile range and standard deviation are used to make assessments about the con-
sistency of scores in the data set.
WORKED Example 13
Below are the scores for two students in eight Mathematics tests throughout the year.
Jane: 45, 62, 64, 55, 58, 51, 59, 62
Pierre: 84, 37, 45, 80, 74, 44, 46, 50
a Use the statistics function on the calculator to find the mean and standard deviation for
each student.
b Which student had the better overall performance on the eight tests?
c Which student was more consistent over the eight tests?
THINK WRITE
a Enter the statistics into your calculator a Jane: x = 57, σn = 6

and use the x function for the mean and Pierre: x = 57.5, σn = 17.4
the σn function for the standard
deviation.
b The student with the higher mean b Pierre performed slightly better overall, as
performed better overall. his mean mark was higher than Jane’s.
c The student with the lower standard c Jane was the more consistent student, as her
deviation was more consistent. standard deviation was much lower than
Pierre’s.
remember
1. When multiple displays are used for two or more sets of data, we can compare
and contrast the data sets and determine if any relationship exists between
them.
2. A multiple stem-and-leaf plot allows for a quick comparison of medians,
ranges and interquartile ranges.
3. The summary statistics from two data sets can be compared quickly on a
box-and-whisker plot.
4. Two-way tables can be used to make a comparison of data where two variables
are involved.
5. The most commonly used comparisons are summary statistics to compare what
is a typical score and what the spread of the data is.
4D Comparison of data sets

WORKED 1 The stem-and-leaf plot drawn below shows the marks obtained by 20 students in both
Example
11
English and Maths.
Key: 71 = 71
English Maths
4 17
7410 5 24799
9976653110 6 133466
87752 7 4448
2 8 36
9 4
a Calculate the median mark for both English and Maths.
b Calculate the range of marks for both English and Maths.
c Comment on the distribution of marks in each of the subjects.
2 Tracey measures the heights of twenty Year 10 boys and twenty Year 10 girls and
produces the following five-number summaries for each data set.
Boys: 1.47, 1.58, 1.64, 1.72, 1.81
Girls: 1.55, 1.59, 1.62, 1.66, 1.73
a Draw a box-and-whisker plot for both sets of data and display them on the same
scale.
b What is the median of each distribution?
c What is the range of each distribution?
d What is the interquartile range for each distribution?
e Comment on the spread of the heights among the boys and the girls.
3 The box-and-whisker plots on the right

Year 7
show the heights of a sample of Year 7
boys and a similar-sized sample of Year Year 12
12 boys. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 m Scale
a Calculate the range of heights among both the Year 7 and Year 12 boys.
b Calculate the interquartile range of the heights among both the Year 7 and Year 12
boys.
c Comment on the relationship between the two data sets, both in terms of measures
of location and measures of spread.
4 The values of hardware and software sales for a chain Hardware Software
of computer stores are shown for each month in the J
D 2.5 F
radar chart on the right. Comment on any relationship 2
observed in this chart between the sales of hardware N 1.5 M
1
and the sales of software. 0.5
O 0 A
S M
A J
J
5 The area chart on the right shows the 1200 Western region
rainfall in four areas of New South 1000
Rainfall (mm)
Wales throughout the year. Southern region

800
a Which region has the greatest 600 North/Eastern
rainfall? region
400
b In which region is the range of North/Western
200 region
rainfall figures least?
0
c What relationship exists between
mmer utumn Winter Spring
the rainfall in each of the areas? Su A
WORKED 6 The two-way table below shows the results of random breath testing by Sydney police
Example
12
over one weekend. A driver is charged if they record a reading of 0.05% prescribed
concentration of alcohol (PCA).
Over 0.05 PCA 26 7 33
Below 0.05 PCA 962 743 1705
Totals 988 750 1738
a What percentage of the drivers tested were female?

b What percentage of the drivers tested had a PCA over 0.05?
c What percentage of female drivers had a PCA over 0.05?
d What percentage of male drivers had a PCA over 0.05?
e Based on the above results, can any conclusion be drawn concerning the prevalence
of drink driving among males and females? Explain your answer.
7 Ashley is the star player of a football team. To analyse the importance of Ashley to
the team, the coach prepares the two-way table below showing the results of games
over three years both when Ashley is playing and not playing.
Won Lost Totals
Ashley playing 38 4 42
Ashley not 10 8 18
playing
Totals 48 12 60
a What percentage of games were won when Ashley played?

b What percentage of games were won when Ashley did not play?
c Do you think that Ashley has a significant impact on the performance of the team?
Explain your answer.
8 To compare the performance of city and country students in the HSC, the number of
students achieving a UAI of at least 90 is studied in six city and six country high
schools.
City Country Totals
UAI ≥ 90 58 61 119
UAI < 90 551 569 1120
Totals 609 630 1239
a What percentage of city students achieved a UAI of at least 90?

b What percentage of country students achieved a UAI of at least 90?
c Of those students who achieved a UAI of at least 90, what percentage were from:
i the city? ii the country?
d Based on the above results, could any conclusion be drawn about the performance
of city and country students in the HSC?
WORKED 9 Calvin recorded his marks for each test that he did in Physics and Chemistry
Example
13
throughout the year.
Physics: 65, 74, 69, 66, 72, 64, 75, 60
Chemistry: 45, 85, 91, 42, 47, 72, 87, 85
a In which subject did Calvin achieve the better average mark?
b In which subject was Calvin more consistent? Explain your answer.
10 The police set up two radar speed checks in a country town. In both places the speed
limit is 60 km/h. The results of the first 10 cars that have their speed checked are
given below.
Point A: 60, 62, 58, 55, 59, 56, 65, 70, 61, 64
Point B: 55, 58, 59, 50, 40, 90, 54, 62, 60, 60
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the readings taken at each point.
b At which point are drivers generally driving faster?
c At which point is the spread of the readings taken greater? Explain your answer.
11 Aaron and Sunil open the batting for the

local cricket team. The number of runs
they have scored in each innings this
season are listed below.
Aaron: 45, 43, 33, 56, 21, 38, 0, 29, 76,
40
Sunil: 5, 70, 12, 54, 68, 11, 8, 64, 32,
69
a Calculate the mean number of runs
scored for each player.
b What is the range of runs scored by
each player?
c What is the interquartile range of
runs scored by each player?
d Which player would you consider
to be the more consistent player?
12 multiple choice
Andrea surveys the age of people attending a concert given by two bands. The box-
and-whisker plot shown below shows the results.
Band A
Band B
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Scale
Which of the following conclusions could be drawn based on the above information?
A Band A attracts an older audience than Band B.
B Band A appeals to a wider age group than Band B.
C Band B attracts an older audience than Band A.
D None of the above.
13 multiple choice
Two drugs are tested to see which is more effective at fighting disease. The results are
displayed in the two-way table below.
Drug 1 Drug 2 Totals
Recovered 124 136 260
Not recovered 32 45 77
Totals 156 181 337
Of those patients who recovered, the percentage who were treated with drug 1 was:
A 46.3% B 47.7% C 69.0% D 79.5%
14 multiple choice
The figures below show the ages of the men’s and
women’s champions at a tennis tournament.
Men’s: 23, 24, 25, 26, 25, 25, 22, 23, 30, 24
Women’s: 19, 27, 20, 26, 30, 18, 28, 25, 28, 22
Which of the following statements is correct?
A The mean age of the men’s champions is greater
than the mean age of the women’s champions.
B The range is greater among the men’s champions than
among the women’s champions.
C The interquartile range is greater among the men’s
champions than among the women’s champions.
D The standard deviation is greater among the men’s
champions than among the women’s champions.
15 A company producing matches advertise that there are
50 matches in each box. Two machines are used to dis-
tribute the matches into the boxes. The results from a
sample taken from each machine are shown in the stem-
and-leaf plot below.
Key: 51 = 51 5*6 = 56
Machine A Machine B
4 4
9 9 8 7 7 6 6 5 4* 5 7 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
43222211100000 5 0000011111223
5 5 5* 9
a Display the data from both machines on a box-and-whisker plot.
SHEE
T 4.2
b Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the number of matches distributed
Work
from both machines.
c Which machine is the more dependable? Explain your answer.
Developing a two-way table

Conduct a survey to determine the number of Year 12 students at your school who
have their driver’s licence. Use the results to complete the two-way table below.

Licensed
Unlicensed
Totals
a What percentage of females have their driver’s licence?

b What percentage of licensed drivers are female?
c Are these figures the same?
d Design a data set where the percentage of females with their licence is equal to
the percentage of licensed drivers who are female.
e What conditions are necessary for these two percentages to be equal?
summary
Measures of location and spread
• Measures of location give the typical score in the data set. The mean, median and
mode are measures of location.
• The mean of a small data set is found using:
–x = Σx
------
n
–
where x = the mean, x = individual scores and n = number of scores.
• Where data is in a table, the mean is found using:
–x = Σfx
--------
Σf
where –x = the mean, x = individual scores and f = frequency.
• Measures of spread describe how spread out the data are. The range, interquartile
range and standard deviation are measures of spread.
• An outlier is a single score that is much greater or much less than most of the
scores. The outlier may have a great effect on the mean but has only a slight effect
on the median and no effect on the mode in a small data set. The larger the data set,
the less the effect a single outlier will have.
Skewness
• When the data are symmetrical, they are said to be normally distributed.
• The more clustered the data are around the mean, the smaller the standard
deviation.
• When most of the data are below the mean, the data are said to be positively
skewed.
• When most of the data are above the mean, the data are said to be negatively
skewed.
Displaying multiple data sets

• Two sets of data can be displayed on a stem-and-leaf plot by displaying the data
back to back.
• The summary statistics from two data sets can be displayed by using the same scale
and drawing two box-and-whisker plots.
• Two sets of data can be displayed on a radar chart to display related trends over a
period of time.
• An area chart can be drawn to display several sets of data. The area in each section
of the graph then displays the quantities for comparison.
Comparison of data sets

• The summary statistics from two data sets can be compared from a stem-and-leaf
plot or box-and-whisker plot.
• Two-way tables are used to compare data where there are two variables involved.
• Data are most commonly compared using the mean and standard deviation.
CHAPTER
review
1 Below are the ages of 15 players in a soccer squad.
23, 28, 25, 19, 17, 28, 29, 29, 22, 21, 35, 30, 22, 27, 26 4A
a Calculate the mean age of the players in the squad.
b Find the median age of players in the squad.
2 The table below shows the number of house calls that a doctor has been required to make
each day over a 32-day period. 4A
Number of house calls Frequency
0 1
1 6
2 8
3 9
4 6
5 2
a Copy the table into your workbook and add a cumulative frequency column.
b Calculate the mean number of house calls per day.
c Find the median number of house calls per day.
d What is the modal number of house calls per day?
3 The set of figures shown below shows the number of pages in a daily newspaper every day
for two weeks. 4A
72, 68, 76, 80, 64, 60, 132, 72, 84, 88, 60, 56, 76, 140
a What is the mean number of pages in the newspaper?
b What is the range?
c What is the interquartile range?
d Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the standard deviation.
4 The table below shows the number of rescues that are made each weekend at a major beach.
4A
Number of rescues Frequency
8 2
9 5
10 12
11 3
12 0
13 1
14 3
Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and the standard deviation of
these data.
5 The table below shows the customer waiting time at 10 am each morning at a bank over an
4A 8-week period.
Cumulative
Waiting time Class centre Frequency frequency
0–1 minute 1
1–2 minutes 4
2–3 minutes 10
3–4 minutes 13
4–5 minutes 9
5–6 minutes 3

b Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and standard deviation.
c Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
d Use the graph to estimate the interquartile range of the data.
6 The figures below show the number of points scored by a basketball player in six matches of
4A a tournament.
36, 2, 38, 41, 27, 33
a Calculate the mean number of points per game.
b Calculate the median number of points per game.
c Explain why there is such a large difference between the mean and the median.
7 Consider the data set represented by the frequency histogram on
4B the right.
8
7
a Are the data symmetrical? 6
Frequency
b Can the mean and median of the data be seen? 5

4
c What is the mode of the data? 3
2
8 The table below shows the number of attempts that 20 members of
4B a Year 12 class took to obtain a driver’s licence.
1
0
15 16 17 18 19 20
Number of attempts Frequency
1 11
2 4
3 2
4 2
5 0
6 1
a Show these data in a frequency histogram.
b Are the data positively or negatively skewed?
4B 9 Draw an example of a frequency histogram for which the data are negatively skewed.
10 The figures below show the marks obtained by 20 students in English and Maths.
English: 56, 45, 57, 56, 65, 82, 74, 80, 91, 84, 68, 52, 67, 64, 60, 66, 74, 77, 77, 66 4C
Maths: 65, 66, 58, 60, 61, 70, 74, 66, 69, 68, 71, 55, 51, 49, 50, 71, 99, 85, 70, 66
a Display the data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b For each subject find the median.
c For each subject state the range.
d For each subject find the interquartile range.
11 Betty runs a surf and ski shop. The table below shows
the monthly sales of both types of equipment. 4C
Month Surf sales ($) Ski sales ($)
January 20 000 5 000
February 18 000 6 000
March 12 000 8 000
April 9 000 10 000
May 6 000 12 000
June 4 000 12 000
July 5 000 9 000
August 8 000 8 000
September 10 000 6 000
October 11 000 3 000
November 15 000 4 000
December 22 000 9 000
a Display both sets of data on the same radar chart.

b Use the chart to compare trends in the sales.
12 The data below give the cost per minute of a long-distance telephone call with three
companies. 4C
Telecomm Omtus Tel One
Day 21c 25c 17.5c
Economy 18c 15c 17.5c
Night 12c 12c 17.5c
Display this information in an area chart.

13 The stem-and-leaf plot below compares the crowds (correct to the nearest thousand) at a
4D football team’s home and away matches.
Key: 25 = 25 000
Home Away
8 0 67
732 1 0116899
6632 2 45
552 3
a Calculate the median of both data sets.
b Calculate the range of both data sets.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both data sets.
d Display both sets of data on a box-and-whisker plot.
14 The figure on the right shows a
4D box-and-whisker plot showing 2003
the average number of weekly 2004
car sales made in 2003 and 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Scale
2004.
a What was the median for each year?
b In which year was the range of sales greatest?
c In which year was the interquartile range of sales greatest?
d In which year did the car yard perform better? Explain your answer.
15 The two-way table below compares the number of men and women who are right- and left-
4D handed.
Men Women Totals

Right-handed 158 172 330
Left-handed 17 15 32
Totals 175 187 362
a What percentage of males are left-handed?

b What percentage of females are left-handed?
c Based on the above data, is there any significant difference between the percentage of
male and female left-handers?
16 Hsiang compares her marks in 10 English exams and 10 Maths exams.
4D English: 76, 74, 80, 77, 73, 70, 75, 37, 72, 76
Maths: 80, 56, 92, 84, 65, 58, 55, 62, 70, 71
a Calculate Hsiang’s mean mark in each subject.
b Calculate the range of marks in each subject.
c Calculate the standard deviation of marks in each subject.
d Based on the above data, in which subject would you say that Hsiang performs more
consistently?
1 multiple choice
The table below shows the number of patients seen each day by a local doctor.
No. of patients Frequency

12 3
13 8
14 15
15 23
16 18
17 13
Which of the following statements are correct?

A The range of the data is 20.
B The mean of the data is 15.05.
C The standard deviation of the data is 1.34.
D The median of the data is 15.
2 multiple choice
The data below show the number of people that live in each house in a small street.
4, 4, 5, 3, 2, 5, 11, 2
The outlier in this data set has:
A the greatest effect on the mean.
B the greatest effect on the median.
C the greatest effect on the mode.
D an equal effect on the mean, median and mode.
3 multiple choice
The two data sets below show the number of goals scored in 15 matches by two soccer teams.
Manchester: 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 6, 0, 0, 1, 5, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
Liverpool:
5
4
Frequency
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of goals
A The Manchester data are negatively skewed, while the Liverpool data are positively
skewed.
B The Liverpool data are negatively skewed, while the Manchester data are positively
skewed.
C Both sets of data are positively skewed.
D Both sets of data are negatively skewed.
4 The two-way table below shows the number of men and women who work in excess of
45 hours per week.
Men Women Totals

£ 45 hours 132 128 260
> 45 hours 69 34 103
Totals 201 162 363
The percentage of men who work greater than 45 hours per week is closest to:
A 28% B 34% C 51% D 67%
5 multiple choice
The figures below show the number of attempts that the boys and girls in a Year 12 class take
to get their driver’s licence.
Boys: 1, 2, 4, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1
Girls: 2, 2, 4, 2, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1, 2
When comparing the performance of the boys and the girls, it is found that the boys have:
A a lower mean and a lower standard deviation
B a lower mean and a higher standard deviation
C a higher mean and a lower standard deviation
D a higher mean and a higher standard deviation
6 The data below show the weekly income among ten Year 12 boys and girls.
Boys: $80, $110, $75, $130, $90, $125, $100, $95, $115, $150
Girls: $50, $80, $75, $90, $90, $60, $250, $80, $100, $95
a Calculate the median of both sets of data.
b Calculate the range of both sets of data.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both sets of data.
d Display both sets of data on a box-and-whisker plot.
e Use the statistics function on the calculator to find the mean and standard deviation of
both sets of data.
f Discuss whether the boys or girls have a more consistent average weekly income.
7 In the week leading up to the NRL grand final, Kylie records the number of points scored by
both teams in each game throughout the season and displays the information on the stem-and-
leaf plot below.
Key: 18 = 18
Sharks Bulldogs
8 0
84422 1 5558889
88644432200 2 0022226668889
886200 3 000222
862 4
test a Find the median of both sets of data.
yourself
b Which team’s scores are the more consistent?
CHAPTER
4 c Describe the skewness of the Sharks’ scores.

d Find the mean and standard deviation of the Bulldogs’ scores.
Algebraic
skills and
techniques
5
syllabus reference
Algebraic modelling 3
• Algebraic skills and
techniques
In this chapter
5A Substitution
5B Algebraic manipulation
5C Equations and formulas
5D Solution by substitution
5E Scientific notation
areyou
a copy.

1 For each of the following formulas, find the value of the subject, given the variables.
a I = Prn given that P = 5750, r = 0.08 and n = 5 (answer correct to 1 decimal place)
b A = πab given that a = 5.6 and b = 9.2
h
c A = --- (df + 4dm + dl) given that h = 60, df = 0, dm = 32 and dl = 28
3
d A = 1--- ab sin C given that a = 23.4, b = 37.1 and C = 60˚ (answer correct to 1 decimal place)
2
5.2 Simplifying like terms

2 Simplify each of the following expressions.
a r+r+r+r+r b 7m + 9m – 6m c 9x + 7 + 8 + 7x
d 9a + 2b – 8a – 7b e 2x + 4y – 3x f 5m – 5n + 4m – 3n
5.3 Multiplication using indices
a r4 × r6 b 6a3 × 3 c 4p5 × 7p
d 5q × 7q
2 4
e 12m × 4m5 f 3r2s5 × 9rs6
5.4 Division using indices
6 4 6
d 30m 42x
a ----2- b ------------- c -----------
d 5 x
8 6 3
4q 56rs 4k
d -------3- e ------------- f ---------
2q 7rs 32k
5.5 Raising a power to a power

a (a2)4 b (4b)3 c (2c2)4
5.6 Solving linear equations

6 Solve each of the following equations.
a z – 42 = 76 b 4y = 96 c 6w – 9 = 69
9v
d ------ = 8 e 6(t – 5) = 54 f 20 + 2n = n + 54
6
5.7 Changing the subject of a formula

7 Write each of the following in scientific notation.
a 25 000 b 236 000 000 c 400 000 d 26 000 000 000 000
Chapter 5 Algebraic skills and techniques 169
Substitution
During the preliminary course we studied substitution. Substitution involves replacing
a pronumeral in an expression with a numerical value. There are many different types
of expressions that may need substitution.
A linear expression such as 3x + 5 involves no index other than 1. When graphed,
these expressions form a straight line. When performing a substitution, we write the
expression and the values of the known pronumerals, rewrite the expression having
substituted the given values, and finally calculate the value of the expression.
WORKED Example 1
h
The formula for the area of a trapezium is given by A = --- ( a + b ) , where a and b are the
2
parallel sides and h is the height. Find the area of a trapezium with parallel sides 4.2 cm
and 7.9 cm and a height of 5.1 cm.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the given expression. h
A = --- ( a + b )
Write down the variables where the values 2
2
a = 4.2, b = 7.9, h = 5.1
are known.
3 Substitute the given values into the 5.1
A = ------- ( 4.2 + 7.9 )
formula. 2
4 Evaluate.
A = 30.855
Graphics Calculator tip! Using the graphics calculator

to substitute
You can use a graphics calculator to assist with substitutions. Consider worked
example 1.
1. From the MENU select RUN.
2. Assign the value a = 4.2 by entering

4.2 → ALPHA [A] and then pressing EXE .
3. Repeat step 2 to assign the values b = 7.9 and h = 5.1.

4. Now enter the expression H ÷ 2 × (A + B) and then

press EXE .
Many expressions involve higher powers or indices. An expression involving a power

of 2 is called a quadratic expression, an expression involving a power of 3 is called a
cubic expression.
Consider the expression M = 6r2. In this expression, only the pronumeral r is raised
to the power of 2. In the expression M = (6r)2 the product 6 × r is raised to the power
of 2.
WORKED Example 2
The expression V = 4--3- p r 3 is used to calculate the volume of a sphere. Find the volume of
the sphere with a radius of 4.2 cm, giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the given expression. V = 4--3- π r 3

2 Write down the variables where the values r = 4.2
are known.
3 Substitute the given values into the V= 4
---
3
× π × ( 4.2 ) 3
formula.
4 Evaluate. V = 310.3 cm3
Other expressions may involve taking square roots and cube roots. Care must be taken
to use the calculator correctly. The square or cube root must be taken of the entire part
of the expression that is under the root sign. This may involve using brackets.
WORKED Example 3
3V
The expression r = 3------- is used to calculate the radius of a sphere, given the volume.
4π
Find the radius of a sphere with a volume of 200 cm3. (Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.)
THINK WRITE
3V
1 Write down the given expression. r= -------
3
4π
2 Write down the variables where the V = 200
values are known.
3 × 200
3 Substitute the given values into the r= 3 ------------------
formula. 4π
4 Evaluate. r = 3.6 cm
remember
1. Substitution involves replacing a pronumeral or pronumerals in an expression
with numerical values.
2. Linear expressions involve only powers of 1.
3. Quadratic and cubic expressions involve powers of 2 and 3 respectively. In
these expressions be sure to raise only the relevant part of the expression to the
power.
4. Expressions that involve square and cube roots must be solved by correctly
using a calculator and brackets.
5A Substitution
WORKED 1 In the formula A = l × b, find the value of A, given that l = 6.7 and b = 4.8. 5.1 SkillS
Example
1 2 Find the value of each of the following by substituting into the formula.
HEET
a A = 1--- bh, if b = 5 and h = 12.3 Substitution
2 into a
formula
PRT
b A = P + ----------- , if P = 2000, R = 6.55 and T = 2.5
100 L Spre
XCE ad
c S = 2(lw + lh + wh), where l = 3, w = 2.5 and h = 1.1
sheet
E
d V = u + at, where u = 20, a = 4 and t = 25 Substitution
e T = a + (n − 1)d, if a = 66, n = 56 and d = −4
3 The formula P = 2l + 2w is used to find the perimeter of a rectangle. Use the formula
to find the perimeter of a rectangle, where l = 3.5 and w = 9.7.
4 The formula C = π d is used to calculate the circumference of a circle. Use the formula
to find the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 9.5 m. Give your answer
WORKED 5 In the formula A = 6s2, find the value of A when s = 5.5.
Example
2 6 Find the value of each of the following by substituting into the formula. (Give your
answers correct to 2 decimal places.)
a V = r2h, if r = 0.75 and h = 2.5
b A = π (R2 − r2), if R = 2.2 and r = 1
c V = 4--- π r 3, if r = 3.2
3
2
d P = I R, where I = 0.6 and R = 230
e E = 1--- mv2, where m = 23 and v = 4.7
2
7 The formula A = 2π r 2 + 2π rh is used to calculate the surface area of a cylinder.

Calculate the surface area of a cylinder with a radius of 2.3 cm and a height of 6.4 cm.
Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
8 Use the formula S = ut + 1--- at2 to calculate the value of S, when u = 9, t = 5 and
2
a = 4.5.
WORKED
Example A
9 Use the formula r = ------ to find the value of r (correct to 1 decimal place) when
3 4 π
A = 500.
10 Find the value of each of the following by substitution into the formula. Where
necessary, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a c = a 2 – b 2 , when a = 17 and b = 8
L
b T = 2 π --- , when L = 65 and g = 9.8
g
3V
c S = ------- , if V = 600 and h = 25
h
3V
d r = 3 ------- , if V = 900
4π
e m = 2xy + y 3 , when x = 2 and y = 3
A
11 The formula s = --- is used to calculate the side
6
length of a cube having been given the area. Calculate
the side length of a cube with a surface area
of 162.24 cm2.
12 The formula A = s ( s – a ) ( s – b ) ( s – c ) can be used to find the area of any triangle,
where a, b and c are the side lengths and s is half the perimeter of the triangle. Given
that the side lengths of a triangle are 4 cm, 8 cm and 9 cm:
a+b+c
a calculate the value of s  s = ---------------------
 2 
b find the area of the triangle, correct to 1 decimal place.
Algebraic manipulation
Basic manipulation of algebraic expressions was covered in the preliminary course. We
need to be able to add and subtract algebraic expressions as well as multiply and divide
them. Algebraic expressions are added and subtracted by collecting like terms. Only the
same pronumeral or combination of pronumerals can be added together.
WORKED Example 4
Simplify each of the following.
a 8x + 2x − 11x
b 9a2 + 2a + 4a2 − 7a
THINK WRITE
a Each term uses the same pronumeral and a 8x + 2x − 11x = −x
so we add and subtract the coefficients.
b 1 Rewrite the expression, grouping the b 9a2 + 2a + 4a2 − 7a

like terms together. Remember that = (9a2 + 4a2) + (2a − 7a)
a2 and a are not like terms. = 13a2 − 5a
2 Complete each addition and
subtraction separately.
To multiply and divide algebraic expressions, we need to remember the index laws
covered in the preliminary course.
First Index Law: ax × ay = ax + y
ax
Second Index Law: a x ÷ a y = a x − y or -----y = a x – y
a
Third Index Law: (a ) = a
x y xy
When multiplying and dividing algebraic expressions it is important to remember to

apply the index laws separately to each pronumeral.
WORKED Example 5
Simplify each of the following fully.
48 p 2 q 4
a 6m7 × 7m3 b -----------------
- c (5x4)3
6 pq 3
THINK WRITE
a Multiply the coefficients and add the indices. a 6m7 × 7m3 = 42m10
48 p 2 q 4
b Divide the coefficients and subtract the indices b ------------------ = 8 pq
for each pronumeral separately. 6 pq 3
c Calculate 53 and multiply the indices. c (5x4)3 = 125x12
The manipulation of algebraic expressions will also involve the expansion of brackets.
When expanding brackets, we multiply every term inside the brackets by the term
immediately outside the brackets.
WORKED Example 6
Expand 2x3(6xy − 9y4).
THINK WRITE
Multiply both terms inside the brackets by 2x3. 2x3(6xy − 9y4) = 12x4y − 18x3y4
remember
1. Algebraic expressions are added and subtracted by collecting like terms.
2. Algebraic expressions are multiplied and divided using the index laws.
• First Index Law: ax × ay = ax + y
ax
• Second Index Law: a x ÷ a y = a x − y or -----y = a x – y
• Third Index Law: (a x) y = a xy a
3. When using the index laws, apply each law to each pronumeral separately.
4. When expanding brackets, multiply every term inside the brackets by what is
immediately outside.
5B Algebraic manipulation
WORKED 1 Simplify each of the following expressions.

HEET
5.2 Example
a 4a + 8a b 14b + 4b c 23c − 9c
4a
SkillS
d 35d + 6d e 5e − e f 16f − 15f

Simplifying
like terms g g − 8g h −4h + 9h i −2i − 7i
j 7j − 5j + 9j k −3k + 8k − k l 5l − 15l + 8l
WORKED 2 Simplify each of the following expressions.

HEET
5.3 Example
a 8m + 3m − 9 b n − 4 + 7n c 7p2 + 6p + 3p2 − 2p
4b
SkillS
d 5r + 9s − 2r + 2s e 7t + 1 − 4t − 7 f 6u − 8v − 7u + 2v
Multiplication
using indices g 4w2 − 3w3 + 2w2 − w3 h 2xy + 4xz − 3xy + xz i 4p2 − 12 + p2 − 4
j 4x + 3y − 2xy + 6x − 4yx + y
reads WORKED 3 Simplify each of the following.

L Sp he Example
a a5 × a8 b b × b3 c 3c2 × 4c5
et
EXCE
5a
Index d d3 × 7d e 4p4q3 × 3p5q2 f 7gh × 9g2h3
laws 4 5
g 4mn × 7m n h 4p5 × 5q4 i 6xyz × 4x2y2
3 3 2 4 5
j 6u v × 4v w × 2uw
WORKED 4 Simplify each of the following.

Example
5b a k4 ÷ k b 15m7 ÷ 5m2 c 48n7 ÷ 8n2
14x 5 56m 4 n 3 45x 5
d ----------- e ------------------ f -----------
7x 7m 2 n 9
g m6n7 ÷ mn h 48p3 ÷ 6q3 i 121a ÷ 11b
3 4 6 2 2 2
j 32p q r ÷ 4pqr ÷ 2p q
5.4 WORKED 5 Simplify each of the following.

HEET Example
a (a3)4 b (2b4)2 c (3m2)3
SkillS
5c
2 3 2
Division d (4x y ) e (2pq2)4
using
indices
WORKED 6 Expand each of the following.
Example
5.5 6 a 2(m + 5) b x(x + 2) c 3a(3a + 2b)
HEET
d 3q2(6q4 − 2) e 5n(m − 5n) f 7a2b4(2a4 − 3b6)
SkillS
Raising g −3(d + 5) h −3m(m − 2n) i −6r3(2 − 3r3)

a power j 6pqr(3pq − r)
to a power
7 Expand and simplify each of the following.

a 4(x + 2) + 2(3x − 1) b a(a + 7) + 2(3a − 5) c 2m(m − n) + 6n(m − 2n)
d 5(4x − 7) − 2(x + 5) e 2p(2p − 5) − 5(p − 6) f 2xy(3x − 4y) − x(y − xy)
8 Fully simplify each of the following.

SHEE
T 5.1 a a 4 × a 5 ÷ a2 b (m2)3 ÷ m4 × m c 32m2n3 ÷ 4mn × 2n3
Work
9m 2 n 4 × 4mn 2
d 4x6y7 × 5xy4 ÷ 2x6 e (2z3)4 ÷ 8z5 ÷ 2z7 f -----------------------------------
( 6mn 3 ) 2
1
a
1 Calculate the value of S = ----------- , when a = 8 and r = 0.2.
1–r
2 Calculate the value of S = ut + --1- at2, when u = 4.5, t = 6.1 and a = 4.

2
3V
3 Calculate the value of S = ------- , when V = 352.6 and h = 4.5. (Give your answer
h
correct to 1 decimal place.)
Simplify the following expressions.
4 6x − 7x + x − 5x
5 4a + 2b − 3a − 8b
6 3b4 × 5b2
42g 3 h 4
7 ----------------
-
7h 2
8 (5p3q4)2
9 5x(2 − x)
10 3a(2a − 5b) − 4b(a − 6b)
Equations and formulas

During the preliminary course we studied equations. The object of solving an equation
was to find the value of an unknown pronumeral that made that statement true. In
solving the equation we reversed every process that had been performed on the
pronumeral until it became the subject of the equation. In many cases, an equation
arose as the result of substitution into a formula.
WORKED Example 7
In the formula C = 2π r, find the value of r when C = 100, correct to 2 significant figures.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. C = 2π r
2 Substitute the value of C. 100 = 2π r
100
3 Divide each side by 2π and round the r = ---------
answer off to 2 significant figures. 2π
= 16
Graphics Calculator tip! Solving equations that arise

from substitution
You can use the equation solver function on a graphics calculator to solve equations
that arise as the result of a substitution. Consider worked example 7.
2. Press F3 (Solver).
3. Delete any existing equation, and enter the equation

that arises after the substitution is made. To enter
100 = 2πr press 1 0 0 SHIFT [=]
2 SHIFT [π] ALPHA [R].
Note: At this stage you may have a different value of
R, but this is to be ignored.
4. Press F6 to solve the equation.
Some equations involve powers and roots. In the solution to an equation, remember
that the opposite function to taking a square is to take the square root and vice versa.
When solving such an equation, both the positive and negative square roots are possible
solutions.
For example, the equation x2 = 9 has the solution x = ±3. This differs from 9 ,
which equals 3. The square root symbol indicates to take the positive square root only.
WORKED Example 8
In the equation d = 5t2, find the value of t when d = 320.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. d = 5t2
2 Substitute the value of d. 320 = 5t2
3 Divide each side by 5. t2 = 64
4 Take the square roots of each side, t = ±8
considering both the positive and
negative answers.
Note: If you use the solver function on your graphics calculator, only the positive solu-
tion is given. It is important that you remain aware that equations of this type have a
positive and negative solution.
With such examples, we consider both the positive and negative cases only where
appropriate. In practical cases where measurements are being considered, only the
positive answer is given.
Using the same process as this we can change the subject of a formula. The subject
of the formula is the single pronumeral usually written on the left-hand side of the
formula. For example, in the formula A = π r 2, A is the subject. We are able to make
another pronumeral the subject of the equation by moving all other numbers and
pronumerals to the other side of the formula, as if we were solving an equation.
Formulas that need the subject changed include those with both linear and quadratic
terms.
WORKED Example 9
Make x the subject of the formula y = 5x − 2.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. y = 5x − 2

2 Add 2 to each side. y + 2 = 5x
3 Divide each side by 5 (and write the y+2
x = ------------
new subject of the formula on the 5
left-hand side).
This method is also used for quadratic formulas but, as with equation solving, we must
remember to use both the positive and negative square root where appropriate.
WORKED Example 10
The formula A = 4π r 2 is used to find the surface area of a sphere. Make r the subject of the
formula.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. A = 4π r 2

2 Divide both sides by 4π. A
------ = r 2
4π
3 Take the square root of each side.
A
As r is the radius, a length, we consider r= ------
only the positive square root. 4π
remember
1. An equation can be formed after substitution into a formula.
2. When solving an equation, the object is to find the value of the unknown.
3. When an equation involves taking a square, the opposite function used to solve
the equation is a square root.
4. Both the positive and negative square root should be taken unless the context of
the equation means that only the positive should be used.
5. To make another pronumeral the subject of an equation, the same methods as
for equation solving are used although we use pronumerals rather than make
actual calculations.
5C Equations and formulas
5.6 WORKED 1 The formula C = πd is used to calculate the circumference of a circle. Find the
HEET Example
diameter of a circle that has a circumference of 40 cm. Give your answer correct to
SkillS
7
Solving 3 significant figures.
linear
equations 2 The formula P = 2l + 2w is used to calculate the perimeter of a rectangle. Calculate
the length of a rectangle that has a perimeter of 152 m and a width of 38 m.
HEET
5.7 3 In each of the following, find the value of the unknown after substitution into the
SkillS
formula. Where appropriate, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

Changing
the subject h
of a formula a A = --- ( a + b ) ; find h when A = 145, a = 15 and b = 25.
2
b A = l × w; find w when A = 186 and l = 15.
c V = π r 2h; find h when V = 165.2 and r = 3.6.
d T = a + (n − 1)d; find n when T = 260, a = −15 and d = 11.
e v2 = u2 + as; find s when v = 5.5, u = 2.4 and a = 1.2.
WORKED 4 In the formula A = 6s2, find the value(s) of s when A = 150.
Example
8 5 The formula A = π r 2 is used to calculate the area of a circle. Find the radius of a
circle, correct to 2 decimal places, given that the area of the circle is 328 cm2.
6 Substitute into each of the formulas and solve the equation to find the value of the
unknown. Where necessary, give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
a V = r2 h; find r when V = 1.406 25 and h = 2.5.
b A = π (R2 − r2); find R when A = 12 and r = 1.
c V = 4--- π r 3, find r when V = 136.
3
d E = --1- mv2; find v when E = 254 and m = 23.

2
e P = I 2R; find I when P = 0.54 and R = 1.5.
WORKED
Example 7 Make x the subject of the formula y = 2x + 1.
9
8 Make l the subject of the formula A = l × b.
h
9 In the formula A = --- ( a + b ) :
2
a make a the subject of the formula
b make h the subject of the formula.
WORKED 10 Make r the subject of the formula A = π r 2.
Example
10
11 In the formula E = mc2:
a make m the subject of the formula
b make c the subject of the formula.
Questions 12 to 14 refer to the following information.

The volume of a square-based pyramid with the side of the base, s, and the height, h, is
given by the formula V = 1--- s2h.
3
12 multiple choice
The side length of the base of a square-based pyramid with the height, h, and volume,
V, is given by:
V h V 3V
A s = 3 ---- B s = ------- C s = ------ D s = -------
h 3V 3h h
13 multiple choice
The height of a square-based pyramid with the side of the base 5 cm and the volume
75 cm3 is:
A 8 cm B 9 cm C 10 cm D 12 cm
14 multiple choice
If both the side of the base and the height are doubled the volume is:
A doubled B increased by 4 times
C increased by 6 times D increased by 8 times
15 In each of the following, make the subject of the formula the pronumeral indicated in
brackets.
a V = π r 2 [r] b v2 = u2 + as [u] c V= --- π r
4 3
[r]
3
L
d T = 2 π --- [L] e c2 = a2 + b2 [a]
g
Solution by substitution
From our earlier work on equations, we have found that substituting the solution back
into the original equation can check the answer to the equation. If the solution is cor-
rect, then the value that is substituted will satisfy the equation. For example, consider
the following equation.
4x − 5 = 19
4x = 24
x=6
Substituting x = 6 into 4x + 5 = 19
Left-hand side (LHS) = 4 × 6 − 5
Left-hand side (LHS) = 19
Left-hand side (LHS) = Right-hand side (RHS)
By substitution we can see that x = 6 is the correct solution to this equation.
Some more difficult equations can have an approximate solution found by substi-
tuting a first guess into the equation and gradually refining the solution.
WORKED Example 11
Find an approximate solution to the equation 2x = 20 (correct to 1 decimal place).
THINK WRITE
1 Make a first guess (x = 4) and substitute Test x = 4 24 = 16
into the equation.
2 As 24 < 20, make a second guess that is Test x = 5 25 = 32
greater than 4 (x = 5).
3 As 25 > 20, make the next estimate Test x = 4.5 24.5 = 22.6
between 4 and 5 (x = 4.5).
4 As 24.5 > 20, make the next estimate Test x = 4.3 24.3 = 19.7
between 4 and 4.5 (x = 4.3).
5 As 24.3 < 20, make the next estimate Test x = 4.4 24.5 = 21.1
between 4.3 and 4.5 (x = 4.4).
6 Since x = 4.3 gives a result closer to Solution is x = 4.3.
20 than x = 4.4, the solution, correct
to 1 decimal place, is x = 4.3.
Many such equations will arise from a practical situation such as investments.
WORKED Example 12
Terry has $1000 to invest; however, he needs $1500 to purchase the electric guitar that he
wants. If Terry invests his $1000 at 6% p.a., the amount in the account at any time can be
found using the formula A = 1000(1.06)n, where n is the number of years for which the
money has been invested. Find how long it will take (correct to the nearest year) for
Terry’s $1000 to grow to $1500.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. A = 1000(1.06)n
2 Substitute A = 1500. 1500 = 1000(1.06)n
3 Divide both sides by 1000. 1.5 = (1.06)n
4 Make a first estimate for the solution (1.06)5 = 1.34
(n = 5).
5 As (1.06)5 < 1.5, make a second (1.06)8 = 1.59
estimate greater than n = 5 (n = 8).
6 As (1.06)8 > 1.5, make the next (1.06)7 = 1.50
estimate between n = 5 and n = 8 (n =
7).
7 The solution must be n = 7 as It will take 7 years for the $1000 to grow to
(1.06)7 = 1.5, correct to 2 decimal $1500 at 6% p.a
places.
This type of question can be solved using a graphics calculator and by setting up a table
of values.
Graphics Calculator tip! Using the table function

We can use the table function on a graphics calculator to take the repetition out of solu-
tion by substitution. Consider worked example 12 above.
1. From the MENU select TABLE.
2. For Y1 enter the function 1000 × 1.06^X and press

EXE .
3. Press F5 (RANG) and then enter the settings shown

on the screen opposite. These determine the start and
end values and the pitch of the table. The pitch is the
increment by which x changes from the start value.
4. Press EXE to return to the previous screen, and

then press F6 (TABL). You will then need to scroll
down to find the value of Y1 that is closest to 1500.
remember
1. Equations such as 2x = 10 have no opposite operation that you can use easily.
Find an approximate solution by substitution and then improve on the first
estimate.
2. The first estimate is taken and substituted into the equation. A second estimate,
either higher or lower than the first depending on the result of the substitution,
is then taken.
3. Further estimates can then be taken by dividing the range within which we
know the solution lies.
4. Most equations of this type can be solved using the table function on a graphics
calculator.
5D Solution by substitution
WORKED 1 Solve the equation 2x = 100, correct to 1 decimal place.
Example
11 2 Solve the equation 1.1x = 2, correct to the nearest whole number.
3 Solve the equation 0.9x = 0.5, correct to the nearest whole number.
WORKED 4 The amount of time that it will take for an investment to double when invested at
Example
12
5% p.a. can be calculated using the equation (1.05)n = 2. Find the value of n, correct to
the nearest whole number.
5 It is anticipated that the value of a house will keep pace with inflation. Judy purchased
a house in 2001 for $265 000. The future value of the house can be calculated using the
n
formula A = P  1 + --------- , where A is the future value, P is the present value, r is the
r
 100
inflation rate and n is the number of years. Judy wants to know how many years it will
take for the value of her property to exceed $500 000 given that the inflation rate will
average 4% p.a.
a Substitute the known values into the formula to create an equation.
b Solve the equation for n, correct to the nearest whole number.
6 The value of a computer decreases at the rate of 30% p.a. A new computer purchased
for $3000 can have its value after n years calculated using the formula V = 3000(0.7)n,
where n is the age of the computer in years. Calculate when the value of the computer
will equal $500, correct to the nearest year.
7 The distance through which an object will fall in t seconds can be calculated using the
formula d = 5t2.
t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d
b Calculate the length of time that it will take an object to fall 300 m, correct to the
nearest second.
8 Kayla has 80 m of fencing in which to enclose a rectangular area for a garden.
Length 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Width
Area
b What dimensions should the garden be if it is to enclose the maximum possible

area?
c The garden is to use an existing fence for one side and use the 80 m of fencing to
build the other three sides. Draw up a table to calculate the dimensions Kayla should
now build the garden to maximise the area.
Repeated enlargements
Consider the following problem. I need to enlarge a diagram on my photocopier to
twice its original size. My photocopier can enlarge to only 150% of the original.
Explain how I can make the enlargement that I need by using a repeated
enlargement.
2
1 Given that y = 25 − 5x, find the value of y when x = 3.
2 Given that T = 6n + 5n2, find the value of T when n = 2.
3 In the formula y = r 2 – x 2 , find y when r = 5 and x = 4.
4 Given that C = π d find d, correct to 1 decimal place, when C = 400.
5 Given that d = 5t 2, find t when d = 2000.
Simplify the following expressions.
6 4a + 6b − 3a − 9b
7 4x2y3 × 5x5y
8 (4m3n4)3
18m 2 n 4
9 ------------------
6mn 2
10 Use the method of substitution to solve the equation (1.1)x = 3, correct to the
Scientific notation
Scientific notation is used to express very large or very small numbers in terms of a
power of 10. It is particularly useful in branches of science such as astronomy, where
large distances are measured, or in biology, where very small measurements of
microbes are taken.
As we found in the preliminary course, numbers are written in scientific notation by
rewriting the number with a decimal point after the first significant figure. This decimal
is then multiplied by the appropriate power of 10. This power of 10 is found by
counting the number of places that the decimal point has been moved. When moving
the decimal point left, the power of 10 is positive; it is negative when moving the
decimal point to the right.
WORKED Example 13
Write each of the following in scientific notation.
a 8 000 000 b 13 400 000 000 c 0.000 034 51
THINK WRITE
a 1 Move the decimal point after the first significant a 8 000 000 = 8 × 106
figure.
2 The decimal point has been moved 6 places left.
b 1 Move the decimal point after the first significant b 13 400 000 000 = 1.34 × 1010
figure.
c 1 Move the decimal point after the first significant c 0.000 034 51 = 3.451 × 10−5
figure.
2 The decimal point has been moved 5 places right.
In many examples we are required to round such measurements off to a given number
of significant figures.
WORKED Example 14
Write each of the following measurements in scientific notation, correct to 3 significant
figures.
a 97 856 472 124 km b 0.000 000 124 117 23 mg
THINK WRITE
a 1 Move the decimal point after the first significant a 9.79 × 1010 km
figure.
3 Round the decimal off after the third significant
figure.
THINK WRITE
b 1 Move the decimal point after the first significant b 1.24 × 10−7 mg
figure.
3 Round the decimal off after the third significant
figure.
To change a number from scientific notation back to a decimal number, move the
decimal point to the right if the power of 10 is positive. If the power of 10 is negative,
move the decimal point to the left. Zeros will need to be added if there are insufficient
decimal places.
WORKED Example 15
Write each of the following as a decimal number:
a 3.85 × 108
b 8.654 × 106
THINK WRITE
a Move the decimal point eight places to the right. You a 3.85 × 108 = 385 000 000
will need to add six zeros to do this.
b Move the decimal point six places to the left. You will b 8.654 × 10–6 = 0.000 008 654
need to add five zeros after the decimal point to do
this.
remember
1. Scientific notation is used as a shorthand way of writing very large and very
small numbers.
2. The decimal point is placed after the first significant figure, and then this
decimal is multiplied by the appropriate power of 10.
3. The power of 10 is found as follows.
• If the decimal point is moved left (for large numbers), the power of 10 is the
number of places moved left.
• If the decimal point is moved right (for small numbers), the power of 10 is
negative and is the number of places moved right.
4. To write a number given in scientific notation as a decimal number, move the
decimal point:
(a) to the right for a positive power of 10
(b) to the left for a negative power of 10.
5E Scientific notation
5.8 WORKED 1 Write each of the following in scientific notation.

HEET Example
a 90 000 b 20 000 000 000 c 700
SkillS
13a
Scientific WORKED 2 Write each of the following in scientific notation.
notation Example
13b a 1 458 000 b 23 650 000 000 000 c 2589
reads WORKED 3 Write each of the following in scientific notation.

L Sp he Example
a 0.000 000 02 b 0.004 57 c 0.000 000 000 049 321
et
EXCE
13c
Scientific
notation WORKED 4 Write each of the following in scientific notation, correct to 3 significant figures.
Example
14 a 93 154 789 km b 78 548 963 214 mm c 45 874 t
d 0.003 654 7 g e 0.213 658 mL f 0.000 005 687 4 s
WORKED 5 Write each of the following as a decimal number.
Example
15a a 3.4 × 104 b 2.87 × 106 c 3.0248 × 1010
WORKED 6 Write each of the following as a decimal number.
Example
15b a 5.85 × 10–4 b 1.97 × 10–6 c 1.002 × 10–3
7 An astronomical unit (AU) is defined to be the distance between the Earth and the sun
and is equal to approximately 150 000 000 km. The table below shows the distance
between each planet in the solar system and the sun in astronomical units. Write the
distance between each planet and the sun in kilometres in scientific notation, correct to
Distance Distance in km
Planet (AU) (scientific notation)
Mercury 0.39
Venus 0.72
Earth 1.0
Mars 1.52
Jupiter 5.20
Saturn 9.54
Uranus 19.18
Neptune 30.06
8 Complete each of the measurement conversions.

a 2.35 × 107 mm = ___ m b 8.4 × 107 m = ___ km
5
c 6.4 × 10 cm = ___ mm d 6.58 × 106 kg = ___ t
SHEE
T 5.2 6
e 7.802 × 10 t = ___ kg f 8.29 × 1010 kg = ___ g
Work
8
g 1.87 × 10 L = ___ kL h 2.178 × 107 kL = ___ L
i 5.55 × 107 L = ___ mL
summary
Substitution
• Substitution involves the replacement of a pronumeral with a numerical value in an
expression.
• These expressions include linear expressions that have only powers of 1, quadratics
that have a power of 2 and cubics that have a power of 3.
• Care must be taken when using a calculator to apply the power to the correct term.
Algebraic manipulation
• Algebraic terms are added or subtracted by collecting like terms.
• Algebraic terms are multiplied or divided by applying the index laws to each
pronumeral separately.
First Index Law: ax × ay = ax + y
Second Index Law: ax ÷ ay = ax − y
Third Index Law: (a x ) y = a xy
Equations and formulas

• After substituting into a formula, an equation will be created when you are not
finding the subject of the formula.
• The equation that you may need to solve could be linear or quadratic.
• Using the same method as for solving equations, you can rearrange a formula to
make another pronumeral the subject of the formula.
Solution by substitution
• Some equations have no opposite operation that allows you to easily solve the
equation. These equations can have an approximate solution found using
substitution.
• To solve an equation using this method, make a first estimate of the solution and
substitute that estimate into the equation.
• Use the result of that substitution to make an improved estimate, and then substitute
the improved estimate into the equation. Repeat this process until a solution to the
desired degree of accuracy is found.
Scientific notation
• Scientific notation is used to write very large or very small numbers in a shorthand
way using powers of 10.
• The decimal point is moved after the first significant figure and is multiplied by the
appropriate power of 10.
• For large numbers, the power of 10 is the number of places the decimal point has
been moved to the left.
• For small numbers, the power of 10 is negative and is the number of places the
decimal point has been moved to the right.
CHAPTER
review
1 Find the value of V = A × h, when A = 54 and h = 3.
5A
2 Find the value of S = ut + --1- at2, when u = 4.1, t = 6.2 and a = 0.6.
5A 2
3 Find the value of d = ( x 1 – x 2 ) 2 + ( y 1 – y 2 ) 2 , when x1 = −2, y1 = −7, x2 = 3, and y2 = 5.
5A
4 Find the value of each of the following giving your answer, where necessary, correct to 2
5A decimal places.
a A = π r(r + s), when r = 3.9 and s = 7.2 b C = 5--- (F − 32), when F = 100
9
a
c S = ----------- , when a = 12 and r = −0.4 d y = r 2 – x 2 , when r = 10 and x = 6
1–r
5 Simplify each of the following by collecting like terms.
5B a m+m+m+m+m b 7q + 9q c 5p + 8p − p
d 23t − 22t e 4m + 6n − 2n f 7x + 4 − 3x − 9
g 11k − 6l + 4l − 8k h 5x2 + 20x + 3x2 − 6x i 4ab + 7a − 2b − 3ba
6 Simplify each of the following.
5B a 4a4 × 7a5 b 5b × 9b c 3g2h5 × 7g2h3
d 12m5n6 × mn e 42x6 ÷ 7x4 f 32r5s4 ÷ 4r5s
28q 2
g ----------- h (3p2q4)3 i (8m2)2 × m ÷ 16m3
4q
7 Expand each of the following.
5B a 2(a + 9) b p(2p − 4) c −x2(3x3 − 1)
d 4m5(3m2 − 2n) e −4xy(4 − y) f 6a2b3(2a3 − 4b2)
8 Expand and simplify each of the following.
5B a 2(m + 8) + 6(m + 4) b 3p(p − 2) + p(3 − p) c 7(2x − 4) − 3(x + 8)
d 3z(y − 2z) + 4y(2y + z) e 4pq(p − q) − 2p(pq − 4)
9 In the formula P = 2l + 2b find l, when P = 78 and b = 24.
5C
10 The formula C = 2π r is used to find the circumference of a circle given the radius. Find the
5C radius of a circle with a circumference of 136 m. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
11 In the formula A = 6s2, find s when A = 216.
5C
12 The volume of a square-based pyramid can be found using the formula V = 1--- s2h, where s is
5C 3
the side length of the square base and h is the height of the pyramid. Find the side length of
a square-based pyramid with a volume of 108.864 cm3 and a height of 6.3 cm.
13 Use the method of substitution to solve the following equations, correct to 1 decimal place.
5D a 5x = 100 b (1.2)x = 2 c (0.75)x = 0.25
14 The amount to which $10 000 will grow when invested at 9% p.a. can be found using the
5D formula A = 10 000 (1.09)n, where n is the number of years of the investment. Use the
formula to find the amount of time that it will take for $10 000 to grow into $20 000, correct
to the nearest year.
15 A car depreciates at a rate of 20% p.a. The amount of time that it takes for the car to halve
in value can be found by solving the equation (0.8)n = 0.5, where n is the age of the car. Find 5D
the length of time it takes for a car to halve in value, correct to the nearest year.
16 Write each of the following in scientific notation.

a 600 000 b 0.000 000 000 2 5E
c 78 920 000 000 000 d 0.001 25
e 0.000 004 589 f 124 589 000 000 000
17 Write each of the following in scientific notation, correct to 3 significant figures.

a 12 589 b 0.000 125 478 624 5E
c 0.032 143 68 d 586 460 484
e 12 447.151 48 f 0.000 000 051 851 58
18 Write each of the following as a decimal number.

a 2.5 × 102 b 3.87 × 104 c 9.8504 × 107 5E
d 2.89 × 10 –1
e 3.6702 × 10–7 f 1.1 × 10–3
19 Complete each of the following.

a 2.5 × 105 m = ___ mm b 2.8 × 108 g = ___ kg 5E
c 3.43 × 104 kL = ___ L d 1.45 × 106 m = ___ km
e 4.243 × 107 t = ___ kg f 1.3 × 108 mL = ___ L

1 multiple choice
3x(2x − 4y) − 2y(4y − 6x) =
A 6x2 – 8y2 B 6x2 + 8y2 C 6x2 – 24xy – 8y2 D 6x2 – 24xy + 8y2
2 multiple choice
The total surface area of a cone is given by the formula A = π r(r + s), where r is the radius
and s is the slant height of the cone. The formula with s as the subject is:
A A – πr A–r A
A s = ------ – r B s = ---------------- C s = ------------ D s = ------ + r
πr r πr πr
3 multiple choice
The total surface area of the square-based pyramid with side of the base b and the height of
the triangular face h is given by A = b2 + 2bh. If the total surface area of the pyramid is 64 cm
and the length of the side of the base is 4 cm, the height of the triangular face is:
A 6 cm B 10 cm C 20 cm D 24 cm
4 multiple choice
The solution to the equation 10x = 200 is closest to:
A 2 B 2.3 C 2.4 D 20
5 multiple choice
A square has a side length of 5.6 × 105 cm. The area of the square in scientific notation will be:
A 3.136 × 1011 cm2 B 31.36 × 1010 cm2 C 3.136 × 1025 cm2 D 31.36 × 1025 cm2
6 The volume of a cylinder can be found using the formula V = π r 2h. The surface area of a
cylinder can be found using the formula SA = 2π r 2 + 2π rh.
a Find the volume of a cylinder with a radius of 4.2 cm and a height of 5.5 cm.
(Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
b Find the height of a cylinder with a volume of 705 cm3 and a radius of 5.2 cm.
(Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
c Find the radius of a cylinder with a volume of 939.4 cm3 and a height of 7.3 cm
d Rewrite the formula for surface area to make h the subject.
7 The time taken for an investment to double in value when invested at 7.5% p.a. can be found
by solving the equation (1.075)n = 2.
a Use the method of substitution to find the solution to this equation, correct to the nearest
test whole number.
yourself b Write an equation that can be used to find the amount of time that it will take for the value
CHAPTER
5 of an item to halve in value if it depreciates at 15% p.a.

c Solve this equation, correct to 1 decimal place.
Multi-stage
events
6
syllabus reference
Probability 3
• Multi-stage events
In this chapter
6A Tree diagrams
6B Counting techniques
6C Probability and counting
techniques
6D Probability trees
areyou
a copy.
6.1 Listing the sample space

1 List the sample space for each of the following events.
a A card is drawn from a standard deck and its suit is noted.
b A ball is selected from a bag containing three red, two blue and five white balls.
c A pin is stuck in the page of a book and the nearest letter is noted.
6.2 Informal description of chance
2 Describe each of the following events as being certain, probable, fifty–fifty, unlikely or
impossible.
a Winning the lottery.
b Selecting an odd number from cards labelled with numbers 1 to 55.
c Finding a $40 note in your wallet.
6.3
Equally likely events
3 For each of the events in question 2, state whether or not each outcome is equally likely.
Fundamental counting principle
6.4 4 In each of the following find the number of different ways each selection can be made.
a One person is to be chosen from each of two classes with 20 people in one class and 25 in the
other.
b From a menu an entree is to be chosen from a selection of five entrees followed by a main
course from a selection of eight, and then a dessert from a selection of six.
c Car number plates consisting of two letters, followed by two digits, followed by another two
letters.
6.5 Single event probability
5 Find the probability of each of the following events.
a Randomly selecting the winner of a swimming final with eight competitors.
b Winning a raffle when 150 tickets are sold and you purchase three tickets.
c Selecting a $2 coin from a pocket containing three $2 coins, four $1 coins and seven 20c
pieces.
6.6 Determining complementary events
6 Find the complement to each of the following events.
a Selecting a vowel from the letters of the alphabet.
b Choosing a black marble from a bag with 12 black, 23 white and 15 clear marbles.
c Selecting a number less than 10.
6.7 Calculating the probability of a complementary event
7 Find the probability of:
a winning a football match given the probability of losing is 2--- .
5
b the train being late given that it is on time four days out of every five.
c a golfer missing a putt given the probability of sinking the putt is 0.73.
Chapter 6 Multi-stage events 193
Tree diagrams
As discussed in the preliminary course, if an event has more than one stage to it, then it
is necessary to draw a tree diagram to list the sample space accurately. In a tree
diagram the tree branches out once for each stage of the experiment. At each stage the
number of branches is the same as the number of possible outcomes.
To list the sample space we then follow the tree to the end of each branch and record
the outcome at each stage.
WORKED Example 1
A coin is tossed three times. Draw a tree diagram and use it to list the sample space for
this experiment.
THINK WRITE
1 There are three stages to the
experiment.
2 At each stage the outcome can be
heads or tails.
3 Draw the tree diagram branching out 1st 2nd 3rd
three times with two branches at coin coin coin
each stage. Heads
Heads
Tails
Heads
Heads
Tails
Tails
Heads
Heads
Tails
Tails
Heads
Tails
Tails
4 List the sample space by following S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH,
the path to each end branch. S = {TTT}
To see a step-by-step construction of the tree diagram in

worked example 1, click on the PowerPoint icon.
In the above example, each stage of the
experiment (each toss of the coin) is
independent of the other stages. That is to
say, the outcome of one toss does not
affect the outcome of another toss. In
many examples, the outcome of one
stage will affect the outcome of
another. Consider worked example 2.
Here we are forming a two-digit
number such that no digit may be
repeated. Once a number has been
chosen as the first digit, it can not be
chosen as the second digit. Therefore, the
first stage of the experiment does affect the
second stage.
WORKED Example 2
A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 5, 7 and 9 without repetition. Draw a tree
diagram and use it to list all possible numbers that can be formed.
THINK WRITE
1 There are two stages to the experiment. 1st digit 2nd digit Sample space
2 For the first stage there will be four 5 45
4 7 47
branches and since one number is 9 49
chosen there will be three branches for 4 54
the second stage. 5 7 57
9 59
3 Draw the tree diagram.
4 74
4 List the sample space by following the 7 5 75
9 79
branches to each end point on the tree
4 94
diagram. 9 5 95
7 97
Click on the PowerPoint icon to see this tree diagram constructed step by step.
Once we have completed the tree diagram, the probability of an event can be
calculated using the formula:
number of favourable outcomes
P(event) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
total number of outcomes
WORKED Example 3
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Calculate the probability of tossing a tail and rolling a
number greater than 4.
THINK WRITE
1 There are two stages to the event. Coin toss Die roll Sample space
2 At the first stage there are two 1 Heads 1
2 Heads 2
outcomes and at the second stage there 3 Heads 3
Heads
are six outcomes. 4 Heads 4
5 Heads 5
3 Draw the tree diagram. 6 Heads 6
1 Tails 1
2 Tails 2
Tails 3 Tails 3
4 Tails 4
5 Tails 5
6 Tails 6
4 List the sample space by following the
branches to each end point on the tree
diagram.
5 Calculate the probability using the P(tail and no. > 4) = 2
------
12
probability formula. There are two
favourable outcomes — T5 and T6.
6 Simplify. P(tail and no. > 4) = 1
---
6
Again the PowerPoint icon can be used to see the tree diagram constructed step by step.
remember
1. In any probability experiment that has more than one stage, a tree diagram
should be used to calculate the sample space.
2. The tree diagram branches once for each stage and the number of branches at
each stage is equal to the number of outcomes.
3. The sample space is found by following the path to the end of each branch.
4. Once the sample space has been found, the probability of each outcome is
calculated using the probability formula:
P(event) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
6A Tree diagrams
WORKED 1 A family consists of four children. Draw a tree diagram to show all possible 6.1 SkillS
Example
1
combinations of boys and girls.
HEET
2 Two dice are cast. Draw a tree diagram that will allow Listing
the
you to list the sample space of all possible outcomes. sample
space
3 There are two bags each containing a red, blue, yellow
and green marble. One marble is to be chosen from 6.2 SkillS
HEET
each bag. Draw a tree diagram that will allow you to calculate the sample space.
Informal
4 A school is to send one male and one female representative to a conference. The description
boys nominate George, Frank, Stanisa and Ian; the girls have nominated Thuy, of chance
Petria, Joan, Wendy and Amelia. Draw a tree diagram and list the sample space for 6.3 SkillS
all possible choices of representatives.
HEET
WORKED 5 A two-digit number is to be formed using the digits 1, 2, 4, 5 and 7 such that no digit Equally
Example likely
2
may be repeated. Draw a tree diagram to list all possible numbers that can be formed. events
6 A committee needs to elect a president, secretary and treasurer. The four nominations L Spre
XCE ad
for these positions are Belinda, Dean, Kate and Adrian. Given that no person is
sheet
E
allowed to hold more than one position, use a tree diagram to list all ways in which Tree
these three positions can be filled. diagrams
7 The digits 3, 5, 7 and 8 are used to form a three-digit number. If no digit can be used
more than once list the sample space.
8 multiple choice
From a group of five nominations a school captain and vice-captain are to be elected.
The number of ways that the captain and vice-captain can be chosen is:
A5 B 10 C 20 D 25
WORKED 9 The four aces from a deck of cards are placed face down on a table. One card is
Example
3
chosen followed by a second card without the first card being replaced. Calculate the
probability that the ace of hearts is one of the two cards chosen.
10 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 2, 3, 4 and 7 without repetition.

a Use a tree diagram to list the sample space.
b Calculate the probability that the number formed is greater than 35.
11 A tennis team consists of three men, Andre, Yevgeny and Jonas and two women,
Martina and Lindsay. From the team the captain and the vice-captain are to be chosen.
Calculate the probability that the captain and vice-captain are:
a Andre and Lindsay b both men
c the same sex d different sex.
12 Find the probability that all three
children in a family will be the same
sex.
13 multiple choice
A three-digit number is formed using
the digits 5, 6, 8 and 0. No digit can
be repeated and the 0 can’t be first.
The probability of the number formed
being greater than 800 is:
1 1
A --- B ---
4 3
3 1
C ------ D ---
16 2
14 An airline offers holidays to three destinations: Brisbane, Gold Coast or Cairns. The
holiday can be taken during two seasons: Peak season or Off-peak season. The
customer has the choice of three classes: Economy, Business or First class. There is no
First class to Cairns, however.
a Use a tree diagram to list all combinations of holiday that could be taken by
choosing a destination, season and class.
b Terry takes a mystery flight, which means he is allocated a ticket at random from
the above combinations. Calculate the probability that Terry’s ticket:
i goes to Brisbane
ii is First class
iii is in Peak season, flying First class.
Counting techniques
Ordered arrangements
1 Select three people and stand them in a line.
2 Now get the three people to stand in a different order.
3 In how many different orders can the three people be placed?
4 Repeat the above process with four people in the line.
5 Is there a pattern? Can you calculate the number of different ways in which five
people can be arranged?
There are 10 people standing in a line. In how many ways can they be arranged? To
calculate this we need to consider the number of ways that each place in the line can be
filled. To do this we need to calculate the number of people remaining after we fill each
place in the line.
• There are 10 people who could fill the first position.
• Once the first position has been filled, there are nine people remaining to fill the
second position.
• Once the second position has been filled, there are eight people remaining to fill the
third position.
• This pattern continues until there is only one person left who can fill the last position.
Calculating this: 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3 628 800.
A shorter way of writing 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 is to write 10!, that
is, 10 factorial.
Your calculator will have a factorial function, usually labelled x!. Make sure that you
know where this function is on your calculator.
WORKED Example 4
Calculate the value of 8!.
THINK WRITE
Enter 8 and press 2ndF x! on the 8! = 40 320
calculator.
Graphics Calculator tip! Factorial function

To use the factorial (!) function on your Casio graphics calculator follow the steps
below, which will calculate 8! as in worked example 4 above.
1. From the MENU select RUN.
2. Press OPTN (F6) for more options. You should be

able to see the screen at right.
3. Press F3 (PROB) and you will be able to see the

function x!. Press 8 F1 (x!) EXE .
WORKED Example 5
Six people are standing in a line. In how many ways can the six people be arranged?
THINK WRITE
1 The answer is 6!. 6! = 720

2 Give a written answer. The people can be arranged in 720 ways.
Tree diagrams and ordered

arrangements
Four people, Anji, Belinda, Kristen and
Summer, are to be placed in order.
1 Calculate the number of different ways

these four girls can be placed in a line.
2 Draw a tree diagram and use it to list the

ways that the four girls can be placed in
order.
3 Check that the number of elements in

the sample space found from your tree
diagram corresponds to the answer
obtained in part 1.
In worked examples 4 and 5, we have been ordering an entire group. In some cases
we may wish to order only part of the group. Consider the case of an Olympic swim-
ming final. There are eight swimmers and we wish to know the number of ways that the
gold, silver and bronze medals can be awarded.
• There are eight possible winners of the gold medal.
• With the first place filled, there are seven possible winners of the silver medal.
• With both first and second places filled, there are six possible winners of the bronze
medal.
Calculating this: number of arrangements = 8 × 7 × 6
Calculating this: number of arrangements = 336
This type of arrangement is known as an ordered selection. It occurs when the order
in which the choices are made is important. In the worked example below, a captain
and a vice-captain are to be chosen. If Benito is captain and Imran is vice-captain, this
is a different selection to Imran as captain and Benito as vice-captain.
To calculate the number of ordered selections that can be made, we multiply, starting
from the number of possible first selections, then reducing by one with each multipli-
cation until each position is filled.
WORKED Example 6
In a cricket team of eleven players, a captain and vice-captain are to be chosen. In how
many ways can this be done?
THINK WRITE
1 There are 11 possible choices of captain.
2 Once the captain is chosen, there are 10 No. of arrangements = 11 × 10
choices remaining for vice-captain. No. of arrangements = 110
Committee selections
On a committee of five people, a president and a vice-president are to be chosen.
The five committee members are Andreas, Brett, Cathy, Dharma and Emiko.
1 Use the method shown in worked example 6 to calculate the number of ways in
which the president and the vice-president can be chosen.
2 Now use a tree diagram to list the sample space of all possible selections of
president and vice-president.
3 Check that the number of elements in the sample space corresponds to the
answer obtained in part 1 of this investigation.
Consider a case where two representatives to a committee are chosen from a class of
20 students. This is an example of an unordered selection. If Sue is chosen, followed by
Graham, this is the same choice as if Graham is chosen and then Sue.
To calculate the number of unordered selections that can be made, we calculate the
number of ordered selections that can be made and then divide by the number of
arrangements of these selections. This is calculated using factorial notation as in
worked example 5. In the case of choosing the committee:
Number of ordered selections is 20 × 19 = 380.
Two people can be arranged in two (2!) ways.
Number of unordered selections = 380 ÷ 2
Number of unordered selections = 190
WORKED Example 7
From a group of eight athletes, three are to be chosen to represent the club at a carnival.
In how many ways can the three representatives be chosen?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the number of ordered selections Ordered selections = 8 × 7 × 6
that can be made. Ordered selections = 336
2 Calculate the number of arrangements of the Arrangements = 3 × 2 × 1
representatives. Arrangements = 6
3 Divide the ordered selections by the Unordered selections = 336 ÷ 6
arrangements of the representatives. Unordered selections = 56
Unordered selection
A rowing team has six members: Mark, Norman, Olaf, Pieter, Quentin and
Raymond. Two are to be chosen to be the crew in a pairs race.
1 Use the method described in worked example 7 to calculate the number of pairs
that could be chosen.
2 Use a tree diagram to list the ordered selections and then write the sample space
of unordered selections by ignoring any repeated pair.
3 Check that the number of elements of the sample space corresponds to the
answer obtained in part 1 of this investigation.
remember
1. A group of n different items can be arranged in n! ways.
2. n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × … × 1 and can be found as a function on your
calculator.
3. When an ordered selection is made, the number of selections can be calculated
by multiplying the number of first choices that can be made by the number of
second choices that can be made and so on.
4. To calculate the number of unordered selections that can be made, we divide
the number of ordered selections by the number of arrangements of those
selected.
6B Counting techniques
WORKED 1 Use your calculator to calculate the value of the following.
HEET
6.4 Example
a 3!
4
SkillS
b 5!
Fundamental
counting c 9!
principle
WORKED 2 Four people are involved in a race. In how many different orders can they complete
Example
5
the race?
3 The letters A, B, C, D and E are written on cards. In how many different orders can
the cards be placed?
4 A three-digit number is formed using the digits 3, 6 and 8. If no number can be
repeated, how many numbers is it possible to form?
WORKED 5 In a race of 10 people, in how many different ways can the first three places be filled?
Example
6 6 In a school, a captain and vice-captain are to be elected. The four nominations are
Geri, Reika, Melanie and Victoria. In how many different ways can the captain and
vice-captain be chosen?
7 In the Melbourne Cup there are 24 horses. In how many different ways can the three
placings be filled?
WORKED 8 Seven people try out for three places on a debating team. In how many ways can the
Example
team of three be chosen from the group of seven?
7
9 How many different groups of four can be selected from ten people?
10 In his pocket Trevor has six coins: a $2 coin, $1 coin, 50c coin, 20c coin, 10c coin and
5c coin. If Trevor randomly chooses two coins, how many different sums of money
are possible?
11 On a restaurant menu there is a choice of three entrees, six main courses and four
desserts. In how many ways can a person choose an entree, main course and dessert
from the menu?
12 multiple choice
Which of the following is an example of an unordered selection?
A Five students are placed in order of their exam results.
B From a group of five students, a contestant and a reserve are chosen for a
Mathematics competition.
C From a group of five students, two are chosen to represent the class on the SRC.
D From a group of five students, two are awarded 1st and 2nd prizes in Mathematics.
13 multiple choice
The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are used to form a three-digit number such that no digit can
be used more than once. The number of three-digit numbers that can be formed is:
A4 B 6 C 12 D 24
14 multiple choice
Gavin, Dion, Michael, Owen and Shane try out for two places on a tennis doubles
team. The number of teams that can be chosen is:
A5 B 10 C 20 D 25
15 A small play has three characters. Six people, Wendy, Rebecca, Thai, Yasmin, Andrea
and Ophelia, audition for the three parts.
a How many different groups of three can be chosen for the play?
b In how many different ways can the three parts be allocated to the three girls?
16 At the Olympic qualifying trials, nine cyclists compete for a place on the team.
a In how many different orders can the competition finish? SHEE
T 6.1
Work
b How many different ways can 1st, 2nd and 3rd place be filled?
c Two cyclists are chosen to represent Australia on the team. How many different
teams of two can be chosen?
Probability and counting techniques

Once the counting techniques done in the previous section have been completed, we
can calculate the probability of certain events occurring. To do this we go back to using
the probability formula:
P(event) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
WORKED Example 8
The letters A, H, M, S and T are written on cards. The cards are shuffled and then laid out
face up. Calculate the probability that the cards form the word MATHS.
THINK WRITE
1 The five cards can be arranged in 5! ways. No. of arrangements = 5!
No. of arrangements = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
No. of arrangements = 120
2 MATHS is one way of arranging the letters P(MATHS) = --------
1
-
120
and so we use the probability formula.
We also need to be able to calculate the probability of a particular ordered or unordered

arrangement occurring.
WORKED Example 9
From Francis, Gary, Harley, Ike and Jacinta, a school captain and vice-captain need to be
elected. Calculate the probability that Ike and Jacinta occupy the two positions.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the number of ordered selections No. of ordered selections = 5 × 4
that are possible. No. of ordered selections = 20
2 Ike and Jacinta in the two positions can be No. of arrangements = 2 × 1
arranged in two ways.
3 Divide the ordered selections by the number No. of unordered selections = 20 ÷ 2
of arrangements. No. of unordered selections = 10
4 Substitute into the probability formula. P(Ike and Jacinta) = -----
1
-
10
WORKED Example 10
A bag contains a red, green, yellow, blue, orange and purple marble. Three marbles are
selected from the bag. Calculate the probability that the red, yellow and orange marbles
are chosen.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the number of ordered No. of ordered selections = 6 × 5 × 4
selections. No. of ordered selections = 120
2 Calculate the number of arrangements. No. of arrangements = 3 × 2 × 1
No. of arrangements = 6
3 Calculate the number of unordered No. of unordered selections = 120 ÷ 6
selections. No. of unordered selections = 20
4 The red, yellow and orange marble is
one possible selection.
5 Substitute into the probability formula. P(red, yellow and orange) = 1
------
20
Popular gaming
There are many different forms of lottery that depend upon ordered or unordered
arrangements.
1 Lotto — This requires the player to select six numbers out of 45. In how many
ways can the six numbers be chosen? Remember order does not matter.
2 Similar games to Lotto are:
a Oz Lotto — seven numbers are chosen from 45.
b The Pools — six numbers are chosen from 38.
In how many ways can the six numbers for each of these games be chosen?
3 Powerball – This requires the player to choose five numbers from 45 in an
unordered selection. A sixth ball (the powerball) is chosen from a second barrel
containing 45 balls. In how many ways can this be selected?
4 Lotto Strike – The player must select the first four balls drawn from 45 in the
correct order. In how many ways can this ordered selection be made?
remember
When we have calculated the number of arrangements and the number of ordered
or unordered selections that are possible, we can then calculate the probability of
a certain selection using the probability formula.
Probability and counting

6C techniques
WORKED 1 Four people, Craig, Barry, Anne and Dimitri, are arranged in a line. Calculate the 6.5 SkillS
Example
8
probability that the four people are arranged in alphabetical order.
HEET
2 The numbers 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are arranged to form a five-digit number such that Single
event
no digit can be repeated. Calculate: probability
a how many five-digit numbers can be formed
b the probability that the number formed is 54 867
c the probability that the number formed is 86 574.
3 A three-digit number is formed using the digits 6, 8 and 9 and no digit may be
repeated. Calculate the probability that the number formed is:
a 896 b even c greater than 800.
WORKED 4 There are five candidates in an election for SRC president. The second placed
Example
9
candidate will be made vice-president of the SRC. If Lauren and Meta are two of the
candidates, calculate the probability that they will occupy the two positions.
5 Seven surfers enter a competition. If two of the surfers are Kurt and Paul, calculate the
probability that:
a Kurt comes first and Paul comes second
b Paul comes first and Kurt comes second
c Kurt and Paul fill the first two places.
6 From the digits 1 to 9 a two-digit number is formed such that no digit can be repeated.
Calculate the probability that the number formed is:
a 67 b greater than 80 c less than 30.
WORKED 7 From a deck of cards, the four aces are laid face down on a table. Two of the aces are
Example
10
then turned face up. Calculate the probability that the two aces turned face up are the
ace of clubs and the ace of spades.
8 An ice-cream parlour offers a choice of 25 flavours. A triple scoop ice-cream places
three different flavours on top of each other. If the flavours are chosen randomly, find
the probability that the ice-cream is:
a vanilla, chocolate and strawberry in that order
b vanilla, chocolate and strawberry in any order.
9 Six boys try out for three places on a debating team. The boys are Gavin, David,
Andrew, Rhyse, Julius and Elliot.
a How many teams of three is it possible to choose?
b Calculate the probability that Gavin, Andrew and Elliot are on the team.
10 The letters M, A, I, D and G are written on cards and two of these are to be chosen.
Calculate the probability that the two cards chosen are:
a both vowels
b both consonants
c one vowel and one consonant.
1
1 Two coins are tossed in the air. Use a tree diagram to list the sample space of all
possible outcomes.
2 Two dice are rolled. How many possible outcomes are in the sample space?
3 In how many different ways can five cars be parked in a row?
4 A race has 10 runners. In how many different ways can the 10 runners finish?
5 A race has 10 runners. In how many different ways can the first three places be filled?
6 From a committee of nine people, a president and vice-president need to be chosen. In
how many different ways can the two positions be filled?
7 Eight people audition for four parts in a play. How many different groups of four
could be chosen?
8 Once the four people have been chosen in question 7, in how many different ways can
the four parts be allocated?
9 How many different ways can the parts be allocated among the original group of eight
in question 7?
10 Explain the difference between an ordered and unordered arrangement.
Probability trees
In the tree diagrams studied so far, the probability of each 1st marble 2nd marble
outcome has been equally likely. When each result is not Green
Green
equally likely we can still draw the diagram in the same way, Green Green
White
writing the probability of each single outcome on the White
Green
branches of the tree. Green
Green Green
Consider the case where a bag contains three green mar- White
White
bles and two white marbles. A marble is drawn, its colour Green
Green
noted and it is then replaced in the bag. A second marble is Green Green
White
then drawn. We could draw a tree diagram as shown on the White
Green
right. Green
White Green
White
White
Green
Green
White Green
White
White
Using a probability tree simplifies the diagram. In a single drawing of the marble
P(green) = 3
--- and P(white) = 2
--- . These probabilities are drawn on the branches of the
5 5
tree as shown below.
1st marble 2nd marble

3–
5 Green
3 Green 2
– –
5 5
White
3–
5 Green
2 2
– White –
5 5
White
There are four elements to the sample space: (green, green), (green, white), (white,
green) and (white, white). Each element of the sample space is not equally likely. To
calculate the probability of each, we use the multiplication rule of probability.
The multiplication rule of probability states that to calculate the probability, you
multiply along the branches of the tree that lead to each event. Therefore:
P(green, green) = 3
---
5
× 3--5- P(green, white) = 3
---
5
× 2--5-
= 9
------ = 6
------
25 25
P(white, green) = 2
---
5
× 3--5- P(white, white) = 2
---
5
× 2--5-
= 6
------ = 4
------
25 25
This is the method that must be used to calculate the probability in any situation
where each outcome is not equally likely.
WORKED Example 11
In a bag there are seven red marbles and three green marbles. A marble is drawn, its
colour noted and it is then replaced in the bag. A second marble is then drawn. Find the
probability that both marbles are red.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw the probability tree. 1st marble 2nd marble
7
—
10 Red
7 Red 3
—
—
10 10
Green
7
— Red
10
3
—
10 Green 3
—
10
Green
2 Calculate the probability by P(red, red) = ------ × ------
10
7 7
10
multiplying along the branches.
P(red, red) = 49
---------
100
The PowerPoint icon will show you step by step how to construct this probability tree.
When asked to find the probability of an event that can occur in several ways, we
need to use the addition rule of probability. The addition rule for probability states that
for an event that can occur in several ways, the probability is the sum of the prob-
abilities for each way that the event can occur.
WORKED Example 12
In a barrel there are four blue counters and six red counters. A counter is drawn, its
colour noted and a second counter is drawn. The first counter is not replaced in the barrel
before the second counter is drawn. Find the probability that:
a a blue counter is drawn, followed by a red counter
b two counters of a different colour are drawn.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw the probability tree. 1st counter 2nd counter
• If the first counter is blue, three blue 3–
and six red counters remain in the 9 Blue
bag. 4 Blue 6
— –
• If the first counter is red, four blue 10 9
and five red counters remain in the Red
4–
bag. 9 Blue
6
— 5–
10 Red
9
Red
THINK WRITE
2 a Multiply along the white, red a P(blue, red) = 4
------ × 6--9-
branches to calculate the probability. 10
= 4
------
15
3 b This outcome can occur in two ways. b P(different colour)
Add the probabilities (blue, red) and = P(blue, red) + P(red, blue)
(red, blue). = ( -----
4
- × --- ) + ( ------ × --- )
6 6 4
10 9 10 9
= 4
------
15 15
4
+ -----
-
= 8
------
15
The PowerPoint icon will allow you to see how this probability tree was constructed.
We must read each example carefully to see if the probabilities change throughout
the experiment. In many cases we do not need to examine each possible outcome. In
some examples we consider only one outcome. The branches of the tree then show if
this outcome occurs or not.
WORKED Example 13
Along a road there are three sets of traffic lights. The probability of catching a green light
is 0.35. Calculate the probability of catching all three green lights.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a probability tree. We do not need 1st lights 2nd lights 3rd lights
to consider if the light is red or amber, 0.35 Green
only whether it is green or not green. 0.35 Green Not
Green 0.65 green
0.35 Not 0.35 Green
0.65 Not
green 0.65 green
0.35 Green
0.35 Green Not
0.65 Not 0.65 green
green Not 0.35 Green
0.65 Not
green 0.65 green
2 Calculate the probability by P(three green lights) = 0.35 × 0.35 × 0.35
multiplying along the green branches. P(three green lights) = 0.042 875
Click on the PowerPoint icon to see worked example 13 solved step by step.
The complementary event method is particularly important with this type of

question. Complementary events are two events that account for all possible outcomes
of an experiment. For example, when rolling a die the complement of rolling a number
less than three is to roll a number greater than two. We discovered during the prelimi-
nary course that the sum of the probability of an event and its complement is one.
It is often easier to calculate the probability of the complement rather than that of the
event itself. We can then subtract the probability of the complementary event from one.
WORKED Example 14
Three dice are rolled. What is the
probability of rolling at
least one six?
THINK WRITE
1 Draw the probability tree. (We need to draw the 1st die 2nd die 3rd die
tree with only two outcomes as we are 1–
6 6
concerned only with whether we get a 6 or not.) 1–
6 5– Not 6
6 6
6 1–
1– 6 6
6 5–
6 Not 6 5– Not 6
6
1–
6 6
1–
5– 6 6
6 5– Not 6
Not 6 6 1–
5–
Not 6 6 6
6
5– Not 6
6
2 The complement to getting at least one six in

three rolls is getting no sixes in three rolls.
3 Subtract the complement from one to find the P(at least one six) = 1 − P(no sixes)
probability. P(at least one six) = 1 − ( 5--6- × 5--6- × 5--6- )
P(at least one six) = 1 − 125

---------
216
P(at least one six) = 91

---------
216
As with other probability tree diagrams, you can see this example completed step by
step by clicking on the PowerPoint icon.
remember
1. If each outcome is not equally likely, draw a probability tree with the
probability of each single event on the branches.
2. To calculate a probability, multiply along the branches that give the required
outcome.
3. If an outcome can be obtained in two or more ways, add the probability of
each.
4. Read each question carefully to see if the probabilities change during the
experiment.
5. Consider carefully what outcomes you need to include in your tree. You may
need only to consider if one event occurs or not.
6. For questions that involve finding ‘at least one’, use the complementary event
method.
7. The sum of the probability of an event and its complement is one.
6D Probability trees
WORKED 1 In a purse there are five 20-cent coins and three 50-cent 1st coin 2nd coin 6.6 SkillS
Example
11 coins. A coin is selected from the purse and replaced, 5–
HEET
20c
8
and then a second coin is selected. The probability tree Determining
on the right is drawn for this experiment. Find the 5– 20c complementary
8 events
probability that the two coins drawn are both twenty 3–
8 50c
cent pieces.
5– 20c
3– 8
2 In a barrel there are four white marbles and five black 8
50c
marbles. Two marbles are drawn, the first being
3–
replaced in the barrel before the second one is drawn. 8
50c
a Draw the probability tree for this situation.
b Find the probability for each member of the sample space.
WORKED 3 A hand of five cards contains three kings and two queens. A card is chosen and
Example
12 then returned before a second card is chosen. Find the probability that:
a a queen is chosen followed by a king
b a king and a queen are chosen.
WORKED 4 Jia is a shooter with an 80% chance of hitting a target. If he has three shots at a target,
Example
13 find the probability that:
a he hits with all three shots
b he hits with exactly two shots.
5 A raffle has 100 tickets with two prizes. Kevin buys five tickets. Find the probability 6.7 SkillS
that:
HEET
a Kevin wins 1st prize b Kevin wins both prizes Calculating
c Kevin does not win a prize d Kevin wins exactly one prize. the probability
of a
complementary
6 multiple choice event
A bag contains four black and six white marbles. Two marbles are drawn from the bag
one after the other. If the first marble drawn is black, the probability that the second
marble drawn is white is:
4 2 2 3
A --- B --- C --- D ---
9 5 3 5
7 multiple choice
A coin is biased such that the probability of it landing heads is 0.6. The coin is tossed
three times. Which of the following outcomes has the greatest probability of occur-
ring?
A Tossing three heads
B Tossing two heads and one tail
C Tossing one head and two tails
D Tossing three tails
8 A box contains three red and seven blue discs. Two discs
1st disc 2nd disc
are chosen from the box. The probability tree for this
2
– Red
experiment is shown on the right. Find the probability of 9
selecting: 3 Red
—
a two red discs 10
7
b two blue discs –
9 Blue
c two discs the same colour 3
d two discs of a different colour. – Red
7 9
—
10 Blue
9 The names of eight boys and five girls are placed into a
6
hat. Two people selected from the hat are to represent the –
9 Blue
school at a function.
a Use a probability tree to find the sample space for this experiment.
b Find the probability of:
i two boys being chosen
ii two girls being chosen
iii one boy and one girl being chosen.
10 There are 25 students in class 12R and 24 students in class 12S. Two students are to
be chosen at random to attend a study skills course. Find the probability that the two
students chosen are:
a from the same class
b from different classes.
11 In a basket there are 15 balls, of which five are blue. Two are selected at random from
the basket. Find the probability that:
a two blue balls are selected
b no blue balls are selected
c exactly one blue ball is selected.
12 The probability that I will need to stop at a set of traffic lights is 0.55. If I twice travel
through this set of lights, what is the probability of:
a having to stop both times
b not having to stop either time.
WORKED 13 Greg has an 80% chance of passing each Maths test. During the term he will
Example
14
need to sit four tests.
a Find the probability that Greg will pass all four tests.
b Find the probability that Greg will fail at least one test.
14 A navy ship carries surface-to-air missiles with a probability of hitting a

target of 0.9. Two missiles are fired at an enemy warplane. Find the prob-
ability that the warplane escapes without being hit. (Hint: For the plane
to escape, both missiles that are fired must miss the target.)
15 In a certain town it is known that four-fifths of all school students

have been immunised against measles. For a medical test, four
students need to be chosen of which at least one must have been
immunised and at least one must not have been immunised. Find
the probability that if four students are chosen at random:
a at least one will have been immunised
b at least one will not have been immunised.
16 multiple choice
Veronica rolls three dice. To win the game she needs to throw at least one six. Which
of the following will give the probability of throwing at least one six?
A 1 − P(three sixes)
B 1 − P(two sixes)
C 1 − P(one six)
D 1 − P(no sixes)
17 There are 2 classes in Year 12:
Class 12A has 15 boys and 10 girls.
Class 12B has 12 boys and 18 girls.
The principal chooses a student to make a speech by first choosing a class at random
followed by a student at random from the chosen class. Find the probability that the
student chosen is:
a from class 12A
b a boy from class 12B
c a girl.
18 In a radio contest, to win $10 000 in prize money the contestant is faced with five
money bags. Each money bag has 10 coins in it. To win, the contestant chooses a bag
and then chooses a coin from that bag. If the coin has the station logo on it, the
contestant wins.
Bag 1 has one winning coin.
Bag 2 has three winning coins.
Bag 3 has seven winning coins.
Bags 4 and 5 have two winning coins.
Find the probability of the contestant winning the $10 000.
19 A missile that is fired from the ground has a 0.8 chance of hitting its target. A missile
fired from a plane has a 0.4 chance of hitting a target. A missile is fired from both
ground and air at separate targets. Find the probability that: SHEE
T 6.2
Work
a both hit their target
b one hits its target
c at least one hits its target.
summary
Tree diagrams
• A tree diagram is used in any probability experiment where there is more than one
stage to the experiment.
• The sample space can be determined from a tree diagram by following the paths to
the end of each branch.
• The probability of an event can then be calculated by the probability formula:
P(event) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Counting techniques
• The number of ways that n objects can be arranged in order is:
n! or n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . × 2 × 1.
• In an ordered selection, a number of objects are chosen and are arranged in order.
The number of ordered selections can be calculated by multiplying the number of
first choices that can be made by the number of second choices possible and so on
until all choices have been included.
• In an unordered selection, the order in which the objects have been chosen is not
important. The number of unordered selections that are possible is calculated by
dividing the number of ordered selections by the number of ways the ordered
selection can be arranged.
• Once the number of selections has been determined, the probability of particular
selections can be determined.
Probability trees
• When each outcome is not equally likely, you draw a probability tree.
• On each branch of the tree is written the probability of that outcome.
• To calculate any probability you multiply along the branches.
CHAPTER
review
1 Two coins are tossed in the air.
a Draw a tree diagram. 6A
b Use the tree to list the sample space for this experiment.
2 The digits 5, 7, 8 and 9 are used to form a two-digit number. Use a tree diagram to list the
sample space if: 6A
a no digit can be used more than once b digits can be repeated.
3 There are three births in the maternity ward of a hospital. Calculate the probability that the
babies are: 6A
a all boys b two boys and a girl c more girls than boys.
4 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9. No digit is allowed to be repeated.
a Use a tree diagram to list the sample space. 6A
b Find the probability that the number formed is:
i 86 ii odd iii greater than 65.
5 In a barrel there are three black marbles and three white marbles. A marble is drawn and its
colour noted, and it is then replaced in the barrel. A second marble is then drawn. Find the 6A
probability of selecting:
a two marbles of the same colour b at least one black marble.
6 A rowing crew has eight rowers. In how many different ways can the crew be seated in the boat?
6B
7 From the rowing crew of eight, a captain and vice-captain are to be selected. Calculate the
number of different ways the captain and vice-captain can be selected. 6B
8 From the rowing crew of eight, four are to be chosen to crew a four-person boat. How many
crews of four can be chosen from the group of eight? 6B
9 From the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5:

6B a how many five-digit numbers can be formed if repetition is not allowed?
b how many three-digit numbers can be formed if repetition is not allowed?
10 The letters D, S, T, U and Y are shuffled and placed in a line on a table. Calculate the
6C probability that the word STUDY is formed.
11 Two students from Richard, Sandra, Talia and Ingo have to make a speech. They draw
6C straws to see who will go first and second.
a How many different ways can the first and second speaker be arranged?
b What is the probability that Ingo speaks first and Talia speaks second?
12 Six teams A, B, C, D, E and F contest a basketball competition. The top four sides play in
6C the semi-finals, and later two will contest the grand final.
a In how many different ways can the top four sides be arranged?
b What is the probability that the top four teams finish D, C, F and A?
c How many pairs of teams is it possible to meet in the grand final?
d What is the probability of A playing B in the grand final?
e What is the probability that C plays in the grand final?
13 Zita is doing an exam when she realises that she has almost run out of time. She has not
6C answered the last 10 questions.
a If each question requires True or False as an answer and Zita guesses each answer, what
is the probability that she guesses all 10 correctly?
b If each question is multiple choice and requires the choice of (A), (B), (C) or (D), what is
the probability that Zita will guess all 10 correctly?
14 In a bag there are three red marbles and two green marbles. Two marbles are drawn in
6D succession without replacement. Find the probability that the two marbles drawn are:
a both red b both green.
15 In a box there are six batteries. Two of the batteries are flat. If two are chosen from the box,
6D find the probability that both batteries are charged.
16 The probability that a set of lights show green is 2--- . If I pass through this set of lights three
6D times, find the probability that:
5
a I catch three green lights b I catch at least one green light.
17 In a tennis match it is noticed that Roger Federer gets 70% of serves in play. If he has two
6D serves, find the probability that he gets at least one into play.
18 One in every eight light bulbs are faulty. If I buy three light bulbs, find the probability that
6D none are faulty.
1 multiple choice
Which of the following is an example of an ordered selection?
A A team of four people is chosen from a group of 12.
B Two representatives from a class of 30 students are elected to the SRC.
C A class of 30 students elect a class captain and vice-captain.
D From a barrel of 44 balls, six are chosen.
2 multiple choice
Six people are arranged in a line. The number of ways in which this can be done is:
A 6 B 12 C 120 D 720
3 multiple choice
In a race there are six runners. In how many ways can the first three places be filled?
A 6 B 12 C 120 D 620
4 multiple choice
A group of six people consists of Darren, Shintaro, Jim, Damien, John and Allan. From these
six people a group of three is chosen. The probability of choosing Darren, Jim and John is:
3 1 1 1
A --- B ------ C ------ D ---------
6 20 12 120
5 Three coins are tossed in the air.

a Draw a tree diagram to list the sample space.
b Use your tree diagram to calculate the probability of tossing two heads and one tail.
c Calculate the probability of tossing at least one head.
6 A basketballer has a probability of 0.4 of landing a three point shot. The basketballer has two
shots at the basket.
a Draw a probability tree showing all possible results of the two shots.
test b Calculate the probability that the basketballer:
yourself
i lands both shots
CHAPTER
6 ii lands exactly one shot

iii lands at least one shot.
Applications
of probability
7
syllabus reference
Probability 4
• Applications of probability
In this chapter
7A Expected outcomes
7B Financial expectation
7C Two-way tables
areyou
a copy.
7.1 Single event probability

1 Calculate the probability of each of the following.
a Rolling a die and getting a number greater than 2.
b Winning a raffle after purchasing 10 tickets and knowing there are 500 tickets in the draw.
c Selecting an even number from the numbers 1 to 99 inclusive.
7.2 Tree diagrams

2 Two of the digits 3, 5, 6 and 7 are used to form a two-digit number such that no digit can be
repeated. Draw a tree diagram to list all possible two-digits numbers that can be formed.
7.3 Probability trees

3 In any given hour of television there are 12 minutes of advertisements. If Tony turns the
television on at two randomly selected times between 7.00 pm and 8.00 pm.
a use a probability tree to show all possible outcomes
b calculate the probability that on both occasions Tony turns on the television during an
advertisement.
Chapter 7 Applications of probability 219
Expected outcomes
Suppose that we toss a coin 100 times. How many times would you expect the coin to
land Heads? As each outcome is equally likely, we would expect there to be 50 Heads
and 50 Tails. How can this be shown to be true?
The number of times that we expect a certain outcome to occur is found by multi-
plying the probability of each outcome by the number of trials. In the above case, the
probability of the coin landing heads is --1- , and this is multiplied by the number of trials
2
(100). The result is an expectation of 50 Heads in 100 tosses of the coin.
The expected outcome is the number of times that we expect a particular outcome to
occur in a certain number of trials.
WORKED Example 1
A die is rolled 120 times. How many 6s would you expect to occur in 120 rolls
of the die?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the probability of rolling a 6. P(six) = 1---

6
2 Multiply the probability of a 6 by the Expected number of 6s = 1
--- × 120
6
number of trials. Expected number of 6s = 20
If the expected number of 6s is 20 in 120 rolls of a die, this does not mean that this is
what will occur. It may be that on one occasion we may get 25 sixes in 120 rolls,
another occasion we may get only 10 sixes. However, we expect that if we repeat the
experiment often enough, we would get an average of 20 sixes in 120 rolls.
Rolling a die
1 Each person is to take a die
and roll it 120 times and
record the number of 6s
rolled.
2 What is the most number of
6s rolled by anyone in
120 rolls of the die?
3 What is the least number of
6s rolled by anyone in
120 rolls of the die?
4 What is the average number
of 6s rolled by the class in
120 rolls of the die? How
does this compare with the
expected outcome of 20?
The expected outcome does not need to be a whole number. In many cases this will
not be so. Consider the example below.
WORKED Example 2
Roger draws a card from a standard deck, notes the suit and replaces the card in the
deck. If Roger repeats this process 50 times, how many spades can Roger expect to
have drawn?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the probability of drawing a P(spade) = 1

---
4
spade.
2 Calculate the expected number of Expected number of spades = 1
--- × 50
4
spades by multiplying the probability Expected number of spades = 12.5
by the number of trials.
Obviously, after drawing 50 cards, Roger could not have drawn 12.5 spades. The
number of spades drawn must of course be a whole number. However, if this experi-
ment were repeated a number of times, we would expect to have drawn an average of
12.5 spades in every 50 cards.
The expected outcome method can be applied to any probability experiment. This
includes multistage events in which it may be necessary to draw a tree diagram or prob-
ability tree to calculate the probability of a particular outcome.
WORKED Example 3
A psychologist is conducting a study on the upbringing of boys. For the study, the
psychologist selects 100 couples with exactly three children. How many of these couples
would the psychologist expect to have three boys?
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a tree diagram showing the Boy
sample space for three children. Boy
Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl
Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl Girl
Boy
Girl
Girl
2 Calculate the probability of three boys. P(three boys) = 1---
8
3 Calculate the expected number by Expected number of couples with three boys
multiplying the probability of three
= 1
--- × 100
boys by the number of couples in the 8
study. = 12.5
remember
1. The number of times an event can be expected to occur in a number of trials is
calculated by multiplying the probability of that event by the number of trials.
2. The number of times we expect an event to occur does not mean the event will
occur that number of times. Rather, this is the average number of times we
would expect this event to occur.
7A Expected outcomes
WORKED 1 Calculate the number of times that a coin can be expected to land Tails in 40 tosses. 7.1 SkillS
Example
1
HEET
2 A die is rolled 300 times. Calculate the expected number of 6s to be rolled.
Single
event
3 A card is drawn from a standard deck, its suit is noted and the card is replaced in probability
the deck. Calculate the expected number of hearts in 100 selections.
7.2 SkillS
4 A barrel contains five red marbles, four blue marbles and a green marble. A marble
HEET
is drawn from the barrel. Its colour is noted, and it is then replaced in the barrel. In Tree
70 selections from the barrel, how many times would we expect to select: diagrams
a a red marble? b a blue marble? c a green marble?
7.3 SkillS
WORKED 5 Lorna spends a night at the greyhounds. There are 10 races, and in each race there
HEET
Example
2
are eight greyhounds. Lorna bets on number 5 in every race. Calculate the number Probability
of winning greyhounds that Lorna can expect to back. trees
6 A card is drawn from a standard deck; the

card is then noted and replaced in the deck.
This is repeated 100 times. Calculate the
number of times (where necessary, correct
to 2 decimal places) that we could expect
to select:
a a club
b a red card
c an ace
d a court card (ace, king, queen or jack)
e the king of diamonds.
7 Kevin buys a ticket in a meat raffle every week. There are 100 tickets and four prizes.
a Calculate the probability of Kevin winning a prize in the raffle.
b How many prizes can Kevin expect to win in one year?
8 Janice buys a ticket in every lottery. In each lottery there are 180 000 tickets, a first
prize and 3384 cash prizes. One lottery is drawn every weekday for 52 weeks a year.
Calculate the number of times in 10 years that Janice can expect to win:
a first prize (as a decimal, correct to 3 significant figures)
b a cash prize (as a decimal, correct to 3 significant figures).
9 multiple choice
A meeting is attended by 350 men and 150 women. At the meeting 100 people will be
chosen to make a speech. What is the expected number of women to make speeches?
A 15 B 30 C 50 D 150
10 multiple choice
A tennis club runs a raffle each week with 100 tickets. Fumiko buys one ticket each
week. The expected number of raffle wins over a period of 50 weeks is:
A 0.01 B 0.5 C1 D 20
WORKED 11 Four coins are tossed simultaneously in the air. If this were repeated 80 times, on how
Example
3
many occasions would you expect the coins to land with four Heads?
12 The digits 2, 5, 6, 7 and 9 are written on cards and placed face down. Three are then
chosen and arranged to form a three-digit number. If this is repeated 150 times, what
is the expected number of:
a odd numbers?
b numbers greater than 600?
c multiples of five?
reads 13 Two dice are rolled 100 times. Copy and complete the table below to calculate the
L Sp he
et
expected number of occurrences of each total in 100 rolls of the dice. Give each answer
EXCE
Die correct to 1 decimal place.

rolling
Outcome 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Probability
Expected no.
14 A barrel contains 15 blue marbles and 5 red marbles. Two marbles are selected from
the barrel, the first not being replaced in the barrel before the second is chosen. This
experiment is repeated 100 times. On how many occasions (correct to 2 decimal places)
would you expect the two marbles chosen to be:
a both blue?
b both the same colour?
c different colours?
d selected with at least one being blue?
Computer Application 1 Simulations

reads A simulation is where a computer gives results to an experiment that are similar to
L Sp he
et
those that would occur if the experiment were actually performed. For example, if a
EXCE
Simulations coin is tossed 100 times, a computer can randomly choose Heads or Tails in a fraction
of a second. In each case, the probability of each outcome is 1--- and we are saved the
2
process of actually tossing the coin.
1. Access the spreadsheet Simulations from your Maths Quest General Mathematics
HSC Course CD-ROM.
2. The first worksheet has a coin toss simulation. In cell B3 enter the number of times
you wish to toss the coin, in cell F4 enter the expected number of heads and in cell
F5 enter the expected number of tails.
3. How do the simulation results compare with the expected outcome? Complete 10
simulations and average the results. Is this answer closer to the expected number of
outcomes that you have calculated?
4. Repeat this process for each one of the other simulations on rolling a die and rolling
two dice.
Financial expectation
We can use expected outcomes to make an assessment of financial situations where
probability is concerned. In particular, this applies to many forms of gambling. The
average financial outcome from such a situation is called the financial expectation.
Consider a simple game where two people are betting $1 on the toss of a coin. The
1
probability of winning the toss is --- and this will give a financial return of $1, while the
2
1
probability of losing the game is --- and this will lead to a financial loss of $1. We need
2
to consider a financial loss as being negative.
To calculate the financial expectation, we multiply each financial outcome by the
probability of that outcome and then add the results together. In the above example:
Financial expectation = 1
--- × $1 + 1
--- × −$1
2 2
= $0
This financial expectation tells us that we can expect to neither gain nor lose money
in this game over a long period of time. This does not mean that this will be the out-
come, but it is the average expected outcome.
WORKED Example 4
A game is played where a die is rolled. If a six is rolled, the player wins $6; if a five is
rolled, the player wins $3; and if any other number is rolled, the player loses $3. What is
the financial expectation from this game?
THINK WRITE
Financial expectation is calculated by Financial expectation = 1
--- × −$3 + 1
--- × −$3 + 1
---
6 6 6
multiplying the financial result of each
outcome by the probability of each Financial expectation = × −$3 + 1
--- × −$3 + 1
---
6 6
outcome and adding the results together. Financial expectation = × $3 + 1--- × $6
6
Financial expectation = −$0.50
In worked example 4, the financial expectation is negative. This means that over an
extended period of time we can expect to lose 50c per game.
This type of calculation can be applied to other financial situations such as the share
market.
WORKED Example 5
Over the past 10 years the price of a particular share has risen by $2 on five occasions,
by $1 on two occasions and has fallen by $3 on three occasions. What is the financial
expectation for this share price in the next year?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the (experimental) probability P($2 profit) = 5
------ , P($1 profit) = 2
------ ,
10 10
of each outcome.
P($3 loss) = 3
------
10
2 Calculate the financial expectation Financial expectation = 5

------ × $2 + 2
------ × $1
10 10
using the experimental probabilities.
Financial expectation = + 3
------ × −$3
10
Financial expectation = $0.30
In this example, where the financial expectation is positive, we can expect to make a
profit. Again this does not mean we will make a profit but the average share price
fluctuation is a gain of 30c.
remember
1. Financial expectation is the average return in a financial situation.
2. The financial expectation is calculated by multiplying each possible financial
outcome by the probability of that financial outcome and adding the results
together.
3. A financial loss is indicated by a negative financial outcome while a financial
gain is a positive financial outcome.
7B Financial expectation
WORKED 1 A game is played where a die is rolled. If a 1 or a 6 is rolled, the player wins $2; if
Example
4
any other number is rolled, the player loses $1. What is the financial expectation from
this game?
2 There are five cards labelled 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. A card is selected. If it is even, you win
$5, and if it is odd, you lose $4. Calculate the financial expectation.
3 Soon-Jung plays a game in which two coins are tossed. If he throws two Heads, he
wins $5; if he throws two Tails, he loses $3. For one Head and one Tail, he loses $2.
Calculate the financial expectation from this game.
4 In a card game, the player selects a card from a standard deck. The player then wins
$5 for an ace and $2 for a king, queen or jack. If any other card is selected, $1 is lost.
Calculate the financial expectation from this game.
5 A raffle has 1000 tickets that sell for $1 each. There is a first prize of $400, a second
prize of $200 and a third prize of $100. Calculate the financial expectation from the
purchase of one ticket in the raffle.
WORKED 6 Over the past 20 years shares in the company FIA have increased by $5 on eight
Example
5
occasions, increased by $2 on six occasions and fallen by $3 on six occasions.
Calculate the financial expectation for a person who buys FIA shares for the coming
year.
7 Look at the roulette wheel on the right.
a How many slots are on the wheel?
b How many of these slots are:
iii black?
iii red?
iii green?
c Francis bets $10 on black. If a black number
is spun, he wins $10; otherwise, he loses
$10. Calculate Francis’s financial expectation.
8 multiple choice
A game is played where a die is rolled. The cost of the game is $1. The players are
returned their $1 plus an extra $5 if they can roll a 6. The financial expectation from
this game is:
A0 B 0.17 C −0.17 D −1
9 multiple choice
Which of the following games has the greatest financial expectation?
A A coin is tossed. Players win $1 if they toss a Head; otherwise, $1 is lost.
B Two coins are tossed. Players win $2 if they toss two Heads; otherwise, $1 is lost.
C A die is rolled. The player wins $6 for rolling a 6; otherwise, $1 is lost.
D Two dice are rolled. The player wins $6 for rolling a total of six; otherwise, $1 is
lost.
10 In a dice game, two dice are rolled.

• The player wins $1 for rolling a total of 7 or 11.
• The player loses $1 for rolling a total of 2, 3 or 12.
• If any other total is rolled, the dice are rolled again.
What is the financial expectation from this game?
11 In the Jackpot lottery there are 180 000 tickets sold at $2 each. The prizes are shown
below.
1st prize $100 000 2nd prize $10 000 3rd prize $5000
SHEE
T 7.1 2 prizes of $1000 2 prizes of $500 5 prizes of $200
Work
12 prizes of $100 60 prizes of $50 600 prizes of $20

2700 prizes of $10
Calculate the financial expectation from purchasing a $2 lottery ticket.
1
1 Calculate the expected number of sixes in 120 rolls of a die.
Information for questions 2 to 5.

A pack of cards is shuffled, a card is chosen and then returned to the deck. The cards are
then shuffled again. If this process is repeated 100 times, calculate (correct to 1 decimal
place) the expected number of:
2 clubs
3 red cards
4 kings
5 court cards.
6 A game is played where a die is rolled. The player wins $3 for a six, $2 for a five and
loses $1 for any other result. Calculate the financial expectation for this game.
7 A game is played where two dice are rolled. The player wins $20 for a total of 12, $10
for a total of 2 and loses $1 for any other total. Calculate the financial expectation for
this game.
8 A game is played where the financial expectation is 0.2. Explain what this means.
9 A game is played where the financial expectation is –0.2. Explain what this means.
10 Over the past 10 years the share price in a company has risen by $5 in three of the
years and has fallen by $1.50 in the other seven years. Based upon these results, if I
purchase shares in this company, what would be my financial expectation for the year
ahead?
Two-way tables
A two-way table is a two-dimensional grid that shows the outcome of an experiment in
terms of two variables. A two-way table is used to display information and allows for
predictions to be made based on this information.
Consider an example where 400 newborn babies are tested for a genetic condition.
The two-way table below displays these results.
Test results
Accurate Not accurate Total
With condition 85 9 94
Without condition 304 2 306
Total 389 11
The information that is given to us by this two-way table is that:

• 94 babies have the condition of which 85 were diagnosed and 9 were not
• 306 babies did not have the condition of which 304 were shown not to have the con-
dition by the test and 2 who were told they had the condition but they did not (these
are known as false positives).
From such a two-way table we can tell the total number of babies with and without the
condition and the total number of correct and incorrect diagnoses made.
WORKED Example 6
A new test was designed to assess the reading ability of students entering high school.
The results were used to determine if the students’ reading level was adequate to cope
with high school. The students’ results were then checked against existing records.
• 150 adequate readers sat for the test and 147 of them passed.
• 50 inadequate readers sat for the test and 9 of them passed.
Present this information in a two-way table.
THINK WRITE
Draw up the table showing the number of
Test results
students whose reading was adequate and
the number of students for whom the Did not
results of the new test were confirmed. Passed pass Total
Adequate 147 3 150
readers
Inadequate 9 41 50
readers
Total 156 44
When information is presented in a two-way table, conclusions can be made about the
accuracy of such a test and calculations can be made about the probability that such a
test is accurate.
WORKED Example 7
A batch of sniffer dogs is trained by customs to smell drugs in suitcases. Before they are
used at airports they must pass a test. The results of that test are shown in the two-way
table below.
Test results
Detected Not detected Total
No. of bags with drugs 24 1 25
No. of bags without drugs 11 164 175
Total 35 165
a How many bags did the sniffer dogs examine?

b In how many bags did the dogs detect drugs?
c In what percentage of bags without drugs did the dogs incorrectly detect drugs?
d Based on the above results, what is the probability that the dogs will not detect a bag
carrying drugs?
THINK WRITE
a Add both total columns; they should a 200 bags were examined.
give the same result.
b The total of the detected column. b The dogs detected drugs in 35 bags.
c There were 175 bags without drugs but c Percentage incorrectly detected
dogs incorrectly detected them in = 11
--------- × 100%
11 bags. Write this as a percentage. 175
= 6.3%
d Use the probability formula. Of 25 bags d P(bag going undetected) = 1

------
25
with drugs, 1 went undetected.
As a result of studying a two-way table, we should also be able to make judgements

about the information given in the tables. In the above worked example only one bag
out of 25 with drugs went undetected. Although the dogs incorrectly detected drugs in
11 bags that did not have them, they still have an overall accuracy of 94%.
Many two-way tables will require you to make your own value judgements about the
conclusions established by the test. For example, the 94% overall accuracy recorded
above may be considered very acceptable.
remember
1. A two-way table is used to display test results and examine the accuracy of
these results.
2. The table displays horizontally the numbers with and without a certain
condition, and vertically displays information about accuracy.
3. The table can be used to make calculations about the accuracy of the test and
about the probability of those test results being accurate in an individual case.
7C Two-way tables
WORKED 1 A test is developed to test for the flu virus. To test the accuracy, the following 500 L Spre
XCE ad
Example
sheet
E
6
people are tested.
• 100 people who are known to have the flu are tested and the test returns 98 positive Two-way
frequency
results. tables
• 400 people who are known not to be infected with the virus are tested with 12 false
positives being returned.
Display this information in the two-way table below.
Test results
With virus
Without virus
Total
2 One thousand people take a lie detector test. Of 800 people known to be telling the
truth, the lie detector indicates that 23 are lying. Of 200 people known to be lying, the
lie detector indicates that 156 are lying. Present this information in a two-way table.
WORKED 3 The two-way table shown below displays the information gained from a medical test
Example
7
screening for a virus. A positive test indicates that the patient has the virus.
Test results
With virus 45 3 48
Without virus 922 30 952
Total 967 33
a How many patients were screened for the virus?
b How many positive tests were recorded? (that is, in how many tests was the virus
detected?)
c What percentage of test results were accurate?
d Based on the medical results, if a positive test is recorded, what is the probability
that you actually have the virus?
4 The two-way table below indicates the results of a radar surveillance system. If the
system detects an intruder, an alarm is activated.
Test results
Alarm activated Not activated Total
Intruders 40 8 48
No intruders 4 148 152
Total 44 156
a Over how many nights was the system tested?

b On how many occasions was the alarm activated?
c If the alarm was activated, what is the probability that there actually was an
intruder?
d If the alarm was not activated, what is the probability that there actually was an
intruder?
e What was the percentage of accurate results over the test period?
f Comment on the overall performance of the radar detection system.
The information below is to be used in questions 5 to 7.

A test for a medical disease does not always produce the correct result. A positive test
indicates that the patient has the condition. The table indicates the results of a trial on a
number of patients who were known to either have the disease or known not to have the
disease.
Test results
With disease 57 3 60
Without disease 486 54 540
Total 543 57
5 multiple choice
The overall accuracy of the test is:
A 90% B 90.5% C 92.5% D 95%
6 multiple choice
Based on the table, what is the probability that a patient who has the disease has it
detected by the test?
A 90% B 90.5% C 92.5% D 95%
7 multiple choice
A The test has a greater accuracy with positive tests than with negative tests.
B The test has a greater accuracy with negative tests than with positive tests.
C The test is equally accurate with positive and negative test results.
D There is insufficient information to compare positive and negative test results.
8 Airport scanning equipment is tested by scanning 200 pieces of luggage.
• Prohibited items were placed in 50 bags and the scanning equipment detected 48 of
them.
• The equipment detected prohibited items in five bags that did not have any forbidden
items in them.
a Use the above information to complete the two-way table below.
Test results
Bags with prohibited
items
Bags with no
prohibited items
Total
b Use the table to answer the following:

i What percentage of bags with prohibited items were detected?
ii What was the percentage of false positives among the bags that had no
prohibited items? SHEE
T 7.2
iii What is the probability of prohibited items passing through the scanning equip-
Work
ment undetected?
iv What is the overall percentage accuracy of the scanning equipment?
summary
Expected outcomes
• The expected number of times that an event will occur in a number of trials is
calculated by multiplying the number of trials by the probability of that event
occurring.
• The expected number of outcomes is the average number of times that the event is
expected to occur. It does not mean this is the number of times the event will occur.
Financial expectation
• Financial expectation is the average financial position at the end of a situation
where either a profit or loss will be made.
• The financial expectation is calculated by multiplying each possible financial
outcome by the probability of that outcome and then adding the results together.
Two-way tables
• A two-way table is used to display the results of a test and assesses the accuracy of
such a test.
• The table can be used to calculate the overall probability of the test achieving its
objectives.
CHAPTER
review
1 Thirty-six coins are tossed in the air. Calculate the expected number of coins landing Heads.
7A
2 A die is rolled 60 times. Calculate the expected number of:
a 6s b even numbers c numbers less than 3. 7A
3 A card is chosen from a standard deck, noted and replaced in the deck. In 100 trials,
calculate (where necessary, correct to 2 decimal places) the expected number of: 7A
a red cards b spades c aces d court cards e black jacks.
4 Two dice are rolled. The score in each roll is the total of the two dice. In 90 rolls of the dice,
calculate the expected number of: 7A
a twos b sevens c tens
d doubles e totals greater than 8.
5 In a game, three coins are tossed in the air. In 100 tosses of the coins, on how many
occasions would you expect the coins to land: 7A
a three Heads? b two Tails and one Head?
c more Heads than Tails?
6 Two-digit numbers are formed using the digits 2, 4, 7 and 8, and no digit may be repeated.
If 60 such numbers are formed, how many numbers can be expected to be: 7A
a 47? b even? c less than 40?
7 Alex bets $10 on the toss of a coin. He calls Heads. If the coin lands Heads, Alex wins $10;
if it lands Tails, he loses $10. What is his financial expectation? 7B
8 A bag contains 10 marbles, each with an amount of money written on it. Five marbles have
$1 written on them, two have $2 written on them and the others have $5, $10 and $20 7B
written on them. A player pays $5 to draw a marble from the bag and is then returned the
amount of money on the marble that is drawn. Calculate the financial expectation from this
game.
9 Explain the difference between a positive and negative financial expectation.
7B
10 A roulette wheel is spun (see photograph page 210). Carly bets $1 on number 25. If 25 is the
number spun, Carly will win $35 and have her $1 returned; if not, she will lose $1. Calculate 7B
the financial expectation from this game.
11 Jason plays a game where he rolls two dice. If he rolls a total greater than 9, he wins $5;
otherwise, he loses $1. Calculate the financial expectation from this game. 7B
12 A bag contains 20 marbles of which 10 are black, 9 are white and 1 is red. Kerry draws a
marble from the bag at random. If a black marble represents a $5 loss, a white marble a $4 7B
gain and a red marble a $20 gain, calculate the financial expectation from this game.
13 Over the past 15 years the share price of PHB has risen by $4 in 12 of the years, fallen by
$5 in two years and fallen by $10 in the others. If I buy shares in PHB, what would my 7B
financial expectation be for the coming year?
14 A medical test screens 200 people for a virus. A positive test result indicates that the patient
7C has the virus.
• Of 50 people known to have the virus, the test produced 48 positive results.
• Of the remainder who were known not to have the virus, the test produced one positive result.
Use the above information to complete the table below.
Test results
With virus
Without virus
Total
15 The results of a lie detector test are given below.

7C • Of 80 people known to be telling the truth, the lie detector indicates that three are lying.
• Of 20 people known to be lying, the lie detector indicates that 17 are lying.
Display this information in a two-way table.
16 Below are the results of a test screening for a disease. A positive test indicates that the
patient has the disease. 7C
Test results
Total 126 14
a How many people were tested for the disease?

b How many positive test results were recorded?
c What percentage of those people with the disease were correctly diagnosed by
the test?
d If a person without the disease is chosen at random, what is the probability that
they returned a positive test?
17 A reading test for people with dyslexia is given and the results are shown in the two-way
table below. 7C
Test results
With dyslexia 39 1 40
Without dyslexia 85 5 90
Total 124 6
a How many people were tested?

b What percentage of people tested positive to dyslexia?
c Based on the above results, if a person with dyslexia takes the test, what is the probability
that they will be accurately diagnosed?

1 multiple choice
A bag contains 3 red marbles, 13 blue marbles and 4 yellow marbles. A marble is chosen
from the bag and then replaced in the bag. In 90 selections, the expected number of blue
marbles selected is:
A 13 B 20 C 58.5 D 59
2 multiple choice
A game is played where the player tosses four coins in the air. If all four coins have the same
face up, the player wins $6. Otherwise the player loses $1. The financial expectation from this
game is:
A −$1.00 B −$0.125 C $0.125 D $6.00
3 multiple choice
The two-way table below shows the results of a trial on new metal detectors for aircraft. The
metal detector scans a piece of hand luggage and lights up if metal is found.
Test results
With metal 9 1 10
Without metal 87 3 90
Total 96 4
Based on the above results, the probability of metal going undetected in a piece of hand
luggage is:
A 10% B 25% C 75% D 90%
4 A game is played where two dice are rolled.
a Calculate the probability of rolling a total of 7.
b How many times would you expect to roll a total of 7 in 90 rolls of two dice?
c Calculate the probability of rolling a total of 11.
d Xiao plays a game where he wins $3 for rolling a total of 7 and $7 for rolling a total of 11.
Otherwise he loses $1. Calculate the financial expectation for this game.
5 A medical test for a disease does not always give the correct result. A positive test indicates
that the patient has the disease. The two-way table below shows the results of a new screening
test for the disease. It was tested on a group of people, some of whom were known to be
suffering from the disease, some of whom were not.
Test results
Total 192 8
a How many people were tested for the disease?

b What percentage of the results were accurate?
test c How many patients tested positive to the disease?
yourself d What percentage of patients with the disease were correctly diagnosed by the new test?
CHAPTER
7 e Based on the above results, what is the probability that a patient with the disease will have
the disease detected by this test?
Annuities
and loan
repayments
8
syllabus reference
• Annuities and loan
repayments
In this chapter
8A Future value of an annuity
8B Present value of an
annuity
8C Future and present value
tables
8D Loan repayments
areyou
a copy.
8.1 Finding values of n and r in financial formulas

1 Find the value of n and r in for each of the following investments.
a Interest of 8% p.a. for 5 years, with interest calculated annually
b Interest of 6% p.a. for 4 years, with interest calculated six-monthly
c Interest of 7.6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest calculated quarterly
d Interest of 9.6% p.a. for 10 years, with interest calculated monthly
e Interest of 24% p.a. for November, with interest calculated daily
8.2 Calculating simple interest

2 Find the simple interest on each of the following investments.
a $25 000 invested at 5% p.a. for 4 years
b $15 500 invested at 8.2% p.a. for 6 years
c $42 000 invested at 9.4% p.a. for 18 months

3 Find the compound interest earned on each of the following investments.
a $12 000 invested at 6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded annually
b $35 000 invested at 8% p.a. for 5 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
c $56 000 invested at 7.2% p.a. for 4 years, with interest compounded quarterly
8.4 Reading financial tables

4 The table below shows the amount to which $1 will grow under compound interest.
Interest rate per period

Periods 6% 7% 8% 9%
1 1.060 1.070 1.080 1.090
2 1.123 1.145 1.166 1.188
3 1.191 1.225 1.260 1.295
4 1.262 1.311 1.360 1.412
Use the table to find the future value of each of the following investments.
a $8000 at 6% for 2 years, with interest compounded annually
b $12 500 at 8% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded annually
c $18 000 at 12% p.a. for 2 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
Chapter 8 Annuities and loan repayments 239
Future value of an annuity
An annuity is a form of investment involving regular periodic contributions to an
account. On such an investment, interest compounds at the end of each period and the
next contribution to the account is then made.
Superannuation is a common example of an annuity. Here, people invest in a fund on
a regular basis, the interest on the investment compounds, while the principal is added
to for each period. The annuity is usually set aside for a person’s entire working life
and is used to fund retirement. It may also be used to fund a long-term goal, such as a
trip in 10 years’ time.
To understand the growth of an annuity, we need to revise compound interest. The
compound interest formula is:
A = P(1 + r)n
where A is the final balance, P is the initial quantity, r is the interest rate per
compounding period and n is the number of compounding periods.
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the value of a $5000 investment made at 8% p.a. for 4 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the values of P, r and n. P = $5000, r = 0.08, n = 4
2 Write the formula. A = P(1 + r)n
3 Substitute values for P, r and n. A = $5000 × (1.08)4
4 Calculate the value of A. A = $6802.44
An annuity takes the form of a sum of compound interest investments. Consider the
case of a person who invests $1000 at 10% p.a. at the end of each year for five years.
To calculate this, we would need to calculate the value of the first $1000 that is
invested for four years, the second $1000 that is
invested for three years, the third $1000 that is
invested for two years, the
fourth $1000 that is invested for
one year and the last $1000 that
is added to the investment.
WORKED Example 2
Calculate the value of an annuity in which $1000 is invested at the end of each year at
10% p.a. for 5 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Use the compound interest formula to A = P(1 + r)n
calculate the amount to which the first A = $1000 × 1.14
$1000 will grow. A = $1464.10
calculate the amount to which the A = $1000 × 1.13
second $1000 will grow. A = $1331.00
calculate the amount to which the third A = $1000 × 1.12
$1000 will grow. A = $1210.00
calculate the amount to which the A = $1000 × 1.1
fourth $1000 will grow. A = $1100.00
5 Find the total of the separate $1000 Total value = $1464.10 + $1331.00 + $1210.00
investments, remembering to add the Total value = + $1100.00 + $1000
final $1000. Total value = $6105.10
In most cases it is more practical to calculate the total value of an annuity using a for-
mula. The amount to which an annuity grows is called the future value of an annuity
and can be calculated using the formula:
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
A = M  ---------------------------- 
 r 
where M is the contribution per period paid at the end of the period, r is the interest rate
per period expressed as a decimal, and n is the number of deposits.
 ( 1 + r )n – 1   1.1 5 – 1 
For the above example: A = M  ----------------------------  = $1000  ------------------  = $6105.10
 r   0.1 
WORKED Example 3
Bernie invests $2000 in a retirement fund at 5% p.a. interest compounded annually at the
end of each year for 20 years. Calculate the future value of this annuity at retirement.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the values of M, r, and n. M = $2000, r = 0.05, n = 20
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
2 Write the formula. A = M  ---------------------------- 
 r 
 1.05 20 – 1 
3 Substitute values for M, r and n. A = $2000  ------------------------ 
 0.05 
4 Calculate. A = $66 131.91
In some examples, calculations will need to be made when contributions are made
more often than once a year and when interest compounds more often than once a year.
WORKED Example 4
Christina invests $500 in a fund every 6 months at 9% p.a. interest, compounding
six-monthly for 10 years. Calculate the future value of the annuity after 10 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the values of M, r and n by 9% p.a. = 4.5% for 6 months

considering the interest rate as 4.5% per So, r = 0.045 and n = 20.
interest period and 20 interest periods.
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
2 Write the formula. A = M  ---------------------------- 
 r 
 1.045 20 – 1 
3 Substitute for M, r and n. A = $500  --------------------------- 
 0.045 
4 Calculate. A = $15 685.71
If we rearrange the formula for an annuity to make M (the contribution per period) the
subject of the formula, we have:
Ar
M = ---------------------------
-
( 1 + r )n – 1
This formula would be used when we know the final amount to be saved and wish to
calculate the amount of each regular deposit.
WORKED Example 5
Vikki has the goal of saving $10 000 in the next five years. The best interest rate that she
can obtain is 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Calculate the amount of each
annual contribution that Vikki must make.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the values of A, r and n. A = $10 000, r = 0.08, n = 5

Ar
2 Write the formula. M = ---------------------------
-
( 1 + r )n – 1
( 10 000 × 0.08 )
3 Substitute for A, r and n. Hint: insert M = --------------------------------------
brackets when using your calculator. ( 1.08 5 – 1 )
4 Calculate the value of M. M = $1704.56

remember
1. The compound interest formula is:
A = P(1 + r)n
where A is the final balance, r is the interest rate per period expressed as a
decimal and n is the number of compounding periods.
2. An annuity is a form of investment where periodical equal contributions are
made to an account, with interest compounding at the end of each period.
3. The value of an annuity is calculated by adding the value of each amount
contributed as a separate compound interest investment.
4. We can calculate the value of an annuity by using the formula:
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
A = M  ---------------------------- 
 r 
where M is the contribution per period, paid at the end of the period, r is the
interest rate per period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of deposits.
5. The amount of each contribution to annuity to reach a certain goal can be
Ar
M = ---------------------------
-
( 1 + r )n – 1
8A Future value of an annuity
8.1 WORKED 1 Calculate the value after 5 years of an investment of $4000 at 12% p.a., with interest
HEET Example
compounded annually.
SkillS
1
Finding 2 Calculate the value to which each of the following compound interest investments
values of will grow.
n and r in
financial a $5000 at 6% p.a. for 5 years, with interest calculated annually
formulas b $12 000 at 12% p.a. for 3 years, with interest calculated annually
c $4500 at 8% p.a. for 4 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
HEET
8.2 d $3000 at 9.6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
SkillS
e $15 000 at 8.4% p.a. for 2 years, with interest compounded quarterly
Calculating f $2950 at 6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded monthly
simple
interest WORKED 3 At the end of each year for four years Rodney invests $1000 in an investment fund
Example
that pays 7.5% p.a. interest, compounded annually. By calculating each investment of
HEET
8.3 2
$1000 separately, use the compound interest formula to calculate the future value of
SkillS
Rodney’s investment after four years.

Calculating
compound 4 Caitlin is saving for a holiday in two years and so every six months she invests $2000
interest
in an account that pays 7% p.a. interest, with the interest compounding every six months.
a Use the compound interest formula to calculate the amount to which the:
i first investment of $2000 will grow
ii second investment of $2000 will grow
iii third investment of $2000 will grow
iv fourth investment of $2000 will grow.
b If Caitlin then adds a final deposit of $2000 to her account immediately before her
holiday, what is the total value of her annuity?
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
WORKED 5 Use the formula A = M  ----------------------------  to find the future value of an annuity in
Example
 r 
3
which $1000 is invested each year for 25 years at an interest rate of 8% p.a.
6 When baby Shannon was born, her grandparents deposited $500 in an account that
pays 6% p.a. interest, compounded annually. They added $500 to the account each
birthday, making the last deposit on Shannon’s 21st birthday.
a How many deposits of $500 were made?
b The investment was given to Shannon as a 21st birthday present. What was the
total value of the investment at this point? (Hint: Use the answer to part a.)
c Shannon’s grandparents advised Shannon to keep adding $500 to the investment
each birthday so that she had a retirement fund at age 60. If Shannon follows this
advice, what will the investment be worth at age 60? (Assume Shannon makes the
last deposit on her 60th birthday.)
7 Calculate the future value of each of the following annuities.
a $2000 invested at the end of each year for 10 years, at an interest rate of 5% p.a.
b $5000 invested at the end of each year for 5 years, at an interest rate of 8% p.a.
c $10 000 invested at the end of each year for 20 years, at an interest rate of
7.5% p.a.
d $500 invested at the end of each year for 30 years, at an interest rate of 15% p.a.
e $25 000 invested at the end of each year for 4 years, at an interest rate of 9.2% p.a.
8 Darlene is saving for a deposit on a unit. She hopes to buy one in four years and needs
a $30 000 deposit, so she invests $5000 per year in an annuity at 7.5% p.a. starting on
1 January 2007.
a After the last deposit is made on 1 January 2011, how many deposits has Darlene
made?
b Use the annuity formula to calculate if Darlene would have saved enough for her
deposit.
c How much interest was paid to Darlene on this annuity?
WORKED 9 At the end of every six months Jason invests $800 in a retirement fund which pays
Example
4
interest at 6% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly. Jason does this for
25 years. Calculate the future value of Jason’s annuity after 25 years.
10 Calculate the future value of each of the following annuities on maturity.
a $400 invested at the end of every six months for 12 years at 12% p.a., with interest
compounded six-monthly
b $1000 invested at the end of every quarter for 5 years at 8% p.a., with interest com-
pounded every quarter
c $2500 invested at the end of each quarter at 7.2% p.a., for 4 years with interest
compounded quarterly
d $1000 invested at the end of every month for 5 years at 6% p.a., with interest com-
pounded monthly
11 multiple choice
The interest earned on $10 000 invested at 8% p.a. for 10 years, with interest com-
pounded annually, is:
A $11 589.25 B $21 589.25 C $134 865.62 D $144 865.62
12 multiple choice
Tracey invests $500 in a fund at the end of each year for 20 years. The fund pays
12% p.a. interest, compounded annually. The total amount of interest that Tracey
earns on this fund investment is:
A $4323.15 B $4823.23 C $26 026.22 D $36 026.22
WORKED 13 Thomas has the goal of saving $400 000 for his retirement in 25 years. If the best
Example
5
interest rate that Thomas can obtain is 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually,
calculate the amount of each annual contribution that Thomas will need to make.
14 Calculate the amount of each annual contribution needed to obtain each of the
following amounts.
a $25 000 in 5 years at 5% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $100 000 in 10 years at 7.5% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $500 000 in 40 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
15 Leanne is 24 years old and invests $30 per week in her superannuation fund. Leanne’s
employer matches this amount.
a If Leanne plans to retire at 60, calculate the total that Leanne will contribute to the
fund at this rate.
b Calculate the total contributions that will be made to the fund at this rate.
c If the fund returns an average 4% p.a. interest, compounded annually, calculate the
future value of Leanne’s superannuation.
Computer Application 1 Annuity calculator

reads Access the spreadsheet ‘Annuity calculator’ from the Maths Quest General
L Sp he
et
Mathematics HSC Course CD-ROM. The spreadsheet will show you the growth of an
EXCE
Annuity annuity in which $1000 is invested at the end of each year for 20 years at a rate of
calculator 8% p.a. interest, compounding annually.
1. The spreadsheet shows that after 20 years the value of this investment is $45 761.96.
Below is the growth of the annuity after each deposit is made. This will allow you to
see the growth for up to 30 deposits. From the Edit menu, use the Fill Down func-
tions on the spreadsheet to see further.
2. Click on the tab, ‘Chart1’. This is a line graph that shows the growth of the annuity
for up to 30 deposits.
3. Change the size of the deposit to $500 and the compounding periods to 2. This will
show how much benefit can be achieved by reducing the compounding period.
4. Check your answers to the previous exercise by using the spreadsheet.
1
1 Find the future value of $5000 invested at 10% p.a. for 6 years, with interest com-
pounded annually.
2 Find the total amount of interest earned on an investment of $3200 invested for
4 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded every six months.
3 Find the future value of an annuity of $1600 invested every year for 5 years at
12% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
4 Find the future value of an annuity of $2000 invested every year for 30 years at
7.2% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
5 Find the future value of an annuity in which $400 is invested every three months for
12 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly.
6 Find the future value of an annuity in which $350 is invested each month for 10 years
at 9.2% p.a. interest, compounding every six months.
7 Find the interest earned on an annuity of $750 invested per year for 10 years at
8.5% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
8 Find the amount of each annual contribution needed to achieve a future value of
$100 000 if the investment is made for 10 years at an interest rate of 11% p.a., with
interest compounding annually.
9 Find the amount of each quarterly contribution needed to save $15 000 in five years at
12% p.a., with interest compounding quarterly.
10 Find the amount of each six-monthly contribution to an annuity if the savings goal is
$50 000 in 15 years and the interest rate is 8% p.a., with interest compounding six-
monthly.
Present value of an annuity

To compare an annuity with a single sum investment, we need to use the present
value of the annuity. The present value of an annuity is the single sum of money
that, invested on the same terms as the annuity, will produce the same financial result.
To calculate the present value of an annuity, N, we can use the formula:
A
N = ------------------n-
(1 + r )
where A is the future value of the annuity

r is the percentage interest rate per compounding period, expressed as a decimal
n is the number of deposits to be made in the annuity
WORKED Example 6
Ashan has an annuity that has a future value of $500 000 on his retirement in 23 years.
The annuity is invested at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Calculate the
present value of Ashan’s annuity.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the values of A, r and n. A = $500 000, r = 1.08, n = 23

A
2 Write the formula. N = ------------------n-
(1 + r )
500 000
3 Substitute for A, r and n. N = ------------------
-
1.08 23
4 Calculate. N = $85 157.64
In many cases you will not know the future value of the annuity when calculating the
present value. You will know only the amount of each contribution, M. We know that:
A
N = ------------------n-
(1 + r )
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
Using the formula A = M  ----------------------------  to substitute for A gives:
 r 
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
N = M  ---------------------------
n 
-
 r(1 + r ) 
This formula allows us to calculate the single sum needed to be invested to give the
same financial result as an annuity where we are given the size of each contribution.
WORKED Example 7
Jenny has an annuity to which she contributes $1000 per year at 6% p.a. interest,
compounded annually. The annuity will mature in 25 years. Calculate the present value of
the annuity.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the values of M, r and n. M = $1000, r = 0.06, n = 25
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
2 Write the formula. N = M  ---------------------------
n 
-
 r(1 + r ) 
 1.06 25 – 1 
3 Substitute for M, r and n. N = 1000 ×  -------------------------------
25 
 0.06 × 1.06 
4 Calculate. N = $12 783.36
This present value formula can be used to compare investments of different types. The
investment with the greater present value will produce the greater financial outcome
over time.
WORKED Example 8
Which of the following investments would give the greater financial return?
Investment A: an annuity of $100 deposited per month for 20 years at 12% p.a. interest,
compounding six-monthly
Investment B: a single deposit of $10 000 invested for 20 years at 12% p.a., with interest
compounding six-monthly
THINK WRITE
1 The investments can be compared by
calculating the present value of the
annuity.
2 Consider the deposits of $100 per
month to be $600 every six months.
3 Write the values of M, r and n. M = $600, r = 0.06, n = 40
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
4 Write the formula. N = M  ---------------------------
n 
-
 r(1 + r ) 
 1.06 40 – 1 
5 Substitute for M, r and n. N = $600 ×  -------------------------------
40 
 0.06 × 1.06 
6 Calculate. N = $9027.78
7 Make a conclusion. The annuity has a lower present value than the
single investment. Therefore, the investment of
$10 000 will produce a greater outcome over
20 years.
remember
1. The present value of an annuity is the single sum that can be invested under the
same terms as an annuity and will produce the same financial outcome.
2. The present value of an annuity can be calculated using the formula:
A
N = ------------------n-
(1 + r )
when we know the future value of the annuity.
3. If we know the amount of each contribution of the annuity, we can calculate the
present value using the formula
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
N = M  ---------------------------
n 
-
 r(1 + r ) 
where M is the contribution per period, paid at the end of the period
r is the percentage interest rate per compounding period (expressed as a
decimal)
n is the number of interest periods
4. Investments can be compared using the present value formula. The investment
with the greater present value will produce the greater financial outcome over
time.
8B Present value of an annuity

WORKED 1 Calculate the present value of an investment that is needed to have a future value of
Example
6
$100 000 in 30 years’ time if it is invested at 9% p.a., with interest compounded
annually.
2 Calculate the present value of an investment required to generate a future value of:
a $20 000 in 5 years’ time at 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $5000 in 4 years’ time at 7.2% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $250 000 in 20 years’ time at 5% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
3 Calculate the present value of an investment at 7.2% p.a., with interest compounded
quarterly, if it is to have a future value of $100 000 in 10 years’ time.
4 Calculate the present value of the investment required to produce a future value of
$500 000 in 30 years’ time at 9% p.a., with interest compounded:
a annually b six-monthly c quarterly d monthly
WORKED 5 Craig is paying into an annuity an amount of $500 per year. The annuity is to run for
Example
7
10 years and interest is paid at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Calculate
the present value of this annuity.
6 Calculate the present values of each of the following annuities.
a $1000 per year for 30 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $600 per year for 20 years at 7.5% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $4000 per year for 5 years at 11% p.a., with interest compounded annually
d $200 per month for 25 years at 8.4% p.a., with interest compounded annually
7 Darren pays $250 per month into an annuity that pays 5.6% p.a. interest, compounded
quarterly. If the annuity is to run for 10 years, calculate the present value of the annuity.
8 Calculate the present value of a 40-year annuity with interest at 9.6% p.a.,
compounded monthly, if the monthly contribution to the annuity is $50.
9 multiple choice
An annuity is at 12% p.a. for 10 years, with interest compounded six-monthly, and
has a future value of $100 000. The present value of the annuity is:
A $31 180.47 B $32 197.32 C $310 584.82 D $320 713.55
10 multiple choice
An annuity consists of quarterly deposits of $200 that are invested at 8% p.a., with
interest compounded quarterly. The annuity will mature in 23 years. The present value
of the annuity is:
A $1236.65 B $2074.21 C $8296.85 D $8382.72
WORKED 11 Which of the following investments will have the greater financial outcome?
Example
8 Investment A: an annuity of $400 per year for 30 years at 6.9% p.a., with interest
compounded annually
Investment B: a single investment of $5000 for 30 years at 6.9% p.a., with interest
compounded annually
12 multiple choice
Which of the following investments will have the greatest financial outcome?
A An annuity of $1200 per year for 30 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
B An annuity of $600 every six months for 30 years at 7.9% p.a., with interest com-
pounded six-monthly
C An annuity of $300 every quarter for 30 years at 7.8% p.a., with interest com-
pounded quarterly
D An annuity of $100 per month at 7.5% p.a., for 30 years with interest compounded
monthly.
13 Kylie wants to take a world trip in 5 years’ time. She estimates that she will need
$25 000 for the trip. The best investment that Kylie can find pays 9.2% p.a. interest,
compounded quarterly.
a Calculate the present value of the investment needed to achieve this goal.
b Kylie plans to save for the trip by depositing $100 per week into an annuity.
Calculate if this will be enough for Kylie to achieve her savings goal (take
13 weeks = 1 quarter).
SHEE
T 8.1
Work
Future and present value tables

Problems associated with annuities can be simplified by creating a table that will show
either the future value or present value of an annuity of $1 invested per interest period.
Computer Application 2 Future value of $1

Consider $1 is invested into an annuity each interest period. The table we are going to
construct on a spreadsheet shows the future value of that $1.
1. Open a new spreadsheet.
2. Type in the following information as shown in step 3.
3. In cell B4 enter the formula =((1+B$3)^$A4-1)/B$3. (This is the future value formula
from exercise 2A with the value of M omitted, as it is equal to 1.) Format the cell,
correct to 4 decimal places.
4. Highlight the range of cells B3 to M13. From the Edit menu, use Fill Down and Fill
Right functions to copy the formula to all other cells in this range.
This completes the table. The table shows the future value of an annuity of $1 invested
for up to 10 interest periods at up to 10% per interest period. You can extend the
spreadsheet further for other interest rates and longer investment periods.
The following table is the set of future values of $1 invested into an annuity. This is
the table you should have obtained in computer application 2.
A table such as this can be used to find the value of an annuity by multiplying the
amount of the annuity by the future value of $1.
Future values of $1
Interest rate (per period)
Period 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
1 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 2.0100 2.0200 2.0300 2.0400 2.0500 2.0600 2.0700 2.0800 2.0900 2.1000 2.1100 2.1200
3 3.0301 3.0604 3.0909 3.1216 3.1525 3.1836 3.2149 3.2464 3.2781 3.3100 3.3421 3.3744
4 4.0604 4.1216 4.1836 4.2465 4.3101 4.3746 4.4399 4.5061 4.5731 4.6410 4.7097 4.7793
5 5.1010 5.2040 5.3091 5.4163 5.5256 5.6371 5.7507 5.8666 5.9847 6.1051 6.2278 6.3528
6 6.1520 6.3081 6.4684 6.6330 6.8019 6.9753 7.1533 7.3359 7.5233 7.7156 7.9129 8.1152
7 7.2135 7.4343 7.6625 7.8983 8.1420 8.3938 8.6540 8.9228 9.2004 9.4872 9.7833 10.0890
8 8.2857 8.5380 8.8923 9.2142 9.5491 9.8975 10.2598 10.6366 11.0285 11.4359 11.8594 12.2997
9 9.3685 9.7546 10.1591 10.5828 11.0266 11.4913 11.9780 12.4876 13.0210 13.5795 14.1640 14.7757
10 10.4622 10.9497 11.4639 12.0061 12.5779 13.1808 13.8164 14.4866 15.1929 15.9374 16.7220 17.5487
WORKED Example 9
Use the table to find the future value of an annuity into which $1500 is deposited at the
end of each year at 7% p.a. interest, compounded annually for 9 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Look up the future value of $1 at Future value = $1500 × 11.9780
7% p.a. for 9 years.
2 Multiply this value by 1500. Future value = $17 967
Just as we have a table for the future value of an annuity, we can create a table for the
present value of an annuity.
Computer Application 3 Present value table

The table we are about to make on a spreadsheet shows the present value of an annuity
of $1 invested per interest period.
1. Open a new spreadsheet.
2. Enter the following information.
3. In cell B4 type the formula =((1+B$3)^$A4-1)/(B$3*(1+B$3)^$A4).
4. Drag from cell B4 to K13, and then from the Edit menu use the Fill Down and Fill Right
functions to copy this formula to the remaining cells in your table.
The table created in computer application 3 shows the present value of an annuity of
$1 per interest period for up to 10% per interest period and for up to 10 interest periods.
The table that you have generated is shown below.
Present values of $1
Interest rate (per period)
Period 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
1 0.9901 0.9804 0.9709 0.9615 0.9524 0.9434 0.9346 0.9259 0.9174 0.9091 0.9009 0.8929
2 1.9704 1.9416 1.9135 1.8861 1.8594 1.8334 1.8080 1.7833 1.7591 1.7355 1.7125 1.6901
3 2.9410 2.8839 2.8286 2.7751 2.7232 2.6730 2.6243 2.5771 2.5313 2.4869 2.4437 2.4018
4 3.9020 3.8077 3.7171 3.6299 3.5460 3.4651 3.3872 3.3121 3.2397 3.1699 3.1024 3.0373
5 4.8534 4.7135 4.5797 4.4518 4.3295 4.2124 4.1002 3.9927 3.8897 3.7908 3.6959 3.6048
6 5.7955 5.6014 5.4172 5.2421 5.0757 4.9173 4.7665 4.6229 4.4859 4.3553 4.2305 4.1114
7 6.7282 6.4720 6.2303 6.0021 5.7864 5.5824 5.3893 5.2064 5.0330 4.8684 4.7122 4.5638
8 7.6517 7.3255 7.0197 6.7327 6.4632 6.2098 5.9713 5.7466 5.5348 5.3349 5.1461 4.9676
9 8.5660 8.1622 7.7861 7.4353 7.1078 6.8017 6.5152 6.2469 5.9952 5.7590 5.5370 5.3282
10 9.4713 8.9826 8.5302 8.1109 7.7217 7.3601 7.0236 6.7101 6.4177 6.1446 5.8892 5.6502
This table can be used in the same way as the future values table.
WORKED Example 10
Liam invests $750 per year in an annuity at 6% per annum for 8 years, with interest
compounded annually. Use the table to calculate the present value of Liam’s annuity.
THINK WRITE
1 Use the table to find the present value of a
$1 annuity at 6% for 8 interest periods.
2 Multiply this value by 750. Present value = $750 × 6.2098
Present value = $4657.35
remember
1. A table of future values shows the future value of an annuity in which $1 is
invested per interest period.
2. A table of present values shows the present value of an annuity in which $1 is
invested per interest period.
3. A table of present or future values can be used to compare investments and
determine which will give the greater financial return.
Future and present value

8C tables
WORKED 1 Use the table of future values on page 251 to determine the future value of an annuity 8.4 SkillS
Example
9
of $800 invested per year for 5 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
HEET
2 Use the table of future values to determine the future value of each of the following Reading
annuities. financial
tables
a $400 invested per year for 3 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $2250 invested per year for 8 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $625 invested per year for 10 years at 4% p.a., with interest compounded annually
d $7500 invested per year for 7 years at 6% p.a., with interest compounded annually
3 Samantha invests $500 every 6 months for 5 years in an annuity at 8% p.a., with
interest compounded every 6 months.
a What is the interest rate per interest period?
b How many interest periods are there in Samantha’s annuity?
c Use the table to calculate the future value of Samantha’s annuity.
4 Use the table to calculate the future value of each of the following annuities.
a $400 invested every 6 months for 4 years at 14% p.a., with interest compounded six-
monthly
b $600 invested every 3 months for 2 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded
quarterly
c $100 invested every month for 5 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded six-
monthly
5 Use the table of future values to determine whether an annuity at 5% p.a. for 6 years or
an annuity at 6% p.a. for 5 years will produce the greatest financial outcome. Explain
your answer.
6 multiple choice
Use the table of future values to determine which of the following annuities will have
the greatest financial outcome.
A 6% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded annually
B 8% p.a. for 6 years, with interest compounded annually
C 7% p.a. for 7 years, with interest compounded annually
D 10% p.a. for 5 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
WORKED 7 Use the table of present values on page 252 to determine the present value of an
Example
10
annuity of $1250 per year for 8 years invested at 9% p.a.
8 Use the table of present values to determine the present value of each of the following
annuities.
a $450 per year for 5 years at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $2000 per year for 10 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $850 per year for 6 years at 4% p.a., with interest compounded annually
d $3000 per year for 8 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded annually
2
1 Calculate the amount of interest earned on $10 000 invested for 10 years at 10% p.a.,
with interest compounding annually.
2 Calculate the future value of an annuity of $1000 invested every year for 10 years at
10% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
3 Calculate the future value of an annuity where $200 is invested each month for
5 years at 5% p.a., with interest compounding quarterly.
4 Calculate the amount of each annual contribution to an annuity that will have a future
value of $15 000 if the investment is for 8 years at 7.5% p.a., with interest
compounding annually.
5 Calculate the amount of each annual contribution to an annuity that will have a future
value of $500 000 in 25 years when invested at 10% p.a., with interest compounding
annually.
6 Calculate the present value of an annuity that will have a future value of $50 000 in
10 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
7 Calculate the present value of an annuity that will have a future value of $1 000 000 in
40 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
8 Calculate the present value of an annuity where annual contributions of $1000 are
made at 10% p.a., with interest compounding annually for 20 years.
9 Use the table on page 251 to find the future value of $1 invested at 16% p.a. for
4 years, with interest compounding twice annually.
10 Use the answer to question 9 to calculate the future value of an annuity of $1250
every six months for 4 years, with interest of 16% p.a., compounding twice annually.
Loan repayments
When a loan is taken out and is repaid in equal monthly instalments, the pattern of
repayments works similar to an annuity. Each month interest compounds on the balance
owing on the loan and then a repayment is made.
Consider a loan where the amount borrowed is equal to the present value of the
annuity, N, and the amount paid on the loan each month is equal to the contribution to
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
the annuity per period, M. Use the formula for present value, N = M  ---------------------------
n 
- .
 r(1 + r ) 
To calculate the amount of each monthly repayment, we need to make M the subject of
this formula. When we do this the formula becomes:
 r ( 1 + r )n 
M = N  ---------------------------
-
(1 + r ) – 1 
n
In this formula, M is the amount of each repayment, N is the amount borrowed, r is the
interest rate per repayment period as a decimal and n is the number of repayments to be
made.
This formula is not given to you on the formula sheet but will be given to you if it is
needed to solve a problem in the exam.
WORKED Example 11
 r( 1 + r )n 
Use the formula M = N  ---------------------------
-  to calculate the monthly repayments on a loan of
(1 + r) – 1 
n
$5000 to be repaid in monthly instalments over 4 years at an interest rate of 12% p.a.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the values of r and n. r = 0.01 and n = 48
 r ( 1 + r )n 
2 Write the formula. M = N  ---------------------------
-
(1 + r ) – 1 
n
 0.01 × 1.01 48 
3 Substitute for N, r and n. M = 5000 ×  -------------------------------
48 
 1.01 – 1 
4 Calculate. M = $131.67
Having worked out the amount of each monthly repayment, we are also able to
calculate the total cost of repaying a loan by multiplying the amount of each repayment
by the number of repayments.
WORKED Example 12
Calculate the total cost of repaying a $100 000 home loan at 9% p.a. in equal monthly
repayments over a 25-year term.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the values of r and n. r = 0.0075, n = 300
 r ( 1 + r )n 
-
(1 + r ) – 1 
n
 0.0075 × 1.0075 300 

3 Substitute for N, r and n. M = 100 000 ×  ---------------------------------------------
300
-
 1.0075 – 1 
4 Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment. M = $839.20
5 Calculate the total repayments on the loan. Total repayments = $839.20 × 300
Total repayments = $251 760
By increasing the amount of each repayment, we are able to shorten the term of the
loan. There is no easy method to calculate the amount of time that it will take to repay
a loan. To do this we use a ‘guess and refine’ method. We adjust the value of n in the
formula until the amount of the repayment is reached.
WORKED Example 13
A $100 000 home loan is taken out over a 25-year term at an interest rate of 12% p.a.
reducible interest. The minimum monthly repayment on the loan is $1053.22. How long
will it take the loan to be repaid at $1200 per month?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the value of r. r = 0.01
 r ( 1 + r )n 
-
(1 + r ) – 1 
n
3 Take a guess for the value of n (we will take 200 If n = 200,
since for the original loan n = 300) and substitute.
 0.01 × 1.01 200 
M = 100 000 ×  ---------------------------------
200
-
 1.01 – 1 
4 Calculate the repayment with n = 200. As this is = $1158.33
less than $1200 we need to further reduce the value
of n.
5 Substitute into the formula with n = 150. If n = 150,
 0.01 × 1.01 150 
M = 100 000 ×  ---------------------------------
150
-
 1.01 – 1 
6 Calculate the repayment. As the result is greater = $1289.99
than $1200, we need to increase the value of n.
THINK WRITE
7 Substitute into the formula with n = 180. If n = 180,
 0.01 × 1.01 180 
M = 100 000 ×  ---------------------------------
180
-
 1.01 – 1 
8 As this is approximately equal to $1200, it will = $1200.17
take 180 months to repay the loan.
9 Give a written answer. It will take 15 years to repay the
loan.
remember
1. By considering the amount borrowed in a loan as the present value of an
annuity, we can use the present value formula to calculate the amount of each
repayment.
2. The formula used to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment is:
 r ( 1 + r )n 
M = N  ---------------------------
-
(1 + r ) – 1 
n
where N is the amount borrowed, r is the interest rate per period expressed as a
decimal and n is the number of interest periods.
3. The total cost of a loan can be calculated by multiplying the amount of each
repayment by the number of repayments to be made.
4. The length of time that it will take to repay a loan can be calculated by using
guess and refine methods.
8D Loan repayments
 r ( 1 + r )n 
For questions 1 to 3 use the formula, M = N  ---------------------------
-.
(1 + r ) – 1 
n
1 Yiannis takes out a $10 000 loan over 5 years at 10% p.a. reducible interest with five
equal annual repayments to be made. Use the formula to calculate the amount of each
annual repayment.
WORKED 2 Use the formula to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on a loan of
Example
11
$8000 to be repaid over 4 years at 12% p.a.
3 Use the formula to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on each of the
following loans.
a $2000 at 12% p.a. over 2 years b $15 000 at 9% p.a. over 5 years
c $120 000 at 6% p.a. over 20 years d $23 000 at 9.6% p.a. over 5 years
e $210 000 at 7.2% p.a. over 25 years
4 Javier and Diane take out a $175 000 home loan. If the interest rate on the loan is
8.4% p.a. reducible and the term of the loan is 25 years, calculate the amount of each
monthly repayment.
5 Jiro purchases a computer on terms. The cash price of the computer is $3750. The
terms are a deposit of 10% with the balance paid in equal monthly instalments at
9% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years.
a Calculate Jiro’s deposit on the computer.
b What is the balance owing on the computer?
c Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
6 Jeremy and Patricia spend $15 000 on new furnishings for their home. They pay a
15% deposit on the furnishings with the balance paid in equal monthly instalments at
18% p.a. interest over 4 years. Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
7 Thanh is purchasing a car on terms. The cash price of the car is $35 000 and he pays
a $7000 deposit.
a What is the balance owing on the car?
b If the car is to be repaid in equal weekly instalments over 5 years at an interest rate
of 10.4% p.a. reducible interest, calculate the amount of each weekly payment.
WORKED 8 Ron borrows $13 500 to purchase a car. The loan is to be repaid in equal monthly
Example
12
instalments over a 3-year term at an interest rate of 15% p.a. Calculate the total
repayments made on the loan.
9 Calculate the total repayments on each of the following loans.

a $4000 at 8.4% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 2 years in equal monthly
repayments
b $20 000 at 13.2% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 6 years in equal monthly
instalments
c $60 000 at 7.2% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years in equal monthly
instalments
d $150 000 at 10.8% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 20 years in equal
monthly instalments
10 multiple choice
A loan of $5000 is taken out at 9% p.a. reducible interest over 4 years. Which of the
following will give the amount of each monthly repayment?
 0.09 × 1.09 4   0.09 × 1.09 48 
A M = 5000 ×  ----------------------------
4
- B M = 5000 ×  -------------------------------
48 
 1.09 – 1   1.09 – 1 
 0.0075 × 1.0075 4   0.0075 × 1.0075 48 

C M = 5000 ×  -----------------------------------------
4  D M = 5000 ×  -------------------------------------------
48 
 1.0075 – 1   1.0075 – 1 
11 multiple choice
A loan of $12 000 is taken out at 12% p.a. reducible interest in equal monthly instal-
ments over 5 years. The total amount of interest paid on the loan is:
A $266.93 B $4015.80 C $7200 D $16 015.80
WORKED 12 A loan of $75 000 is taken out over 15 years at 9% p.a. reducible interest. The minimum
Example
monthly repayment is $760.70. Calculate how long it will take to repay the loan at
13
$1000 per month.
13 A $150 000 loan is taken out over a 25-year term. The interest rate is 9.6% p.a.
a Calculate the minimum monthly repayment.
SHEE
T 8.2
b Calculate the total repayments on the loan.
Work
c Calculate the length of time that it will take to repay the loan at $1600 per month.
d Calculate the total saving on the loan by repaying the loan at $1600 per month.
Types of loan arrangements

Research one example of each of the following types of loans.
A. Hire purchase agreement.
This is the type of loan where a major item is purchased on terms. Usually a
deposit is paid and then the balance plus interest is repaid over an agreed period
of time.
B. Personal loan
This is a loan taken out from a bank or other financial institution. It can be used for
any purpose and is unsecured. This means that there is no item of property that the
bank can claim if repayments are not made.
C. Home loan
This is a secured loan, which means that, if the repayments are not made, the bank
can claim the property and sell it to reclaim the amount outstanding on the loan.
For each of the above loans, answer the following questions.

1 What is the interest rate? Is interest calculated at a flat or reducible rate?
2 Over what term can the loan be repaid?
3 How regularly must repayments be made?
4 Can additional repayments be made to shorten the term of the loan?
5 Can the interest rate be altered after repayments have begun to be made?
6 What other fees and charges apply to borrowing the money?
Computer Application 4 Graphs of annuities and loans

Most financial institutions will provide graphs that show the growth of an annuity and
ord
W
the declining balance of a loan. These graphs can be obtained by either visiting the
bank or by going to the internet site for the relevant financial institution.
W
Obtain a copy of a graph showing the growth of an investment and the declining
balance of a loan.
Alternatively, develop a spreadsheet that shows the growth of an annuity and the
declining balance of a loan and use the charting function of the spreadsheet to draw the
graph.
Access the Word file ‘Annuities, Loans, Graphs’ from the Maths Quest General
Mathematics HSC Course CD-ROM.
summary
Future value of an annuity
• An annuity is where regular equal contributions are made to an investment. The
interest on each contribution compounds as additions are made to the annuity.
• The future value of an annuity is the value that the annuity will have at the end of a
fixed period of time.
• The future value of an annuity can be calculated using the formula:
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
A = M  ---------------------------- 
 r 
where M is the contribution per period paid at the end of the period, r is the
percentage interest rate per compounding period (expressed as a decimal) and n is
the number of compounding periods.
• The amount of each contribution per period in an annuity can be found using the
Ar
formula M = ---------------------------
-.
( 1 + r )n – 1
Present value of an annuity
• The present value of an annuity is the single sum that would need to be invested at
the present time to give the same financial outcome at the end of the term.
• The present value of an annuity can be calculated using the formula:
A
N = ------------------n-
(1 + r )
where A is the future value of the annuity.
• An alternative formula to use is:
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
N = M  ---------------------------
n 
-
 r(1 + r ) 
where M is the contribution made to the annuity per interest period.
Use of tables
• A table can be used to find the present or future value of an annuity.
• The table shows the present or future value of $1 under an annuity.
• The present or future value of $1 must be multiplied by the contribution per period
to calculate its present or future value.
Loan repayments
• The present value of an annuity formula can be used to calculate the amount of
each periodical repayment in a reducing balance loan. This is done by considering
the present value of an annuity as the amount borrowed and making M the subject
of the formula.
 r ( 1 + r )n 
• The formula to be used is M = N  ---------------------------
-.
(1 + r ) – 1 
n
• The total amount to be repaid during a loan is calculated by multiplying the amount
of each monthly repayment by the number of repayments to be made.
CHAPTER
review
1 Calculate the amount to which each of the following investments will grow.
a $3500 at 12% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded annually 8A
b $2000 at 8% p.a. for 5 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
c $15 000 at 9.2% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded quarterly
d $4200 at 13.2% p.a. for 2 years, with interest compounded monthly
2 $400 per year is invested into an annuity at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Use
8A
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
the formula A = M  ----------------------------  to calculate the value of the annuity after 20 years.
 r 
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
3 Use the formula A = M  ----------------------------  to calculate the future value of each of the
 r  8A
following annuities.
b $1000 invested every 6 months for 10 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded
six-monthly
c $600 invested every 3 months for 5 years at 7.2% p.a., with interest compounded
quarterly
d $250 invested per month for 20 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded monthly
4 An annuity consists of $100 deposits every month for 15 years. The interest rate is 9% p.a.
and interest is compounded six-monthly. Find the future value of the annuity. 8A
Ar
5 Use the formula M = ---------------------------
- to calculate the amount of each annual contribution to an
( 1 + r )n – 1 8A
annuity to achieve a savings goal of $800 000 in 40 years at an interest rate of 8% p.a., with
interest compounded annually.
6 Calculate the amount of each contribution to the following annuities.
a $50 000 in 10 years at 6% p.a., with interest compounded annually and annual deposits 8A
b $250 000 in 30 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly and
contributions made every six months
c $120 000 in 20 years at 16% p.a., with interest compounding quarterly and contributions
made quarterly
A
7 Use the formula N = ------------------n- to calculate the present value of an annuity if it is to have a
(1 + r ) 8B
future value of $350 000 in 30 years’ time at an interest rate of 10% p.a., with interest
compounded annually.
8 Calculate the present value of the following annuities with a future value of:
a $10 000 after 10 years at 5% p.a., with interest compounded annually 8B
b $400 000 after 40 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $5000 after 5 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
d $120 000 after 8 years at 15% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly.
9 Phuong wants to purchase a car in 3 years. He feels that he will need $15 000. The best
8B investment he can find is at 8.5% p.a., interest compounded quarterly. What is the present
value of this investment?
10 Gayle invests $400 per year in an annuity. The investment is at 6% p.a., with interest
8B compounded annually. Gayle plans to invest in the annuity for 25 years. Use the formula
 ( 1 + r )n – 1 
N = M  ---------------------------
n 
- to calculate the present value of this annuity.
 r(1 + r ) 
11 When Joanne begins work at 18, she invests $100 per month in a retirement fund. The
8B investment is at 9% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly.
a If Joanne is to retire at 60 years of age, what is the future value of her annuity?
b What is the present value of this annuity?
12 Use the table of future values of $1 on page 251 to calculate the future value of an annuity
8C of $4000 deposited per year at 7% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded annually.
13 Use the table of future values of $1 to calculate the future value of the following
8C annuities.
b $3500 invested every six months for 4 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded
six-monthly
c $200 invested every 3 months for 2 years at 16% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
d $1250 invested every month for 3 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded
six-monthly
14 Use the table of present values of $1 on page 252 to calculate the present value of an annuity
8C of $500 invested per year for 6 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded
annually.
15 Use the table of present values to calculate the present value of each of the following
8C annuities.
b $2000 invested every six months for 5 years at 14% p.a., with interest compounded
six-monthly
c $500 invested every three months for 2 1--- years at 16% p.a., with interest compounded
2
quarterly
d $300 invested every month for 4 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded half-yearly
 r ( 1 + r )n 
16 Use the formula M = N  ---------------------------
-  to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment
8D (1 + r ) – 1 
n
on a loan of $28 000 to be repaid over 6 years at 12% p.a.
17 Scott borrows $22 000 to purchase a car. The loan is taken out over a 4-year term at an
8D interest rate of 9.6% p.a., with the loan to be repaid in equal monthly repayments.
b Calculate the total amount that is repaid on the loan.
18 Calculate the total repayments made on a home loan of $210 000 to be repaid in equal
8D monthly repayments over 25 years at an interest rate of 8.4% p.a.
19 Adam buys a new lounge suite for $4400 and pays for it on his credit card. The interest rate
on the credit card is 21% p.a. Adam hopes to pay the credit card off in two years by making 8D
equal monthly repayments.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment that Adam should make.
b Calculate the total amount that Adam will make in repayments.
c Calculate the amount of interest that Adam will pay.

1 multiple choice
Jenny invests $1000 per year for 20 years in an annuity. The interest rate is 6.5% p.a. and
interest is compounded annually. The future value of the annuity is:
A $3523.65 B $11 018.51 C $18 825.31 D $38 825.31
2 multiple choice
Madeline invests $1000 per year for 20 years in an annuity. The interest rate is 6.5% p.a. and
interest is compounded annually. The present value of the annuity is:
A $3523.65 B $11 018.51 C $18 825.31 D $38 825.31
3 multiple choice
Which of the following investments has the greatest future value after 10 years?
A An annuity of $500 per year at 7.75% p.a., with interest compounded annually
B An annuity of $250 per six months at 7.6% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
C An annuity of $125 per quarter at 7.2% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
D A single investment of $3400 at 7.9% p.a., with interest compounded annually
4 multiple choice
A loan of $80 000 is taken out over a 20-year term at an interest rate of 9% p.a. The monthly
repayment is $719.78. What would the total saving be if the term were reduced to 15 years?
A $91.63 B $16 493.40 C $21 991.20 D $26 693.40
5 Lien invests $2000 per year in an annuity. The term of the annuity is 20 years and the interest
rate is 8% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
a Calculate the future value of this annuity.
b Calculate the present value of this annuity.
c By how much will the future value of the annuity increase if Lien deposits $500 per
quarter and interest is compounded quarterly?
6 Eddie has the goal of saving $1 000 000 over his working life, which he expects to be 40
years. Over the period of his working life, Eddie expects to be able to obtain an average 7%
p.a. in interest with interest compounded every six months.
a Calculate the present value of this annuity.
Ar
b Use the formula M = ---------------------------
- to calculate the amount of each six-monthly
( 1 + r )n – 1
contribution to the annuity.
c For the first 10 years of the annuity Eddie makes no contributions, preferring to direct all
his money into paying off a mortgage. At that time he makes a single contribution to catch
up on the annuity. What amount must Eddie deposit?
7 Jim and Catherine take out a $150 000 loan. The interest rate on the loan is 12% p.a. and the
loan is to be repaid in equal monthly repayments over a 20-year term.
 r ( 1 + r )n 
a Use the formula M = N  ---------------------------
-  to calculate the amount of each monthly
(1 + r ) – 1 
n
repayment.
test
yourself b Calculate the total amount of interest that Jim and Catherine will need pay on this loan.
CHAPTER
c Calculate the saving that Jim and Catherine will make by repaying the loan over a 12-year
8 term.
Modelling
linear and
non-linear
relationships
9
syllabus reference
Algebraic modelling 4
• Modelling linear and
non-linear relationships
In this chapter
9A Linear functions
9B Quadratic functions
9C Other functions
9D Variations
9E Graphing physical
phenomena
areyou
a copy.

1 For each of the following linear equations, find the y-values corresponding to x, when x equals
–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2 and 3. Show the results as a table of values.
a y = 2x b y = 3x – 1 c y = 7 – 3x
9.2 Recognising linear functions

2 State which of the following are linear functions.
1
a y = 4x – 1 b y = x2 c y = ---
x
d 2x – 3y + 5 = 0 e y = 2x f 2y = 5x
9.3 Gradient of a straight line

3 Calculate the gradient of the line joining the following points.
a (1, 1) and (5, 6) b (4, 0) and (6, –6) c (–3, 7) and (2, –3)
9.4 Graphing linear equations

4 Sketch the graph of the linear functions.
a y = 3x b y = 2x – 3 c y = 5 – 2x
Chapter 9 Modelling linear and non-linear relationships 267
Linear functions
As discussed in chapter 5, a linear function is a function in which the independent and
dependent variables have only a power of 1. When graphed, these values form a
straight line.
An example of a linear function is y = 2x − 1. The function is graphed by creating a
table of values, plotting the pair of coordinates that are formed on a number plane and
joining them with a straight line. The independent variable is x, and as such values of x
are substituted into the equation to find the corresponding values of y.
If we recognise the function as linear, we need to plot only three points. Two points
are sufficient to fix a line and the third is a check. If all three points are not in a straight
line, we know that an error has been made.
WORKED Example 1
Graph the equation y = 2x − 1.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a table of values for x.
(Choose three easy values of x.) x 0 1 2
y
2 Substitute each value of x into the
equation to find the corresponding x 0 1 2
values of y. y −1 1 3
3 Plot each of the points formed on a y
number plane. 5
4
3
2
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
4 Join the points formed with a straight y

line and label the line with the 5
equation. 4
3
2 y = 2x – 1
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
The straight line in worked example 1 has the equation y = 2x – 1, which is

written in gradient–intercept form. Any equation in the form y = mx + b is said
to be in gradient–intercept form, because the gradient of the straight line is
represented by m and the y-intercept is represented by b.
This can be used to sketch any straight line. Considering worked example 1, we can
begin by plotting the point (0, –1) as the y-intercept. Other points can then be plotted
using the gradient, by plotting points 1 across and 2 up. That is, starting with (0, –1),
we plot (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5) and so on.
At this point it is worth remembering the gradient formula:
vertical change in position
m = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
horizontal change in position
We use this formula when we know two points on the graph, and this is useful on many
occasions to help us find the equation of a straight line.
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing a linear function

1. From the MENU select GRAPH.
2. Delete any existing equation and enter Y1 = 2X – 1.
3. Press SHIFT F3 [V-Window]. This allows you to

set the lower and upper limits to draw on both the x-
and y-axes. Enter the setting shown on the screen at
right.

then press F6 (DRAW) to draw the graph.
WORKED Example 2
A store owner finds that the number of televisions sold each week, N, decreases as the
price, P, increases. This relationship can be given by the rule N = 200 − 0.2P.
a Complete the table below.
P 100 200 500

N
b Graph the relationship between the number of televisions sold and their price.
c How many televisions will be sold if they are priced at $900 each?
d The store can sell only a maximum of 50 televisions each week. At what price should the
televisions be sold?
THINK WRITE
a Substitute the given values of P into the a

equation to find the corresponding P 100 200 500
values of N. N 180 160 100
b 1 Plot the points given by the table. b N

(Note: Only positive values of N and 200
P are needed in this example.) 160
120
80
40
0
0 P
0
0
0
0
00
20
40
60
80
10
2 Join the points with a straight line N
and label the equation. 200
N = 200 – 0.2P
160
120
80
40
0
0 P
0
0
0
0
00
20
40
60
80
10
c Use the graph to find N when P = 900. c When P = 900, N = 20; they will sell
20 televisions at $900 each.
d Use the graph to find P when N = 50. d When N = 50, P = 750; the televisions
should be sold for $750 each.
When two linear functions are graphed on the same pair N

of axes, the intersection of the two graphs shows the 200
point where both equations hold true. This can have
160
applications in a practical context. N = 200 – 0.2P
Consider worked example 2, in which the number of 120
televisions sold each week was given by N = 200 − 0.2P. 80
Now consider that the company producing the televisions 40 N = 0.05P
is prepared to produce more if the price is higher. This
0
is given by the rule N = 0.05P. When these two functions 0 P
0
0
0
0
00
20
40
60
80
are graphed on the same pair of axes, we can see that the
10
point of intersection is (800, 40).

The company would want to sell all of the televisions that they produce and similarly
would want to produce enough to meet this demand. This will be done if the televisions
are sold at $800 each, as the company would be prepared to produce 40 per week at
this price, and this would be the number that would be sold.
Graphing linear functions can be used to determine profit, loss or break-even points.
If cost and receipts are graphed, the difference between the y-values at any point will
determine the profit or loss. The point where the graphs intersect will be the break-even
point, where no profit or loss is made.
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing a practical linear function

Many practical functions need to have different limits than worked example 1, which
we have drawn, with the simple limits of –5 to 5 on both the x- and y-axes. In worked
example 2, negative values are not realistic, while the maximum possible value on the
vertical axis is 200. We need a value on the horizontal axis that will show the greatest
possible value of P.
2. Delete any existing equation and enter Y1 = 200 – 0.2X.
Note: We replace N with Y1 and P with X.

right.

WORKED Example 3
The cost of producing shoes in Asia is given by the equation C = 2000 + 15n, where n is the
number of pairs of shoes produced per day. The cost of producing shoes in Australia is
given by the equation C = 1000 + 20n.
a On the same pair of axes, graph the cost equations for producing shoes in Asia and
Australia.
b When is it more cost efficient to produce the shoes in Asia?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw a table of values for each cost a C = 2000 + 15n
equation. n 0 100 200
C 2000 3500 5000
C = 1000 + 20n
n 0 100 200
C 1000 3000 5000
2 Plot a pair of points generated by C

C = 1000 + 20n
each cost equation. 10 000
3 Join each with a straight line 8000

C = 2000 + 15n
labelling each with its equation. 6000
4000
2000
0 n
0
0
0
0
0
00
20
40
60
80
b It will be more efficient to produce the 10
b If more than 200 pairs of shoes are produced
shoes in Asia after the point of per day, it will be cheaper to produce the
intersection. shoes in Asia. This is because if n > 200 the
value of C is less, if the shoes are produced
in Asia.
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the intersection of

two graphs
Consider the two graphs drawn in worked example 3. It will be cheaper to produce the
shoes in Asia when the value of C = 200 + 15n is less than C = 1000 + 20n. To find
when this occurs we need to locate the point of intersection of the two graphs as shown
below.
2. Delete any existing equations and enter

Y1 = 2000 + 15X and Y2 = 1000 + 20X. Note that we
replace C with Y1 and Y2 and n with X.

right.

then press F6 (DRAW) to draw the graphs.
5. Press SHIFT F5 [G-Solv], followed by F5 [ISCT]

(intersection). This will find the point of intersection
and display the coordinates of this point. Be patient:
this may take a moment.
From this we can see that the intersection occurs at x = 200 and y = 5000. Interpreting
this result in terms of the question shows us that when 200 pairs of shoes are produced
the cost will be $5000 in either Australia or Asia. From that point on it will be cheaper
to produce the shoes in Asia.
remember
1. A linear function has powers of only 1 for both the independent and dependent
variables.
2. Linear functions, when graphed, will appear as a straight line and can be
written in the form y = mx + b , where m is the gradient and b is the y-
intercept.
3. To graph a linear function, draw a table with at least three values for the
independent variable and calculate the corresponding value for the dependent
variable. Plot the pairs of coordinates generated and join with a straight line.
4. Linear functions can also be graphed using a graphics calculator.
5. Many practical situations can be graphed using linear functions. When two
linear functions are graphed on the same pair of axes, the point of intersection
will give some important information about the question.
9A Linear functions
9.1 WORKED 1 Graph the function y = x + 3.

HEET Example
SkillS
1 2 Graph each of the following linear functions on separate axes.

Substitution a y = 2x b y = 3x − 2 c y = −x
into a
formula d y = 5 − 2x e y = 1--- x + 3 f y = 1 − 1--- x
2 4
HEET
9.2 3 Consider the linear function 3x + 2y − 6 = 0.
a Copy and complete the table at right.
SkillS
x 0 2 4
Recognising b Graph the function 3x + 2y − 6 = 0.
linear
functions y
WORKED 4 The cost, C, of a taxi hire is given by the linear equation C = 3 + 1.5d, where d is the 9.3 SkillS
Example
distance travelled in kilometres.
HEET
2
a Copy and complete the table below. Gradient of
a straight
d 0 5 10 30 line
C 9.4 SkillS
HEET
b Graph the cost function for the taxi hire. Graphing
c Use the graph to determine the cost of a 20 km taxi journey. linear
equations
d Katie has $24. How far can Katie afford to travel in a taxi?
L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
5 A concert promoter finds that the profit made on a performance is given by the
equation P = 3n − 24 000, where n is the number of people who attend the concert. Plotting
linear
a Complete this table of values, and use it to graph the profit equation. graphs
n 0 10 000
P 0
b What profit will the promoter make if 20 000 people attend the concert?
c What will be the financial outcome for the promoter if 5000 people attend the
concert?
d How many people will need to attend the concert for the promoter to break even?
6 It is found that the number of ice-creams that will be sold during a day at the beach
decreases as the price of the ice-creams increases. The number of ice-creams that will
be sold can be determined by the equation N = 1000 − 5P, where P is the price of the
ice-creams in cents.
a Graph the function.
b How many ice-creams will be sold at $1 each?
c If the ice-cream salesman has only 100 ice-creams to sell, at what price should he
sell them?
7 Two linear functions are represented by y = 4 − x and y = 3x.

a Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
b What is the point of intersection of the two graphs?
8 By graphing both functions on the same pair of axes, find the point of intersection of
the graphs y = 2x − 6 and y = x − 1.
9 Find the point of intersection of the graphs x + 2y − 4 = 0 and y = 2x + 2.
WORKED 10 A factory produces two types of computer games: game A and game B.
Example
3 a The factory can produce a maximum of 120 games per week. This can be repre-
sented by the linear equation A + B = 120. Graph this function.
b Sales research shows that twice as many copies of game A will sell as game B. This
can be represented by the equation 2A = B. On the same pair of axes graph this
function.
c Find the point of intersection of the two graphs and make a conclusion about the
number of each game that should be produced by the factory each week.
11 The cost of running an old refrigerator is $1.20 per day. This can be represented by the
equation C = 1.2d. A new refrigerator will cost $900 but the cost to run will be only
30c per day. This can be represented by the equation C = 900 + 0.3d.
d 0 1000 2000
C (old)
C (new)
b Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.

c Find the point of intersection of the two graphs; hence, state after how many days
it will become more economical to purchase a new refrigerator.
12 The cost, in dollars, of producing calculators can be given by the equation

C = 15n + 1500, where n is the number of calculators produced. When selling the
calculators the receipts can be given by the equation C = 20n.
a Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
b Determine the number of calculators that need to be sold in order for the manu-
facturer to break even.
Conversion of temperature
To convert a temperature from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, you can use
9C
the formula F = ------- + 32 . A simpler but less accurate way is to double degrees
5
Celsius and add 30. This approximation written as a formula becomes F = 2C + 30.
1 Use a spreadsheet or graphics calculator to graph each function on the same set
of axes.
2 Describe the accuracy of the simpler formula and state the values for which it is
most accurate.
Quadratic functions
A quadratic function is a function that involves the independent variable (x) to the
power of 2. The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, a curved line that comes to
either a minimum or maximum point.
The graph of a quadratic function is again drawn by creating a table of values and
plotting the pairs of coordinates generated. Because the graph is not a straight line, it is
necessary to plot more than just three points to show the shape of the curve.
The most basic quadratic function is y = x2. The table of values is drawn showing at
least nine values of x.
x −3 −2 −1 − 1--- 0 1
--- 1 2 3
2 2
1 1
y 9 4 1 --- 0 --- 1 4 9
4 4
y
Plotting these points gives the graph shown on
9
the right. 8
y = x2
This graph has a minimum at (0, 0) and 7
6
forms the basic shape for all parabolas. 5
In general, the form of a quadratic function 4
3
is y = ax2 + bx + c, and we need consider only 2
positive values of x. 1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
WORKED Example 4
Consider the quadratic function y = x2 − 4x + 7.
a Complete the table of values below.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y
b Graph the function for x ≥ 0.
c State the minimum value of y = x2 − 4x + 7.
THINK WRITE
a Substitute each value of x into the a

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
function.
y 7 4 3 4 7 12
b 1 Plot the points generated by the table b y

of values. 12
11
Join the points plotted with a smooth 10
2 9
curve. 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
c The minimum value is the y-value at the For y = x2 − 4x + 7,

point where the graph turns. minimum value = 3.
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing a quadratic function

Your graphics calculator can graph quadratic functions as well as linear functions (and
many other types of functions as well). The calculator can also find any maximum or
minimum point on the graph. Consider worked example 4.
2. Delete any existing equation and enter

Y1 = X2 – 4X + 7.
3. Press SHIFT F3 [V-Window]. In this course you

will not need to consider negative values for x. Enter
the setting shown on the screen at right.

5. Press SHIFT F5 [G-Solv], followed by F3 (MIN).

This will find the minimum point and display the
coordinates of that point. Be patient: this may take a
moment.
Note:
1. When setting the view window you do not have to get the limit right the first time.
It may take a bit of trial and error, especially with the y-values to make sure that you
have the minimum (or maximum) point in your display.
2. Any question that has a negative value of x2 (such as worked example 5) will be con-
cave downwards and as such will have a maximum point and not a minimum point.
In step 5 after pressing SHIFT F5 [G-Solv] you will need to press F2 (MAX).
3. The display on the graphics calculator can sometimes lead to a slight inaccuracy in
the answer. This can be seen in step 6. In cases such as this we can see that the
calculator should display X = 2.
For quadratic functions that have a positive x2 term, the parabola is concave up. This
means that the graph comes to a minimum point. When the x2 term is negative, the
graph is concave down and the graph comes to a maximum point.
WORKED Example 5
Graph the function y = 1 + 4x − x2.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a table of values.
2 Substitute each value of x into the
function. x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1 4 5 4 1 −4
3 Plot the points formed by each pair of y
coordinates. 5
Join the points with a smooth curve. 4
4 3
Note: For this function, the maximum 2
1
value is 5.
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
Quadratic models can be used to solve several practical situations.
WORKED Example 6
A ball is thrown in the air. Its height, h, after t seconds can be given by the formula
h = 20t − 5t 2. Graph the function to calculate the maximum height the ball will reach.
THINK WRITE
2 Substitute the values of t to calculate
the corresponding values of h. t 0 1 2 3 4 5
h 0 15 20 15 0 −25
3 Plot the points formed by each pair of h
coordinates. Negative values of h can 20
be ignored because height must be 16
positive.
12
4 Join the points formed with a smooth
curve. 8
4
–1 0
–1
1 2 3 4 5 t
5 The maximum height reached by the The maximum height reached by the ball is
ball will be the h value at the turning 20 m.
point on the curve.
remember
1. A quadratic function is a function where the independent variable is raised to
the power of 2.
2. The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. The parabola is a curved graph
and can be drawn using a table of values that has several points to allow the
shape of the graph to be formed.
3. If the x2 term is positive, the graph is concave up and has a minimum point. If
the x2 term is negative, the graph is concave down and has a maximum point.
4. The maximum or minimum value in a practical situation is the dependent
variable at the maximum or minimum point.
9B Quadratic functions
reads WORKED 1 For the quadratic function y = x2 − 2x + 3:

L Sp he Example
a copy and complete the table of values below
et
EXCE
4
Graphing
quadratics x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y
b draw the graph of the function
c state the minimum value of x2 − 2x + 3.
2 For the quadratic function y = x2 − 4x − 2, draw up a table of values and use the table
to draw the graph of the function for x ≥ 0.
3 Graph each of the following functions for x ≥ 0.

a y = x2 − 6x + 5
b y = x2 + x + 5
c y = (x − 2)2
4 On the one set of axes, graph the following quadratic functions for x ≥ 0.
a y = x2 b y = 2x2 c y = 1--- x2
2
5 On the one set of axes, graph each of the following quadratic functions for x ≥ 0.
a y = x2 b y = x2 + 2 c y = x2 − 3
6 Use your answers to questions 5 and 6 to answer the following.

a Describe the effect a coefficient of x2 has on the graph of a quadratic function.
b Describe the effect adding a constant term has on the graph of a quadratic function.
7 Graph the function y = (x − 1)2 + 4. Compare this with the graph of y = x2 − 2x + 5.

Explain why this occurs.
WORKED 8 Graph the function y = 2 + 2x − x2 for x ≥ 0.
Example
5 9 Graph each of the following functions for x ≥ 0.
a y = 4 + 6x − x2 b y = 8 − x2 c y = (2 − x)2
10 multiple choice
Which of the following functions is not a quadratic function?
A y = x2 + 5x − 4 B y = (x − 4)2
x–2
C y = (x − 2)(x + 2) D y = ------------
x+2
11 multiple choice
The graph drawn on the right could have the equation:
A y = (x − 2)2 + 3 B y = (x − 2)2 − 3
C y = 4 − (2 − x)2
D y = (2 − x)2 − 3
12 multiple choice
Which of the following functions will produce the same graph as y = (x − 4)2 + 3?
A y = x2 − 4x − 1 B y = x2 − 4x + 19
C y = x − 8x − 1
2
D y = x2 − 8x + 19
13 Graph the quadratic function y = 2x2 − 4x + 8 for x ≥ 0.
WORKED 14 An object dropped from a height falls
Example
6
to Earth according to the equation
d = 5t 2, where d is the distance fallen
in metres and t is the time in seconds
since the object was dropped.
a Draw the graph of d against t.
b How far will the object fall in
4 seconds?
c How long will it take for an object
to fall a distance of 500 m?
15 The height of a ball which is thrown
vertically upwards is given by the
equation h = 30t − 5t2.
a Draw the graph of h against t.
b Find the maximum height reached
by the ball.
c Find the length of time taken for
the ball to return to Earth.
16 A rectangular field is to be made out of
100 m of fencing. If the length of the field
is x metres:
a show that the width of the field is
(50 − x) metres
b show that the area is given by
the quadratic function A = 50x − x2
c draw the graph of the function
d find the maximum area of the field
and what dimension the field must
be to give the maximum area.
17 Another rectangular field is to be built with 100 m

of fencing using a river as one side of the field as River
shown on the right.
a Show that the area of the field can be given by x
SHEE
T 9.1 the equation A = 100x − 2x2.
100 – 2x
Work
b Graph the function.

c Calculate the dimensions of the field so that the area of the field is a maximum.
Maximising areas
1 Sketch ten rectangles that each have a perimeter of 40 m.
2 Show the length, width and area of each rectangle in a table.
3 If the length of the rectangle is x:
a explain why the width of the rectangle will be 20 − x
b write a quadratic equation for the area of the rectangle.
4 Use a spreadsheet or graphics calculator to graph your function.
5 What is the maximum area of the rectangle?
1
1 Graph the function y = 2x − 3.
2 State the gradient of the function.
3 What is the y-intercept of the function?
4 State the linear function with a gradient of 3 and a y-intercept of 2.
5 Give an example of a linear function with a negative gradient.
6 Copy and complete the table below for the function y = 4 − x2.
x 0 1 2 3 4
y
7 Draw the graph of the function y = 4 − x2 for x ≥ 0.

8 State the maximum value of the function y = 4 − x2.
9 Is the function y = (x − 5)2 concave up or concave down? Explain your answer.
10 Find the minimum value of y = (x − 6)2 + 5.
Other functions
There are several other types of function that we should be able to graph. In each of
these cases the graphs are curves and so several points should be found to demonstrate
the shape of the curve.
Cubic functions
A cubic function has the independent variable (x) raised to a power of 3.
WORKED Example 7
Graph the function y = 2x3.
THINK WRITE
x 0 1 2 3
2 Substitute values of x to find the
corresponding values of y. y 0 2 16 54
3 Plot the points generated by the table. y
y = 2x 3
4 Join the points with a smooth curve. 100
80
60
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 x
Hyperbolas
a
A hyperbolic function is of the form y = --- , where a is a constant. For hyperbolas,
x
x ≠ 0, and so we graph only values of x > 0. As the value of x increases, the value of y
will decrease, and therefore we need to look at values close to 0 when creating our
table of values.
WORKED Example 8
2
Graph the function y = --- .
x
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a table of values. 1 1
x --- --- 1 2 3 4
2 Substitute the x-values into the equation 4 2
to find the corresponding y-values. y 8 4 2 1 2
---
1
---
3 2
3 Plot each pair of coordinates generated y
by the table. 9
4 Join each point with a smooth curve. 8
7
6
5
4 y = 2–x
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 x
Exponential graphs
An exponential function is of the form y = ax or y = b(ax ), where a and b are both
constants. An exponential graph can increase rapidly.
WORKED Example 9
Graph the function y = 2x.
THINK WRITE

2 Substitute values of x to find the
corresponding values of y. x 0 1 2 3 4
y 1 2 4 8 16
3 Plot the points generated by the table. y

20
4 Join the points with a smooth curve. 16
12 y = 2x
8
4
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing other functions

To graph the functions shown in worked examples 7, 8 and 9, enter the functions as
shown below. In each case set the view window as shown in the diagrams on the x- and
y-axes.
An exponential function of the form y = b(ax ) represents an example of exponential

growth. These functions show the growth of an investment over a period of time. In
examples where the value of a is between 0 and 1, the function models exponential
decay. An example of this is the depreciation of an asset over time.
WORKED Example 10
Glenn invests $10 000 at 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually. The growth of
this investment can be given by the exponential function A = 10 000(1.08)n, where n is
the number of years of the investment and A is the amount to which the investment
grows.
Graph the growth of this investment.
THINK WRITE

2 Substitute values of n to find the
corresponding values of A. n 1 2 3 4 5
A 10 800 11 664 12 597 13 605 14 693
n 6 7 8 9 10
A 15 869 17 138 18 509 19 990 21 589
3 Plot the points generated by the table.

4 Join the points with a smooth curve. 35 000 A = 10 000 (1.08)n
30 000
Investment ($)
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20
Number of years
remember
1. A cubic equation is of the form y = ax3.
a
2. A hyperbola is an equation of the form y = --- . In such a function x ≠ 0, and
x
we need to examine values of x close to 0 to observe the behaviour of the curve
near the y-axis.
3. An exponential function is of the form y = b(ax ). An exponential function can
be used to model a growth function such as the growth of an investment. If
0 < a < 1, the function will model an exponential decay such as the
depreciation of an item.
9C Other functions
reads WORKED 1 Graph the cubic function y = x3 for x ≥ 0.

L Sp he Example
et
EXCE
7 2 Graph the following functions for x ≥ 0.

Function a y = 3x3 b y = 1--- x3 c y = −x3
grapher 2
4
WORKED 3 Graph the hyperbolic function y = --- for x > 0.
Example x
8
4 Graph each of the following functions for x > 0.
1 10 1
a y = --- b y = ------ c y = – ---
x x x
WORKED 5 Graph the function y = 3x.
Example
9 6 Graph each of the following functions.
a y = 4x b y = 10x c y = ( 1--- )x
2
7 Graph the function y = 5(2x ).
8 multiple choice
y
The equation of the graph shown on the right could be:
A y = x3
B y = 3x
C y = 3x
3
D y = --- x
x
9 multiple choice
2
Which of the graphs shown below could be the graph of y = --- ?
x
A y B y C x D y
x x y x
WORKED 10 Ming Lai invests $1000 at 10% p.a. interest with interest compounded annually. This
Example
10
investment can be represented by the function A = 1000(1.1)n, where A is the amount
to which the investment grows and n is the number of years of the investment. Draw
the graph of the function.
11 Kevin invests $50 000 at 12% p.a. interest, compounded annually.
a Write an equation for the amount, A, to which the investment will grow in terms of
the number of years of the investment, n.
c Use the graph to estimate the amount of time that it will take for the investment to
reach $70 000.
12 A new car is purchased for $40 000. The car depreciates at the rate of 15% p.a. The
value, V, of the car after a number of years, n, can be given by the equation
V = 40 000(0.85)n. Graph this function.
Compound interest
The amount to which an investment will grow under compound interest can be
found using the following formula:
A = P(1 + r)n .
Consider an investment of $10 000 at an interest rate of 8% p.a.
1 If interest is compounded annually, the amount to which the investment will
grow can be given by the function A = 10 000(1.08)n, where n is the number of
years. Graph this function using graphing software or a graphics calculator.
2 If interest is compounded six-monthly, the function becomes A = 10 000(1.04)2n.
On the same set of axes graph this function.
3 Write a function that will show the amount to which the investment will grow if
interest is compounded quarterly, and graph this function on the same set of axes.
4 Use the graphs drawn to describe the overall effect of shortening the
compounding period.
Variations
From our work on measurement we know that the area of a circle is given by the
formula A = π r 2, where A is the area and r is the radius of the circle.
This is an example of a quantity (area) that varies in proportion with the power of
another quantity (radius). This can be written as A ∝ r2. The symbol ∝ means in
proportion to. In this example π is the constant of variation, that is, the amount by
which r 2 must be multiplied to calculate the area.
An equation of the form y = ax2 or y = ax3 can be used to model several variations.
In such cases we may need to calculate the constant of variation from some known or
given information.
WORKED Example 11
It is known that y varies directly with the cube of x. It is known that y = 24 when x = 2.
Write an equation connecting the variables x and y.
THINK WRITE
1 Write a proportion statement. y ∝ x3
2 Insert a constant of variation (k) to form y = kx3
an equation.
3 Substitute the known values of x and y When x = 2, y = 24.
to find the value of k. 24 = k × 23
= 8k
k=3
4 Replace the known value of k in the y = 3x3
equation.
Once we have calculated the constant of variation, we are able to calculate one quantity
given the other.
WORKED Example 12
The surface area of a cube varies directly with the square of the length of the cube’s edge.
a A cube of edge length 5.5 cm has a surface area of 181.5 cm2. Find the constant of
variation.
b Find the surface area of a cube with an edge length of 7.2 cm.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write a proportion statement a s ∝ e2
choosing pronumerals s and e.
2 Insert the constant of variation, k, to s = ke2
form an equation.
3 Substitute known information. When e = 5.5, s = 181.5
181.5 = k × 5.52
4 Calculate 5.52. 181.5 = k × 30.25
5 Solve the equation (divide by 30.25). 181.k = 6
b 1 Rewrite the proportion statement b s = 6e2

with k = 6.
2 Substitute e = 7.2. When e = 7.2,
s = 6 × 7.22
3 Calculate s. s = 311.04
4 Give a written answer. The surface area of a cube with an edge of
7.2 cm is 311.04 cm2.
Hyperbolic functions represent inverse variations. These variations occur when one
a
quantity decreases as the other increases. An inverse variation is of the form y = --- .
x
WORKED Example 13
It is known that y varies inversely with x and that when y = 8, x = 4. Write an equation
connecting y with x.
THINK WRITE
1
1 Write an inverse proportion statement. y ∝ ---
x
k
2 Insert a constant of variation (k) to form y = --
an equation. x
3 Substitute the known values of x and y When x = 4, y = 8.
to find the value of k. k
8 = ---
4
k = 32
32
4 Replace the known value of k in the y = ------
equation. x
Such variations can also be applied to practical situations.
WORKED Example 14
It is known that the time taken for a journey varies inversely with speed. The trip takes
6 hours at 60 km/h.
a Find the constant of variation.
b How long will it take at 90 km/h?
THINK WRITE
1
a 1 Write a proportion statement a t ∝ ---
choosing pronumerals t and s. s
k
2 Insert the constant of variation, k, to t = --
form an equation. s
3 Substitute known information. When t = 6, s = 60
k
6 = ------
60
4 Solve the equation (multiply by 60). k = 360
360
b 1 Rewrite the equation with k = 360. b t = ---------
s
2 Substitute s = 90. When s = 90,
360
t = ---------
90
3 Calculate t. t=4
4 Give a written answer. The trip will take 4 hours at 90 km/h.
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing variations

Once we have established the value of the constant of variation, we can use the
graphics calculator to graph the variation and then find the value of one variable given
the other. Consider worked example 14. Having found in part a the value of k, we can
360
graph t = --------- .
s
2. Enter the equation Y1 = 360 ÷ X, which replaces t with

Y1 and s with X.
3. Press SHIFT F3 [V-Window]. In this situation you

will not need to consider negative values for x. Enter
the setting shown on the screen at right.

5. To find the value of t (Y) when s (X) = 20, press

SHIFT F5 [G-Solv], then F6 ( ) for more
options and then F1 (Y-CAL). Enter x = 90 and the
calculator will return the y-value.
remember
1. A variation can be expressed as a function.
2. If one quantity varies as the square of another, the variation is of the form
y = ax2.
3. If one quantity varies as the cube of another, the variation is of the form
y = ax3.
a
4. If one quantity varies inversely as another, the variation is of the form y = --- .
x
5. An inverse variation occurs when one quantity decreases while the other
decreases.
9D Variations
WORKED 1 It is known that y varies directly with the square of x. If y = 88 when x = 4, write an
Example
11
equation connecting y with x.
2 It is known that b varies directly with the cube of a. When a = 6, b = 108. Write an
equation connecting b with a.
3 It is known that the distance, d, an object will fall varies directly with the square of
the time, t, it has been falling. An object that has been falling for 2 seconds falls a
distance of 19.6 metres.
a Write an equation connecting d with t.
b Graph the relationship between d and t.
WORKED 4 The surface area of a cube varies directly with the square of its side length.
Example
12 a A cube of side length 15 cm has a surface area of 1350 cm2. Find the constant of
variation.
b What is the surface area of a cube that has a side length of 6.2 cm?
5 The area of a circle varies directly with the square of its radius.
a If the area of a circle with side length 6 cm is 113.1 cm2, find the constant of
variation. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
b What is the area of a circle with a radius of 12 cm?
6 The mass of an egg varies directly as the cube of the
egg’s length.
a An egg of length 5 cm has a mass of 31.25 g.
Find the constant of variation.
b What will be the mass of an egg with a
length of 6 cm?
c If an egg has a mass of 70 g, what
would be the egg’s length? (Give
your answer correct to 1 decimal
place.)
WORKED 7 It is known that y varies inversely with
Example
13
x. When y = 10, x = 5; write an
equation connecting y with x.
8 It is known that m varies inversely with
n. When m = 0.5, n = 2; write an
equation connecting m and n.
9 The time taken, t, to travel between two points
varies inversely with the average speed, s, for the
trip. If the journey takes 2.5 hours at 60 km/h:
a write an equation that connects t with s
b graph the relationship between t and s.
WORKED 10 The time, t, taken to dig a trench varies inversely with the number of workers, n,
Example
14
digging. It takes four workers 5 hours to dig the trench.
a Find the constant of variation.
b How long would it take 10 workers to dig the same trench?
11 The fuel economy, f, of a car varies inversely with the speed, s, at which it is driven.
A car that averages 40 km/h has a fuel economy of 15 km/L. What will be the fuel
economy of a car that averages 50 km/h?
12 In an electricity circuit, the current (measured in amps, a) is inversely proportional to
the resistance (measured in ohms, r). When the resistance is 40 ohms, the current is
measured at 3 amps. What will be the current when the resistance is 15 ohms?
Graphing physical phenonema

In many cases, an algebraic function can be used to graph a physical situation. Con-
sider the case of a sphere of radius r. The volume of a sphere can be given by the for-
mula V = 4--- π r 3. We can create a table of values that allows us to graph the function for
3
volume.
r 0 1 2 3 4 5 10
V 0 4.19 33.51 113.10 268.08 523.60 4189
We can then plot each pair of points from the table

and join the points with a smooth curve. The 4000
graph shown at right shows the volume for a 3500
sphere of any radius. 3000
2500
Volume
2000
1500
1000 4 r3
V =—
3
500
0 5 10 15
Radius
WORKED Example 15
The surface area of a sphere is given by the formula A = 4 π r2.
r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A
b Graph the surface area function.

THINK WRITE
a Substitute each a r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
value of r into the
A 0 12.57 50.27 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 615.75 804.25 1017.88 1256.64
formula.
b 1 Plot each pair of b

points generated 3000 A = 4π r2
by the table. 2500
2 Join the points 2000
Area
with a smooth
1500
curve and
extrapolate the 1000
graph. 500
0
0 5 10 15
Radius
Many graphs have physical restrictions placed on them. h

12 h = 15t – 5t 2
Consider the case of a ball that is thrown vertically
upwards. The height, h, of the ball at any time, t, can be 9
given by the equation h = 15t − 5t 2. The height of the ball 6
must always be positive, and when the ball returns to Earth
3
the graph stops as shown on the right.
0 1 2 3 4 t
When we graph several points, we try to estimate other values by interpolating
(estimating values between given points by drawing the graph joining the points) or
extrapolating (estimating values by extending the graph beyond the points given).
Other graphs need to have restrictions placed upon them when we try to interpolate
or extrapolate. There may be a limit placed upon one or both of the variables, and this
will indicate a change in the graph.
WORKED Example 16
A cinema owner believes that more people will attend the movies on cold days and so
believes the number of people attending each session of a movie varies inversely with the
temperature of the day. When the temperature is 15°C, 80 people attend a movie. The
cinema has a maximum of 120 seats, and the cinema owner believes that a minimum of 40
people will attend, regardless of temperature.
a Write an equation connecting the number of people attending the movie, N, with the
temperature, T.
b Graph the relationship between attendance and temperature.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write an inverse proportion 1
a N ∝ ---
statement. T
2 Insert a constant of variation, k, to k
N = ---
form an equation. T
3 Substitute the known values of N and When T = 15, N = 80.
T to find the value of k. k
80 = ------
15
k = 1200
4 Replace the known value of k in the 1200
N = ------------
equation. T
b 1 Create a table of values. b

T 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
2 Substitute each value of T into the
N 120 120 80 60 48 40 40
equation.
3 If the value of N > 120, then we N
enter 120 for N (maximum 120
attendance); if N < 40, enter 40 for N
100
(minimum attendance).
80
60
40
20
0 10 20 30 40 T
4 Plot the points and join with a

smooth curve. The minimum and
maximum attendance is drawn with
a straight line.
remember
1. An algebraic model can be used to represent many physical situations.
2. When modelling a situation, there may be restrictions on one or both of the
variables.
Graphing physical
9E phenomena
WORKED 1 The surface area of a cube is given by the formula A = 6s2.
Example
15
a Complete the table of values below.
s 0 1 2 3 4 5
A
b Draw the graph to represent the surface area of a cube of a given side length.
2 The distance that an object will fall when dropped from a height can be given by the
formula d = 5t 2, where d is in metres and t is in seconds. Draw a graph of the function.
3 A car is travelling at v km/h and the driver needs to brake. It takes 2.5 seconds to react
and in that time the car will travel a distance of 0.7v m. The total stopping distance, d,
can be given by the function d = 0.01v2 + 0.7v.
v 0 10 20 30 40
d
b Draw the graph of the stopping distance of a vehicle.

WORKED 4 Lorraine organises a lottery syndicate at her work. If they win a prize of $100 000, the
Example
16
amount is shared equally between the members of the syndicate. There must be at least
one member of the syndicate and a maximum of 10.
a Write an equation putting the amount, A, each person receives in terms of the
number of members, n.
5 A car is purchased new for $40 000. After one year the depreciated value of the car is
$30 000. After the first year the car depreciates at a rate of 20% p.a.
Age (years) 1 2 3 4 5
Value
b The car will always be worth a minimum of $2000 in scrap metal and accessories.
Graph the value of the car against the age of the car.
6 The mass of a newborn baby increases by 20% per month for the first four months of
life. If the average mass of a newborn baby is 3.3 kg, graph the mass function up to
n = 4.
7 A square piece of sheet metal has a side length of 12 m. A
12 m
square of side length x m is to be cut from each corner of the
sheet metal and the sides bent up to form an open rectangular xm
prism.
a What is the maximum possible value of x?
b Show that the volume of the prism formed can be given by
the function V = x(12 − 2x)2.
c Graph the volume function.
8 The population of a city is growing at a rate of 5% p.a. If the population in 2000 is
1.5 million, the population function can be given by the function P = 1.5(1.05)n, where
P is the population, in millions. The city cannot sustain a population greater than
4 000 000.
Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Population (million)
b Plot the points given and extrapolate to graph the population function. T 9.2
SHEE
c Use your graph to state when the population will reach its maximum sustainable
Work
level.
d What will happen to the graph when it reaches this level?
Force of gravity
When an object is dropped, the
distance that it will fall in t
seconds can be approximated by
the formula d = 5t 2. The
coefficient of t 2 is half the force of
gravity (10 m/s2) and so will
change if an object were to be
dropped on another planet. For
example, on the moon this
equation would become d = 0.8t2.
1 Use a graphics calculator or
graphing software to graph the
equations for both the Earth
and the moon.
2 Find out the force of gravity on
other planets and compare the
graphs formed with that for the
Earth.
summary
Linear functions
• Linear functions have powers of only 1 for both the independent and dependent
variables and are graphed as straight lines.
• To graph a linear function, a table of at least three values is drawn; the points
generated are plotted on a number plane and then joined with a straight line.
• The intersection of two linear functions will give the point where both conditions
hold true.
Quadratic functions
• A quadratic function is a function where the independent variable is raised to the
power of 2.
• The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, a curved graph with either a
minimum (positive x2 term) or a maximum (negative x2 term).
• A quadratic function is graphed by plotting the points formed from a table of at
least seven values.
Other functions
• A cubic function uses a power of 3 for the independent variable. It is of the form
y = ax3.
a
• A hyperbola is a function of the form y = --- . In a hyperbolic function, as one
variable increases the other decreases. x
• An exponential function is of the form y = ax. When a > 1, an exponential function
models exponential growth, while if 0 < a < 1, the function models exponential
decay.
• Each of these functions is graphed by plotting points from a table of values.
Variations
• A variation occurs when one quantity changes in proportion with another.
• If one quantity varies directly with another, as one increases so does the other.
• If the quantity varies directly with the square of the other, it can be expressed as a
function in the form y = ax2. If it varies with the cube of another, it can be
expressed in the form y = ax3.
• An inverse variation occurs when one quantity decreases, while the other increases.
a
An inverse variation can be expressed in the form y = --- .
x
• The constant of variation, a, is calculated by using a known quantity of each
variable. Once this has been calculated, if we know one quantity we can calculate
the other.
Graphing physical phenomena
• Algebraic models can be used to represent many physical situations.
• When graphing physical phenomena, we need to consider any restrictions that may
exist on one or both of the variables.
CHAPTER
review
1 Graph each of the following linear functions.
a y = 3x b y=x+3 c y=2−x 9A
d y = 5 − 3x e 2y = 4x − 3 f 3x − 2y + 6 = 0
2 The cost, C, of a taxi fare is given by the formula C = 3 + 0.4d, where d is the distance
travelled by the car, in kilometres. 9A
d 0 5 10 15 20
C
b Graph the cost function.
3 At a fete, 400 cans of soft drink are purchased for $320. The cans are then sold for $1.25
each. 9A
a Write, as a linear function, an expression for the profit on the sale of the cans, where n is
the number of cans sold.
b Graph the profit function.
c What will be the financial outcome if:
i 300 cans are sold? ii 142 cans are sold?
d How many cans will need to be sold for the drink stall to break even?
4 Graph the linear functions y = 6 − x and y = x + 2, and hence state the point of intersection.
9A
5 Andrew needs to purchase a new washing machine.
a A brand new washing machine will cost $1000, and running costs will be approximately 9A
20c per wash. Express this as a linear function.
b Alternatively, Andrew could purchase a second-hand washing machine for $200, but
running costs will be about $1.00 per wash. Express this as a linear function.
c Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
d By finding the point of intersection, find out after how many washes does it become more
economical to purchase the new machine.
6 For the quadratic function y = x2 − 4x + 5:

a copy and complete the table of values below 9B
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y
b draw the graph of the function for x ≥ 0

c state the minimum value of the function y = x2 − 4x + 5.
7 For the quadratic function y = x2 − 2x − 2, draw a table of values and use the table to sketch
the graph for x ≥ 0. 9B
8 Sketch each of the following quadratic functions for x ≥ 0.

9B a y = (x − 4)2 b y = 5 − x2 c y = 4 + 2x − x2
9 An object is dropped from a height of 500 m. Its height above the ground at any time, t, is
9B given by the function h = 500 − 5t 2.
a Draw the graph of the function.
b How many seconds does it take for the object to fall to Earth?
10 A team of workers are digging a mine shaft. The number of kilograms of earth moved each
9B hour by the team is given by the function E = 24n − n2, where n is the number of workers
digging the shaft.
b What is the maximum amount of earth that can be moved by the team of workers in one
hour? How many workers are needed to move this amount of earth?
c Explain possible reasons why the amount of earth moved each hour then begins to
decrease as more workers are used.
11 Graph each of the following cubic functions for x ≥ 0.

9C a y = x3 b y = 1--- x3
2
12 Graph each of the following hyperbolic functions for x > 0.

9C 1 2
a y = --- b y = ---
x x
13 Graph each of the following exponential functions.

9C a y = 2x b y = ( 1--- )x
2
14 The average inflation rate is 4% p.a. In 2006 it cost the average family $500 per week in
9C living expenses. The future cost of living, C, can be estimated using the function
C = 500(1.04)n where n is the number of years since 2006.
a Graph the cost of living function.
b Use the graph to estimate the cost of living in 2016.
c When will the cost of living first reach $1000 per week?
15 If the value of a computer purchased for $5000 depreciates by 20% p.a., the future value of
9C the computer, V, can be given by the equation V = 5000(0.8)n, where n is the age of the
computer, in years.
b Find when the value of the computer is approximately $1000.
16 It is known that y varies directly with the square of x. When x = 4, y = 80. Write an equation
9D connecting x with y.
17 The mass, m, of an egg varies directly with the cube of its length, l. An egg of length 5.5 cm,
9D has a mass of 75 g.
a Write an equation connecting m with l.
b Find the mass of an egg with a length of 5 cm.
c Find the length of a 50 g egg.
18 It is known that y varies inversely with x. When x = 8, y = 8; write an equation connecting y
with x. 9D
19 The amount of food in a camp varies inversely with the number of people to feed. There is
enough food to feed 100 campers for 10 days. 9D
a Write an equation connecting the amount of food, A, with the number of campers, n.
b Calculate how long the food would last 125 campers.
c If the food lasts for four days, calculate the number of campers.
20 The area of a circle is given by the formula A = π r2.
a Complete the table of values below. 9E
r 0 1 2 3 4 5
A
b Draw the graph of A against r.

21 A ball is thrown directly up in the air. The height, h, of the ball at any time, t, can be found
using the equation h = 20t − 5t 2. 9E
a Draw a graph of the height equation.
b Use the graph to find:
i the maximum height of the ball
ii the time taken for the ball to fall back to earth.
22 An investment of $10 000 at 6% p.a. can be modelled using the equation A = 10 000(1.06)n,
where n is the number of years of the investment. 9E
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the investment after 8 years.
c Use your graph to find the amount of time that it will take for the investment to grow to
$15 000.

1 multiple choice
Which of the following equations is not an example of a linear function?
2
A y = 2x + 1 B y = --- C 2y = x + 1 D x + 2y + 1 = 0
x
2 multiple choice
Which of the following quadratic equations is equivalent to y = (x − 3)2 + 7?
A y = x2 − 3x − 2 B y = x2 − 3x + 16
C y = x − 6x − 2
2
D y = x2 − 6x + 16
3 multiple choice y
The graph shown at right could have the equation:

2
A y = x2 B y = ---
x
x
Cy=2 x
D y = ( --- )
1 x
2
4 multiple choice
It is known that y varies inversely with x. The variation can be modelled by the equation:
A y = ax B y = ax2
a
C y = ax3 D y = ---
x
5 As a fundraising activity, a school hires a cinema to show the premiere of a movie. The cost
of hiring the cinema is $500. People are then charged $10 to attend the movie.
a Write a function for the profit or loss made on the movie in terms of the number of people
attending.
c Use the graph to calculate the number of people who must attend the movie for the school
to break even.
d A rival cinema offers to waive the hire fee but the school will receive only $5 per person
attending. On the same axes graph the function P = 5n.
e The school chose to pay the $500 and receive $10 per person. How many people must
attend the premiere to make this the better of the two options?
6 A rock is thrown from a cliff 20 m above ground level. The height of the rock at any time is
given by the quadratic function h = 20 + 15t − 5t 2.
t 0 1 2 3 4
h
b Graph the function and use your graph to find the maximum height reached by the ball.
2
7 a On the one set of coordinate axes, sketch the graphs of y = 2x3 and y = --- .
x
2
b Use your graphs to find the point of intersection of the graphs y = 2x3 and y = --- .
x
8 The growth of an investment made at 8% p.a. can be modelled by the equation y = 1.08x.
b Use your graph to determine the amount of time that it will take for the investment to
double in value.
c The depreciation of an item at 8% p.a. can be modelled by the equation y = 0.92x. Graph
test
yourself this function.
CHAPTER
d Use your graph to determine the amount of time that it will take for the item to halve in
9 value.
10
Depreciation
syllabus reference
• Depreciation
In this chapter
10A Modelling depreciation
10B Straight line depreciation
10C Declining balance method
of depreciation
10D Depreciation tables
areyou
a copy.
10.1 Graphing linear equations

1 Draw the graphs of the following equations.
a y = 2x – 1 b y = 8 – 4x
10.2 Graphing exponential functions

2 Draw the graphs of the following equations for x ≥ 0.
a y = 2x b y = (0.8)x c y = 5( 1--- )x
2
10.3 Solving linear equations

3 Solve the equations.
a 7x – 5 = 79 b 3000x – 500 = 12 500 c 6000 – 500x = 3500

4 Calculate:
a The amount to which $10 000 will grow at 6% p.a. over 5 years with interest compounded
annually
b The amount to which $50 000 will grow at 8.2% p.a. over 4 years with interest compounded
six-monthly.
10.6 Reading financial tables

5 The table below shows the amount to which $1 will grow under compound interest.
Interest rate per period

Periods 6% 7% 8% 9%
1 1.060 1.070 1.080 1.090
2 1.123 1.145 1.166 1.188
3 1.191 1.225 1.260 1.295
4 1.262 1.311 1.360 1.412
Use the table to find:

a the amount to which $10 000 will grow at 7% p.a. over 4 years with interest compounded
annually.
b the amount to which $50 000 will grow at 12% p.a. over 2 years with interest compounded six-
monthly.
Chapter 10 Depreciation 301
Modelling depreciation
An asset is an item that has value to its owner. Many assets such as cars and computers
lose value over time. This is called depreciation.
Consider the case of a new motor vehicle. The value of the car depreciates the
moment that you drive the car away from the showroom. This is because the motor
vehicle is no longer new and if it were sold, it would have to be sold as a used car. The
car then continues to lose value steadily each year.
Depreciation of motor vehicles

Choose a make of car and find out the price for a new vehicle of this make and
model. Look through NRMA’s Open Road magazine or the classified advertise-
ments in the newspaper to find the price of the same model as a second-hand car.
Age of car (years) Price
New (0)
Draw a graph that shows the price of this car as it ages.
There are two types of depreciation: the straight line method and the declining
balance method. The straight line method is where the asset depreciates by a constant
amount each year. When this type of depreciation is graphed, a straight line occurs and
the asset will reduce to a value of 0.
In such a case, a linear function can be derived that will allow us to calculate the
value of the item at any time. The function can be found using the gradient–intercept
method. The purchase price of the asset (V0) will be the vertical intercept, and the
gradient will be the negative of the amount that the item depreciates, D, each period.
The equation of this linear function will be:
V = V0 − Dn
where V is the salvage value of the item and n is the age of the asset, in years.
Note: Gradients for depreciation will always be negative.
WORKED Example 1
The table below shows the declining
value of a computer. Graph the value
against time and write an equation
for this function.
Age (years) Value ($)
New (0) 4000
1 3500
2 3000
3 2500
4 2000
5 1500
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a set of axes with age on the 4500

horizontal axis and value on the 4000
3500
vertical. 3000
Value ($)
2500
2 Plot each point given by the table. 2000
1500
3 Join all points to graph the function. 1000
500
0
0123456789
Age (years)
4 Write the initial value as V0 and use the V0 = 4000, D = 500

gradient to state D.
5 Write the equation using V = V0 − Dt. V = V0 − Dt
V = 4000 − 500t
Note: To solve worked example 1 you can use the graphics calculator methods demon-
strated in chapter 9.
In worked example 1, how long does it take for the computer to depreciate to a value
of $0? The computer is said to be written off when it reaches this value.
The other method of depreciation used is the declining balance method of
depreciation. Here, the value of the item depreciates each year by a percentage of its
current value. Under such depreciation, the value of the item never actually becomes
zero. This type of depreciation is an example of exponential decay that we saw in
chapter 9.
WORKED Example 2
The table below shows the value of a car that is purchased new for $40 000.
Age of car (years) Value ($)
New (0) 40 000
1 32 000
2 25 600
3 20 480
4 16 384
5 13 107
Plot the points on a set of axes and graph the depreciation of the car. Use the graph to
estimate the value of the car after 10 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a set of axes with age on the 40 000
horizontal axis and value on the 35 000
Value ($)
vertical. 30 000
25 000
2 Plot the points from the table. 20 000
15 000
3 Join the points with a smooth curve. 10 000
5 000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Age (years)
4 Estimate the value after 10 years from From the graph, the approximate value of the
the graph you have drawn. car after 10 years is $4000.
remember
1. Depreciation is the loss in the value of an item over time.
2. Depreciation can be of two types:
(a) Straight line depreciation.
The item loses a constant amount of value each year
(b) Declining value depreciation.
The value of an item depreciates by a percentage of its value each year.
3. Straight line depreciation can be graphed using a linear function in which the
new value of the item is the vertical intercept and the gradient is the negative of
the annual loss in value.
4. Declining value depreciation is an example of exponential decay and is
graphed with a smooth curve.
10A Modelling depreciation
10.1 WORKED 1 The table below shows the depreciating value of a tractor.
HEET Example
SkillS
1
Graphing Age (years) Value ($)
linear
equations New (0) 100 000
HEET
10.2 1 90 000
SkillS
Graphing
exponential 2 80 000
functions
3 70 000
4 60 000
5 50 000
a Draw a graph of the value of the tractor against the age of the tractor.
b Write a function for the value of the tractor.
2 The table below shows the depreciating value of a tow truck.
New (0) 50 000
1 42 000
2 34 000
3 26 000
4 18 000
5 10 000
Draw a graph of value against age; hence, write a value as a linear function of age.
3 The function V = 50 000 − 6000A shows the value, V, of a car when it is A years old.
a Draw a graph of this function.
b Use the graph to calculate the value of the car after 5 years.
c After how many years would the car be written off?
4 A computer is bought new for $6400 and depreciates at the rate of $2000 per year.
a Write a function for the value, V, of the computer against its age, A.
b Draw the graph of this function.
c After how many years does the computer become written off?
WORKED 5 The table below shows the declining value of a new motorcycle.
Example
2 Age (years) Value ($)
New (0) 20 000
1 15 000
2 11 250
3 8 450
4 6 350
5 4 750
a Plot the points shown by the table, and draw a graph of the value of the motorcycle
against age.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the motorcycle after 8 years. Give your
answer correct to the nearest $1000.
6 The table below shows the declining value of a semi-trailer.

New (0) 600 000
1 420 000
2 295 000
3 205 000
4 145 000
5 100 000
a Plot the points as given in the table, and then draw a curve of best fit to graph the
depreciation of the semi-trailer.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the semi-trailer after 10 years.
c After what number of years will the value of the semi-trailer fall below $50 000?
7 a A gymnasium values its equipment at $200 000. Each year the value of the equip-
ment depreciates by 20% of the value of the previous year. Calculate the value of the
equipment after:
i 1 year ii 2 years iii 3 years iv 4 years.
b Plot these points on a set of axes and draw a graph of the value of the equipment
against its age.
8 multiple choice
Which of the tables below shows a straight line depreciation?
A Age (years) Value ($) B Age (years) Value ($)
New (0) 4000 New (0) 4000
1 3600 1 3600
2 3240 2 3200
3 2916 3 2800
4 2624 4 2400
5 2362 5 2000
C Age (years) Value ($) D Age (years) Value ($)
New (0) 4000 New (0) 4000
1 3600 1 3000
2 3300 2 2500
3 3100 3 1500
4 3000 4 1000
5 2950 5 500
9 A car is bought new for $30 000.

a The straight line method of depreciation sees the car lose $4000 in value each year.
Complete the table below.
New (0) 30 000
b Draw a graph of this depreciation.

c The declining balance method of depreciation sees the value of the car fall by 20%
of the previous year’s value. Complete the table below.

New (0) 30 000
1
2
3
4
5
d On the same set of axes draw a graph of this depreciation.

e After how many years is the car worth more under declining balance depreciation
than under straight line depreciation?
Straight line depreciation

We have already seen that the method of straight line depreciation is where the value of
an item depreciates by a constant amount each year. The depreciated value of an item is
called the salvage value, S. The salvage value of an asset can be calculated using the
formula:
S = V0 − Dn
where V0 is the purchase price of the asset, D is the amount of depreciation apportioned
per period and n is the number of periods.
WORKED Example 3
A laundry buys dry-cleaning
equipment for $30 000. The
equipment depreciates at a
rate of $2500 per year.
Calculate the salvage value
of the equipment after
6 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. S = V0 − Dn
2 Substitute the values of V0, D and n. S = $30 000 − $2500 × 6
3 Calculate the value of S. S = $15 000
By solving an equation we are able to calculate when the value of an asset falls below
a particular amount.
WORKED Example 4
A plumber purchases equipment for a total of $60 000. The value of the equipment is
depreciated by $7500 per year. When the value of the equipment falls below $10 000 it
should be replaced. Calculate the number of years after which the equipment should be
replaced.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. S = V0 − Dn

2 Substitute for S, V0 and D. 10 000 = 60 000 − 7500n
3 Solve the equation to find the value 7500n = 50 000
of n. n = 6 2---
3
4 Give a written answer, taking the value The equipment must be replaced after 7 years.
of n up to the next whole number.
Graphics Calculator tip! Solving a depreciation equation

Your graphics calculator can be used as shown below to solve equations such as that
arising in worked example 4.
2. Press F3 (Solver).
3. Delete any existing equation, and enter the equation

that arises after the substitution is made.
Note: You may have a different value of N, but at this
stage this can be ignored.

remember
1. Straight line depreciation occurs when the value of an asset depreciates by a
constant amount each year.
2. The formula to calculate the salvage value, S, of an asset is:
S = V0 − Dn
where V0 is the purchase price of the asset, D is the amount of depreciation
apportioned per period and n is the total number of periods.
3. To calculate a value of V0, D or n we substitute all known values and solve the
equation that is formed.
10B Straight line depreciation

WORKED 1 A car that is purchased for $45 000 depreciates by $5000 each year. Calculate the 10.3 SkillS
Example
3
salvage value of the car after 5 years.
HEET
2 Calculate the salvage value: Solving
linear
a after 5 years of a computer that is purchased for $5000 and depreciates by $800 equations
per year
b after 7 years of a motorbike that is purchased for $25 000 and depreciates by $2100
per year
c after 6 years of a semi-trailer that is purchased for $750 000 and depreciates by
$80 000 per year
d after 2 years of a mobile phone that is purchased for $225 and depreciates by $40
per year
e after 4 years of a farmer’s plough that is purchased for $80 000 and depreciates by
$12 000 per year.
3 A bus company buys 15 buses for $475 000 each.
a Calculate the total cost of the fleet of buses.
b If each bus depreciates by $25 000 each year, calculate the salvage value of the
fleet of buses after 9 years.
4 The price of a new car is $25 000. The value of the car depreciates by $300 each
month. Calculate the salvage value of the car after 4 years.
WORKED 5 An aeroplane is bought by an airline for $600 million. If the aeroplane depreciates by
Example
4
$40 million each year, calculate when the value of the aeroplane falls below $300
million.
6 Calculate the length of time for each of the following items to depreciate to the value
given.
a A computer purchased for $5600 to depreciate to less than $1000 at $900 per year
b An electric guitar purchased for $1200 to depreciate to less than $500 at $150 per
year
c An entertainment unit purchased for $6000 to become worthless at $750 per year
d Office equipment purchased for $12 000 to depreciate to less than $2500 at $1500
per year
7 A motor vehicle depreciates from $40 000 to $15 000 in 10 years. Assuming that it is
depreciating in a straight line, calculate the annual amount of depreciation.
8 Calculate the annual amount of depreciation in an asset that depreciates:
a from $20 000 to $4000 in 4 years
b from $175 000 to $50 000 in 10 years
c from $430 000 to $299 500 in 9 years.
9 A computer purchased for $3600 is written off in 4 years. Calculate the annual
amount of depreciation.
10 A car that is 5 years old has an insured value of $12 500. If the car is depreciating at
a rate of $2500 per year, calculate its purchase price.
11 Calculate the purchase price of each of the following assets given that:
a after 5 years the value is $50 000 and is depreciating at $12 000 per year
b after 15 years the value is $4000 and is depreciating at $1500 per year
SHEE
T 10.1 c after 25 years the value is $200 and is depreciating at $50 per year.
Work
12 An asset that depreciates at $6500 per year is written off after 12 years. Calculate the
purchase price of that asset.
Declining balance method of

depreciation
The declining balance method of depreciation occurs when the value of an asset
depreciates by a given percentage each period.
Consider the case of a car purchased new for $30 000, which depreciates at the rate
of 20% p.a. Each year the salvage value of the car is 80% of its value at the end of the
previous year.
After 1 year: S = 80% of $30 000
= $24 000
After 2 years: S = 80% of $24 000
= $19 200
After 3 years: S = 80% of $19 200
= $15 360
WORKED Example 5
A small truck that was purchased for $45 000 depreciates at a rate of 25% p.a. By
calculating the value at the end of each year, find the salvage value of the truck after
4 years.
THINK WRITE
1 The salvage value at the end of each
year will be 75% of its value at the end
of the previous year.
2 Find the value after 1 year by After 1 year: S = 75% of $45 000
calculating 75% of $45 000. = $33 750
THINK WRITE
3 Find the value after 2 years by After 2 years: S = 75% of $33 750
calculating 75% of $33 750. = $25 312.50
4 Find the value after 3 years by After 3 years: S = 75% of $25 312.50
calculating 75% of $25 312.50. = $18 984.38
5 Find the value after 4 years by After 4 years: S = 75% of $18 984.38
calculating 75% of $18 984.38. = $14 238.28
The salvage value under a declining balance can be calculated using the formula:
S = V0(1 − r)n
where S is the salvage value, V0 is the purchase price, r is the percentage depreciation
per period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of periods.
This formula can be considered as being similar to the compound interest formula.
In the case of depreciation, however, you need to subtract rather than add the depreci-
ation expressed as a decimal from 1.
WORKED Example 6
The purchase price of a boat is $15 000. The value of the boat depreciates by 10% p.a.
Calculate the salvage value of the boat after 8 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. S = V0(1 − r)n
2 Substitute values for V0, r and n. S = $15 000 × 0.98
3 Calculate the salvage value. S = $6457.00
To calculate the amount by which the asset has depreciated, we subtract the salvage
value from the purchase price.
WORKED Example 7
The purchase price of a motor vehicle is $40 000. The vehicle depreciates by 12% p.a.
Calculate the amount by which the vehicle depreciates in 10 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. S = V0(1 − r)n
2 Substitute the value of V0, r and n. S = $40 000 × 0.8810
3 Calculate the value of S. S = $11 140.04
4 Calculate the amount of depreciation by Depreciation = $40 000 − $11 140.04
subtracting the salvage value from the Depreciation = $28 859.96
purchase price.
remember
1. The declining method of depreciation occurs when the value of an asset
depreciates by a fixed percentage each year.
2. The salvage value of an asset can be calculated by subtracting the percentage
depreciation each year.
3. The salvage value can be calculated using the formula:
S = V0(1 − r)n
where S is the salvage value, V0 is the purchase price, r is the percentage
depreciation per period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of periods.
4. To calculate the amount of depreciation, the salvage value should be subtracted
from the purchase price.
Declining balance method

10C of depreciation
10.4 WORKED 1 The purchase price of a forklift is $50 000. The value of the forklift depreciates by
HEET Example
20% p.a. By calculating the value of the forklift at the end of each year, find the
SkillS
5
Calculating salvage value of the forklift after 4 years.
compound
interest 2 A trailer is purchased for $5000. The value of the trailer depreciates by 15% each
year. By calculating the value of the trailer at the end of each year, calculate:
10.5 a the salvage value of the trailer after 5 years (to the nearest $10)
HEET
b the amount by which the trailer depreciates:
SkillS
Finding a i in the first year

percentage ii in the fifth year.
of a
quantity 3 A company purchases a mainframe computer for $3 000 000. The value of the
(money)
computer depreciates by 15% p.a. By calculating the value at the end of each year,
find the number of years that it takes for the salvage value of the mainframe to fall
below $1 000 000.
WORKED 4 Use the formula S = V0(1 − r)n to calculate the
Example
6
salvage value after 7 years of a power generator
purchased for $800 000 that depreciates at a rate
of 10% p.a. (Give your answer correct to the
nearest $1000.)
5 Calculate the salvage value of an asset (correct to
the nearest $100) with a purchase price of:
a $10 000 that depreciates at 10% p.a. for 5 years
b $250 000 that depreciates at 15% p.a. for
8 years
c $5000 that depreciates at 25% p.a. for 5 years
d $2.2 million that depreciates at 30% p.a. for
10 years
e $50 000 that depreciates at 40% p.a. for
5 years.
6 A plumber has tools and equipment valued at $18 000. If the value of the equipment
depreciates by 30% each year, calculate the value of the equipment after 3 years.
WORKED 7 A yacht is valued at $950 000. The value of the yacht depreciates by 22% p.a.
Example
7
Calculate the amount that the yacht will depreciate in value over the first 5 years
(correct to the nearest $1000).
8 A new car is purchased for $35 000. The owner plans to keep the car for 5 years and
then trade the car in on another new car. The estimate is that the value of the car will
depreciate by 16% p.a. Calculate:
a the amount the owner can expect as a trade in for the car in 5 years (correct to the
nearest $100)
b the amount by which the car will depreciate in 5 years.
9 multiple choice
A shop owner purchases fittings for her store that cost a total of $120 000. Three years
later, the shop owner is asked to value the fittings for insurance. If the shop owner
allows for depreciation of 15% on the fittings, which of the following calculations
will give the correct estimate of their value?
A 120 000 × 0.853 B 120 000 × 0.153
C 120 000 × 0.55 D 120 000 × 0.45
10 multiple choice
A computer purchased for $3000 will depreciate by 25% p.a. The salvage value of the
computer after 4 years will be closest to:
A $0 B $10 C $950 D $2000
11 An electrician purchases tools of trade for a total of $8000. Each year the electrician
is entitled to a tax deduction for the depreciation of this equipment. If the rate of
depreciation allowed is 33%, calculate:
a the value of the equipment at the end of one year (correct to the nearest $1)
b the tax deduction allowed in the first year
c the value of the equipment at the end of two years (correct to the nearest $1)
d the tax deduction allowed in the second year.
12 An accountant purchased a computer for $6000. The value of the computer depreciates
by 33% p.a. When the value of the computer falls below $1000, it is written off and a
new one is purchased. How many years will it take for the computer to be written off?
Rates of depreciation
In the previous investigation you chose a make and model of car and researched the
salvage value of this car after each year.
1 Calculate the percentage depreciation for each year.
2 Calculate if this percentage rate is approximately the same each year.
3 Using the average annual depreciation, calculate a table of salvage values for the
first 5 years of the car’s life.
4 Draw a graph showing the depreciating value of the car.
1
1 The price of a new DVD player is $1250. The player will depreciate under straight
line depreciation at a rate of $200 per year. Calculate the value of the player after
3 years.
2 An asset that was valued at $39 000 when new depreciates to $22 550 in 7 years.
Calculate the annual amount of depreciation under straight line depreciation.
3 A computer that is purchased new for $9000 depreciates at a rate of $1350 per year.
Calculate the length of time before the computer is written off.
4 A car dealer values a used car at $7000. If the car is 8 years old and the rate of
depreciation is $1750 per year, calculate the value of the car when new.
5 Write the formula for depreciation under the declining balance method.
6 A truck is valued new at $50 000 and depreciates at a rate of 32% p.a. Calculate the
value of the truck after 5 years (correct to the nearest $50).
7 An asset that has a purchase price of $400 000 depreciates at a rate of 45% p.a.
Calculate the asset’s value after 6 years (correct to the nearest $1000).
8 For the asset in question 7, calculate the amount by which it has depreciated in
6 years.
9 Office equipment valued at $250 000 depreciates at a rate of 15% p.a. Calculate the
amount by which it depreciates in the first year.
10 Calculate the length of time it will take for the salvage value of the office equipment
in question 9 to fall below $20 000.
Depreciation tables
The computer application below will prepare a table that will show the depreciated
value of an asset with a purchase price of $1 over various periods of time and various
rates of depreciation.
Computer Application 1 Depreciation table

1. Open a new spreadsheet and enter the following information.
2. In cell B3 enter the formula =(1-B$2)^$A3.
3. Highlight the range of cells B3 to J12. Then use the Edit and then the Fill and Right
and Fill and Down functions to copy the formula throughout the table.
4. The table that you now have should have the values shown in the table on page 315.
Rate of depreciation (per annum)

Time
(years) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
1 0.9500 0.9000 0.8500 0.8000 0.7500 0.7000 0.6500 0.6000 0.5500 0.5000
2 0.9025 0.8100 0.7225 0.6400 0.5625 0.4900 0.4225 0.3600 0.3025 0.2500
3 0.8574 0.7290 0.6141 0.5120 0.4219 0.3430 0.2746 0.2160 0.1664 0.1250
4 0.8145 0.6561 0.5220 0.4096 0.3164 0.2401 0.1785 0.1296 0.0915 0.0625
5 0.7738 0.5905 0.4437 0.3277 0.2373 0.1681 0.1160 0.0778 0.0503 0.0313
6 0.7351 0.5314 0.3771 0.2621 0.1780 0.1176 0.0754 0.0467 0.0277 0.0156
7 0.6983 0.4783 0.3206 0.2097 0.1335 0.0824 0.0490 0.0280 0.0152 0.0078
8 0.6634 0.4305 0.2725 0.1678 0.1001 0.0576 0.0319 0.0168 0.0084 0.0039
9 0.6302 0.3874 0.2316 0.1342 0.0751 0.0404 0.0207 0.0101 0.0046 0.0020
10 0.5987 0.3487 0.1969 0.1074 0.0563 0.0282 0.0135 0.0060 0.0025 0.0010
5. Use the spreadsheets’ graphing facility to draw a depreciation graph for each of the
depreciation rates shown in the table.
The table produced by the computer application shows the depreciated value of $1 and
can be used to make calculations about depreciation.
WORKED Example 8
An item is purchased for $500 and depreciates at a rate of 15% p.a. Use the depreciation
table on page 315 to calculate the value of the item after 4 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Look up the table to find the
depreciated value of $1 at 15% p.a. for
4 years.
2 Multiply the depreciated value of $1 by Depreciated value = 0.5220 × $500
$500. Depreciated value = $261
The computer application on pages 314–15 will produce a general table for a declining
balance depreciation. We should be able to use the formula to create a table and graph
showing the salvage value of an asset under both straight line and declining balance
depreciation.
WORKED Example 9
A car is purchased new for $20 000. The depreciation can be calculated under straight line
depreciation at $2500 per year and under declining balance at 20% p.a.
a Complete the table below. (Give all values to the nearest $1.)
Age of car (years) Straight line value ($) Declining balance value ($)
New (0) 20 000 20 000
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
b Draw a graph of both the straight line and declining balance depreciation and use the
graph to show the point at which the straight line value of the car falls below the
declining balance value.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Copy the table.
2 Complete the straight line column by
subtracting $2500 from the previous
year’s value.
THINK WRITE
3 Complete the declining balance by a
multiplying the previous year’s value Age of Declining
car Straight line balance value
by 0.8.
(years) value ($) ($)
New (0) 20 000 20 000
1 17 500 16 000
2 15 000 12 800
3 12 500 10 240
4 10 000 8 192
5 7 500 6 554
6 5 000 5 243
7 2 500 4 194
8 0 3 355
b 1 Plot the points generated by the b Straight line

table. 25 000 value
Declining
2 Join the points for the straight line 20 000 balance value
Value ($)
depreciation with a straight line. 15 000

3 Join the points for the declining
10 000
balance depreciation with a smooth
curve. 5 000
0
(New)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Age (years)
4 The graph shows the straight line The straight line depreciation value becomes
going below the curve after 6 years. less than the declining balance depreciation
value after 6 years.
Depreciation is an allowable tax deduction for people in many occupations. A tax

deduction for depreciation is allowed when equipment used in earning an income
depreciates in value and will eventually need replacing. Depending on the equipment
and the occupation, either straight line or declining balance depreciation may be used.
Under declining balance depreciation, when the salvage value falls below a certain
point the equipment may be written off. This means that the entire remaining balance
can be claimed as a tax deduction and as such is considered worthless. From this point
on, no further tax deductions can be claimed for this equipment.
WORKED Example 10
A builder has tools of trade that are purchased new for $14 000. He is allowed a
tax deduction of 33% p.a. for depreciation of this equipment. When the salvage
value of the equipment falls below $3000, the builder is allowed to write the
equipment off on the next year’s return. Complete the depreciation table below.
(Use whole dollars only.)
Years Salvage value ($) Tax deduction ($)
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the salvage value by
multiplying the previous year’s value
by 0.67.
2 Calculate the tax deduction by
multiplying the previous year’s value
by 0.33.
3 When the salvage value is less than
$3000, claim the entire amount as a tax Salvage value Tax deduction
deduction. Year ($) ($)
1 9380 4620
2 6285 3095
3 4211 2074
4 2821 1390
5 0 2821
remember
1. Graphs can be drawn to compare the salvage value of an asset under different
rates of depreciation, or to compare declining balance and straight line
depreciation.
2. The amount by which an asset depreciates can, in many cases, be claimed as a
tax deduction.
10D Depreciation tables

WORKED 1 Use the table of depreciated values of $1 to calculate: 10.5 SkillS
Example
8 a the value of a computer purchased for $5000 after 5 years, given that it depreci-
HEET
ates at 20% p.a. Finding a
b the value of a car after 8 years with an initial value of $35 000, given that it percentage
depreciates at 15% p.a. of a
quantity
c the value of a boat with an initial value of $100 000 after 10 years, given that it (money)
depreciates at 10% p.a.
WORKED 2 A taxi owner purchases a new taxi for $40 000. The taxi depreciates under straight line 10.6 SkillS
Example
HEET
9
depreciation at $5000 per year and under declining balance depreciation at 20% p.a.
a Copy and complete the table below. Give all values to the nearest $100. Reading
financial
tables
Age of car Declining balance
(years) Straight line value ($) value ($) 10.7 SkillS
HEET
New (0) 40 000 40 000 Increase or
decreasee by
a percentage
1
b Draw a graph of the salvage value of the taxi under both methods of depreciation.
c State when the value under straight line depreciation becomes less than under
declining balance depreciation.
3 A company has office equipment that is valued at $100 000. The value of the equip-
ment can be depreciated at $10 000 each year or by 15% p.a.
a Draw a table that will show the salvage value of the office equipment for the first ten
years using both methods. (Give all values correct to the nearest $50.)
b Draw a graph of the depreciating value of the equipment under both methods of
depreciation.
4 A computer purchased new for $4400 can be depreciated at either 20% p.a. or 35% p.a.
Draw a table and a graph that compare the salvage value of the computer at each rate of
depreciation over a 6-year period.
WORKED 5 A teacher purchases a laptop computer for $6500. A tax deduction for depreciation of
Example
10 the computer is allowed at the rate of 33% p.a. When the value of the computer falls
below $1000, the computer can be written off. Copy and complete the table below.
(Give all values correct to the nearest $1.)
Year Salvage value ($) Tax deduction ($)
6 A plumber purchases a work van for $45 000. The van can be depreciated at a rate of
25% p.a. for tax purposes, and the van can be written off at the end of 8 years. Copy
and complete the depreciation schedule below. (Give all answers correct to the nearest
$1.)
8
7 A truck is purchased for $250 000. The truck can be depreciated at the rate of $25 000
each year or over 10 years at 20% p.a.
a Copy and complete the table below. (Give all values correct to the nearest $1.)
Age of truck Declining balance

(years) Straight line value ($) value ($)
New (0) 250 000 250 000
10
b Draw a graph of the depreciating value of the truck under both methods of
depreciation.
c Complete a depreciation schedule for each method of calculation.
8 Tony is a plumber and on 1 March purchases a panel van for work purposes. The cost
of the panel van is $40 000, and for tax purposes the panel van depreciates at the rate of
25% p.a.
a Calculate the amount that the panel van will depreciate in the first year.
b The financial year ends on 30 June. For what fraction of the financial year did Tony
own the panel van?
c Tony is allowed a tax deduction for depreciation of his work van. Calculate the
amount of tax deduction that Tony is allowed for the financial year ending on
30 June.
9 Calculate the amount of depreciation on each of the following assets.
a A tractor with an initial value of $80 000 that depreciates at 15% p.a. for 3 months
b A bicycle with an initial value of $600 that depreciates at 25% p.a. for 6 months
c Office furniture with an initial value of $8000 that depreciates at 30% p.a. for T 10.2
SHEE
8 months
Work
d A set of encyclopedias with an initial value of $2500 that depreciates at 40% p.a. for
9 months
summary
Modelling depreciation
• Depreciation can be calculated in two ways. The depreciation can be straight line
depreciation or declining balance depreciation.
• Straight line depreciation occurs when the value of an asset decreases by a constant
amount each year. The graph of the salvage value is a straight line, the vertical
intercept is the purchase price and the gradient is the negative of the annual
depreciation.
• Declining balance depreciation occurs when the salvage value of the item is a
percentage of the previous year’s value. The graph of a declining balance
depreciation will be an exponential decay graph.
Straight line depreciation
• The salvage value of an asset under straight line depreciation can be calculated
using the formula:
S = V0 − Dn
where S is the salvage value, V0 is the purchase price of the asset, D is the amount
of depreciation apportioned per period and n is the number of periods of
depreciation.
• Values of V0, D or n can be calculated by substitution and solving the equation
formed.
Declining balance depreciation
• Under declining balance depreciation the salvage value of an asset can be
S = V0(1 − r)n
where r is the percentage depreciation per period expressed as a decimal.
• To calculate the amount by which an asset depreciates in a year, we subtract the
salvage value at the end of the year from the salvage value at the beginning of the
year.
Depreciation tables
• Depreciation can be compared using either a table or a graph.
• Tax deductions are allowed for depreciation of assets that are used as part of
earning an income.
• A depreciation schedule is used to calculate tax deductions over a period of years
on an asset.
CHAPTER
review
1 The table below shows the depreciating value of a pleasure cruiser.
10A
New (0) 200 000
1 180 000
2 160 000
3 140 000
4 120 000
5 100 000
a Draw a graph of the value of the pleasure cruiser against its age.
b Write a function for the value of the pleasure cruiser.
2 The table below shows the depreciating value of a racing bike.

10A
New (0) 3500
1 3250
2 3000
3 2750
4 2500
5 2250
a Draw a graph of the value of the bike against age.

b Write a function for the straight line depreciation.
c Use your graph to estimate the value of the bike after 9 years.
3 The function V = 15 000 − 900A shows the value, V, of a motorcycle when it is

A years old. 10A
a Draw a graph of this function.
b Use the graph to calculate the value of the motorcycle after 5 years.
c After how many years would the motorcycle be written off?
4 The table below shows the declining value of a delivery van.

10A
New (0) 60 000
1 48 000
2 38 400
3 30 720
4 24 576
5 19 660
a Plot the points as given in the table, and then draw a curve of best fit to graph the
depreciation of the van.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the van after 10 years.
c After what number of years will the value of the van fall below $10 000?
5 A laundry buys dry-cleaning equipment for $8000. Each year the equipment depreciates by
10A 25% of the previous year’s value. Calculate the value of the equipment at the end of the first
five years, and use the results to draw a graph of the depreciation.
6 The purchase price of a car is $32 500. The car depreciates by $3250 each year. Use the
10B formula S = V0 − Dn to calculate the salvage value of the car after 8 years.
7 Calculate the salvage value of an asset:

10B a after 6 years, that was purchased for $4000 and depreciates by $450 each year
b after 10 years, that was purchased for $75 000 and depreciates by $6000 each year
c after 9 years, that was purchased for $640 000 and depreciates by $45 000 each year.
8 A movie projector is purchased by a cinema for $30 000. The projector depreciates by $2500
10B each year. Calculate the length of time it takes for the projector to be written off.
9 A camera that was purchased new for $1500 has a salvage value of $500 four years later.
10B Calculate the annual amount of depreciation on the camera.
10 Arthur buys a car for $25 000. The depreciation on the car is $2250 each year. He decides
10B that he will trade the car in on a new car in the final year before the salvage value falls below
$10 000. When will Arthur trade the car in?
11 The purchase price of a mobile home is $40 000. The value of the mobile home depreciates
10C by 15% p.a. By calculating the value of the mobile home at the end of each year, find the
salvage value of the mobile home after 4 years. (Give your answer correct to the nearest $1.)
12 Use the formula S = V0(1 − r)n to calculate the salvage value after 7 years of a crop duster
10C that was purchased for $850 000 and depreciates at 8% p.a. (Give your answer correct to the
nearest $1000.)
13 Calculate the salvage value of an asset (correct to the nearest $10) with a purchase price of:
10C a $40 000 that depreciates at 10% p.a. for 5 years
b $1500 that depreciates at 4% p.a. for 10 years
c $180 000 that depreciates at 12.5% p.a. for 15 years
d $4.5 million that depreciates at 40% p.a. for 10 years
e $250 000 that depreciates at 33 1--- % p.a. for 4 years.
3
14 A company buys a new bus for $600 000. The company keeps buses for 10 years and then
trades them in on a new bus. The estimate is that the value of the bus will depreciate by 10C
12% p.a. Calculate:
a the amount the owner can expect as a trade-in for the bus in 10 years
b the amount by which the bus will depreciate in 10 years.
15 A company has office equipment that is valued at $100 000. The value of the equipment can
be depreciated at $10 000 each year or by 15% p.a. 10D
a Draw a table to show the salvage value of the office equipment for the first ten years.
b Draw a graph of the depreciating value of the equipment under both depreciation methods.
16 A personal computer is purchased for $4500. A tax deduction for depreciation of the
computer is allowed at the rate of 33% p.a. When the value of the computer falls below 10D
$1000, the computer can be written off. Copy and complete the table below.

1
2
3
4
5

1 multiple choice
Which of the following tables gives an example of declining balance depreciation?
A Year Salvage value B Year Salvage value ($)

New (0) 20 000 New (0) 20 000
1 18 000 1 18 200
2 16 200 2 16 400
3 14 580 3 14 600
4 13 122 4 12 800
C Year Salvage value D Year Salvage value ($)

New (0) 20 000 New (0) 20 000
1 18 000 1 17 000
2 16 500 2 15 000
3 15 500 3 14 000
4 15 000 4 13 500
2 multiple choice
A helicopter is purchased by a company for $3.3 million. The salvage value of the helicopter
depreciates in a straight line at a rate of $240 000 per year. After how many years will the
value of the helicopter be less than $1 million?
A 8 B 9 C 10 D 11
3 multiple choice
Trevor purchases a new computer for $5000. It depreciates under declining balance
depreciation at a rate of 20% p.a. Each year Trevor claims the amount of depreciation on the
computer as a tax deduction. The amount of Trevor’s tax deduction in the third year is:
A $640 B $1000 C $2560 D $3200
4 multiple choice
The value of a new car depreciates by 12.5% p.a. The salvage value in 5 years of a car that
was purchased new for $37 500 is (to the nearest $100):
A $9375 B $18 300 C $19 200 D $32 800
5 The value of a home theatre system when purchased new is $3000. The system depreciates at
the rate of 15% p.a. under declining balance depreciation.
a Calculate the salvage value of the system in 4 years (correct to the nearest $1).
b By how much has the system depreciated in this time?
c Calculate the equivalent rate of straight line depreciation over the four years.
d Graph the salvage value of the home theatre system under both declining balance and
straight line depreciation.
6 An office is fitted with $200 000 of office equipment. The company claims tax deductions for
the depreciation of the equipment at the rate of 12% p.a.
a Calculate the amount of tax deduction claimed by the company in the first year.
b Complete the depreciation schedule below.
5
test
yourself
CHAPTER
10 c When the value of the equipment falls below $50 000, the equipment is written off and
replaced. After how many years will the equipment be written off?
11
The normal
distribution
syllabus reference
Data analysis 6
• The normal distribution
In this chapter
11A z-scores
11B Comparison of scores
11C Distribution of scores
areyou
a copy.
11.1 Finding the mean

1 Find the mean of each of the following data sets.
a 4, 6, 2, 7, 9, 3, 6, 9 b 45, 72, 90, 70, 69, 48, 62, 99, 47, 55
c d
Score Frequency Score Frequency
6 3 15 12
7 13 16 36
8 16 17 42
9 12 18 15
10 6 19 11
20 9
11.2 Finding the standard deviation

2 Find the population standard deviation of each of the data sets in question 1. Give each answer
11.3 Choosing the appropriate standard deviation

3 In each of the following choose the appropriate measure of standard deviation.
a On entering a certain music store people are asked how many CDs they own.
b The number of parliamentarians who vote in favour of bills brought before parliament.
Chapter 11 The normal distribution 329
z-scores
A normal distribution is a statistical occurrence where a data set
of scores is symmetrically distributed about the mean. Most
continuous variables in a population, such as height, mass and
time, are normally distributed. In a normal distribution, the
frequency histogram is symmetrical and begins to take on a
x–
bell shape as shown by the figure on the right.
The normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean, which has the same value as
the median and mode in this distribution. The graph of a normal distribution will extend
symmetrically in both directions and will always remain above the x-axis.
The spread of the normal distribution will depend on the standard deviation. The lower
the standard deviation, the more clustered the scores will be around the mean. The figure
below left shows a normal distribution with a low standard deviation, while the figure
below right shows a normal distribution with a much greater standard deviation.
x–
x–
To gain a comparison between a particular score and the rest of the population, we
use the z-score. The z-score (or standardised score) indicates the position of a
particular score in relation to the mean. z-scores are a very important statistical measure
and later in the chapter some of their uses will be explained.
A z-score of 0 indicates that the score obtained is equal to the mean, a negative
z-score indicates that the score is below the mean and a positive z-score indicates a
score above the mean.
The z-score measures the distance from the mean in terms of the standard deviation.
A score that is exactly one standard deviation above the mean has a z-score of 1. A
score that is exactly one standard deviation below the mean has a z-score of −1.
To calculate a z-score we use the formula:
x–x
z = -----------
s
where x is the score, x is the mean and s is the standard deviation.
WORKED Example 1
In an IQ test the mean IQ is 100 and the standard deviation is 15. Dale’s test results give
an IQ of 130. Calculate this as a z-score.
THINK WRITE
x–x
1 Write the formula. z = -----------
s
130 – 100
2 Substitute for x, x and s. z = ------------------------
15
3 Calculate the z-score. z=2
Dale’s z-score is 2, meaning that his IQ is exactly two standard deviations above the mean.
Not all z-scores will be whole numbers; in fact most will not be whole numbers. A
whole number indicates only that the score is an exact number of standard deviations
above or below the mean.
WORKED Example 2
A sample of professional basketball players gives the mean height as 192 cm with a
standard deviation of 12 cm. Dieter is 183 cm tall. Calculate Dieter’s height as a z-score.
THINK WRITE
x–x
1 Write the formula. z = -----------
s
183 – 192
2 Substitute for x, x and s. z = ------------------------
12
3 Calculate the z-score. z = −0.75
The negative z-score in worked example 2 indicates that Dieter’s height is below the
mean but, in this case, by less than one standard deviation.
When examining z-scores, care must be taken to use the appropriate value for the
standard deviation. If examining a population, the population standard deviation (σn)
should be used and if a sample has been taken, the sample standard deviation (σn − 1
or sn) should be used.
Remember: Your graphics calculator displays all of this information once data is stored
and calculated using the statistics function.
WORKED Example 3
To obtain the average number of hours study done by students in her class per week,
Kate surveys 20 students and obtains the following results.
12 18 15 14 9 10 13 12 18 25
15 10 3 21 11 12 14 16 17 20
a Calculate the mean and population standard deviation (correct to 3 decimal places).
b Robert does 16 hours of study each week. Express this as a z-score based on the above
results. (Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Enter the data into your calculator. a
2 Obtain the mean from your calculator. x = 14.25
3 Obtain the standard deviation from your sn = 4.753
calculator using the sample standard deviation.
x–x
b 1 Write the formula. b z = -----------
s
16 – 14.25
2 Substitute for x, x and s. z = -------------------------
4.753
3 Calculate the z-score. z = 0.368
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the z-score

Your graphics calculator can be used to find a z-score once the data is stored and the
calculator has in its memory the mean and standard deviation. The z-score calculated
here is found using the population standard deviation. Make sure that this is the appro-
priate standard deviation for the question that you are doing. Consider worked example 3.
2. Delete any existing data and enter the scores from

worked example 3 in List 1.
3. Press F2 (CALC). You may need to press F6 first

for more options.
4. Press F6 (SET). Check that 1Var Xlist is set to List 1

and 1Var Freq is set to 1.

then press F1 (1VAR) to display the summary
statistics.
6. Press MENU and then select RUN.
7. Press OPTN F6 for more options and then F3

(PROB).
8. Again press F6 for more options and then F4 t().

This is the z-score function, so enter 16, close
brackets and press EXE .
remember
1. A data set is normally distributed if it is symmetrical about the mean.
2. The graph of a normally distributed data set is a bell-shaped curve that is
symmetrical about the mean. In such a distribution the mean, median and mode
are equal.
3. A z-score is used to measure the position of a score in a data set relative to the
mean.
4. The formula used to calculate a z-score is:
x–x
z = -----------
s
where x is the score, x is the mean, and s is the standard deviation.
11A z-scores
11.1 WORKED 1 In a Maths exam the mean score is 60 and the standard deviation is 12. Chifune’s
HEET Example
mark is 96. Calculate her mark as a z-score.
SkillS
1
Finding 2 In an English test the mean score was 55 with a standard deviation of 5. Adrian scored
the
mean 45 on the English test. Calculate Adrian’s mark on the test as a z-score.
3 Tracy is a nurse and samples the mass of
HEET
11.2 50 newborn babies born in the
SkillS
hospital in which she works.

Finding
the She finds that the mean
standard mass is 3.5 kg, with a
deviation standard deviation of
0.4 kg. What would be
HEET
11.3 the standardised score of
SkillS
a baby whose birth mass

Choosing the
appropriate was:
standard a 3.5 kg?
deviation b 3.9 kg?
c 2.7 kg?
d 4.7 kg?
e 3.1 kg?
4 Ricky finds that the mean number of hours spent watching television each week by
Year 12 students is 10.5 hours, with a standard deviation of 3.2 hours. How many
hours of television is watched by a person who has a standardised score of:
a 0? b 1? c 2? d −1? e −3 ?
WORKED 5 IQ tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Calculate the z-score for
Example
2
a person with an IQ of 96. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
6 The mean time taken for a racehorse to run 1 km is 57.69 s, with a standard deviation
of 0.36 s. Calculate the z-score of a racehorse that runs 1 km in 58.23 s.
7 In a major exam every subject has a mean score of 60 and a standard deviation of
12.5. Clarissa obtains the following marks on her exams. Express each as a z-score.
a English 54 b Maths 78 c Biology 61
d Geography 32 e Art 95
8 The mean time for athletes over 100 m is 10.3 s, with a standard deviation of 0.14 s.
What time would correspond to a z-score of:
a 0? b 2? c 0.5?
d −3? e −0.35? f 1.6?
WORKED 9 The length of bolts being produced by a machine needs to be measured. To do this, a
Example
3
sample of 20 bolts are taken and measured. The results (in mm) are given below.
20 19 18 21 20 17 19 21 22 21
17 17 21 20 17 19 18 22 22 20
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the distribution.
b A bolt produced by the machine is 22.5 mm long. Express this result as a z-score.
(Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
10 A garage has 50 customers who have credit accounts with them. The amount spent by
each credit account customer each week is shown in the table below.
Amount ($) Class centre Frequency

0–20 2
20–40 8
40–60 19
60–80 15
80–100 6

b Calculate the mean and standard deviation.
c Calculate the z-score that corresponds to a customer’s weekly account of:
i $50 ii $100 iii $15.40.
11 multiple choice
In a normal distribution, the mean is 21.7 and the standard deviation is 1.9. A score of
20.75 corresponds to a z-score of:
A −1 B −0.5 C 0.5 D1
12 multiple choice
In a normal distribution, the mean is 58. A score of 70 corresponds to a standardised
score of 1.5. The standard deviation of the distribution is:
A6 B 8 C 10 D 12
13 multiple choice
In a normal distribution, a score of 4.6 corresponds to a z-score of –2.4. It is known
that the standard deviation of the distribution is 0.8. The mean of the distribution is:
A 2.2 B 2.68 C 6.52 D 6.8
14 The results of 24 students sitting a Maths exam are listed below.

95 63 45 48 78 75 80 66 60 58 59 62
52 57 64 75 81 60 65 70 65 63 62 49
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the exam marks.
b Calculate the standardised score of the highest score and the lowest score, correct
15 The results of Luke’s exams are shown in the table below.
Subject Luke’s mark Mean Standard deviation
English 72 60 12
Maths 72 55 13
Biology 76 64 8
Computing studies 60 70 5
Visual arts 60 50 15
SHEE
T 11.1 Music 50 58 10
Work
Convert each of Luke’s results to a standardised score.
Comparison of scores
An important use of z-scores is to compare scores from different data sets. Suppose that
in your Maths exam your result was 74 and in English your result was 63. In which
subject did you achieve the better result?
It may appear, at first glance, that the Maths result is better, but this does not take
into account the difficulty of the test. A mark of 63 on a difficult English test may in
fact be a better result than 74 if it was an easy Maths test.
The only way that we can fairly compare the results is by comparing each result with
its mean and standard deviation. This is done by converting each result to a z-score.
x–x
If for Maths x = 60 and σn = 12, then z = -----------
s
74 – 60
= ------------------
12
= 1.17
x–x
And if for English x = 50 and σn = 8, then z = -----------
s
63 – 50
= ------------------
8
= 1.625
The English result is better because the higher z-score shows that the 63 is higher in
comparison to the mean of each subject.
WORKED Example 4
Janine scored 82 in her Physics exam and 78 in her Chemistry exam. In Physics, x = 62
and σn = 10, while in Chemistry, x = 66 and σn = 5.
a Write both results as a standardised score.
b Which is the better result? Explain your answer.
THINK WRITE
x–x x–x
a 1 Write the formula for each subject. a Physics: z = ----------- Chemistry: z = -----------
s s
82 – 62 78 – 66
2 Substitute for x, x and s. = ------------------ = ------------------
10 5
3 Calculate each z-score. =2 = 2.4
b Explain that the subject with the highest b The Chemistry result is better because of the
z-score is the better result. higher z-score.
In each example the circumstances must be read carefully to see whether a higher or
lower z-score is better. For example, if we were comparing times for runners over
different distances, the lower z-score would be the better one.
WORKED Example 5
In international swimming the mean time for the men’s 100 m freestyle is 50.46 s with a
standard deviation of 0.6 s. For the 200 m freestyle, the mean time is 1 min 51.4 s with a
standard deviation of 1.4 s. Sam’s best time is 49.92 s for 100 m and 1 min 49.3 for 200 m.
At a competition Sam can enter only one of these events. Which event should he enter?
THINK WRITE
x–x x–x
1 Write the formula for both events. 100 m: z = ----------- 200 m: z = -----------
s s
49.92 – 50.46 109.3 – 111.4
2 Substitute for x, x and s. (For 200 m = --------------------------------- = ---------------------------------
convert time to seconds.) 0.6 1.4
3 Calculate the z-scores. = −0.9 = −1.5
4 The best event is the one with the lower The z-score for 200 m is lower, indicating that
z-score. Sam’s time is further below the mean and that
this is the event that he should enter.
remember
1. Scores can be compared by their z-scores as they compare the score with the
mean and the standard deviation.
2. Read each question carefully to see if a higher or lower z-score is a better
outcome.
11B Comparison of scores

reads
L Sp he
WORKED 1 Ken’s English mark was 75 and his Maths mark was 72. In English the mean was 65
Example
et
EXCE
4
with a standard deviation of 8, while in Maths the mean mark was 56 with a standard
One deviation of 12.
variable
statistics a Convert the mark in each subject to a z-score.
b In which subject did Ken perform better? Explain your answer.
2 In the first Maths test of the year the mean mark was 60 and the standard deviation
was 12. In the second test the mean was 55 and the standard deviation was 15.
Barbara scored 54 in the first test and 50 in the second test. In which test did Barbara
do better? Explain your answer.
3 multiple choice
The table below shows the mean and standard deviation in four subjects.
Subject Mean Standard deviation
English 60 12
Maths 65 8
Biology 62 16
Geography 52 7.5
Kelly’s marks were English 66, Maths 70, Biology 50 and Geography 55. In which
subject did Kelly achieve her best result?
A English B Maths C Biology D Geography
4 multiple choice
The table below shows the mean and standard deviation of house prices in four
Australian cities. The table also shows the cost of building the same three-bedroom
house in each of the cities.
City Mean Standard deviation Cost
Sydney $230 000 $30 000 $215 000
Melbourne $215 000 $28 000 $201 000
Adelaide $185 000 $25 000 $160 000
Brisbane $190 000 $20 000 $165 000
In which city is the standardised cost of building the house least?

A Sydney B Melbourne C Adelaide D Brisbane
WORKED 5 Karrie is a golfer who scored 70 on course A, which has a mean of 72 and a standard
Example
deviation of 2.5. On course B, Karrie scores 69. The mean score on course B is 72
5
and the standard deviation is 4. On which course did Karrie play
the better round? (In golf the lower score is better.)
6 Steve is a marathon runner. On the Olympic course in Sydney
the mean time is 2 hours and 15 minutes with a standard deviation
of 4.5 minutes. On Athens’ Olympic course the mean time is
2 hours and 16 minutes with a standard deviation of 3 minutes.
In Sydney Steve’s time was 2 hours 17 minutes and in Athens his
time was 2 hours 19 minutes.
a Write both times as a z-score.
b Which was the better performance? Explain your
answer.
7 multiple choice
The table below shows the mean and standard deviation
of times in the 100 m by the same group of athletes on
four different days. It also shows Matt’s time on each of these days.
Day Mean Standard deviation Matt’s time

8 Jan. 10.21 0.15 10.12
15 Jan. 10.48 0.28 10.30
22 Jan. 10.14 0.09 10.05
29 Jan. 10.22 0.12 10.11
On what day did Matt give his best performance?

A 8 Jan. B 15 Jan. C 22 Jan. D 29 Jan.
8 multiple choice
In which of the following subjects did Alyssa achieve her best standardised result?
Subject Alyssa’s mark Mean Standard deviation

English 54 60 12
Maths 50 55 15
Biology 60 65 8
Music 53 62 9
A English B Maths C Biology D Music

9 Shun Mei received a mark of 64 on her Maths exam and 63 on her Chemistry exam.
To determine how well she actually did on the exams, Shun Mei sampled 10 people
who sat for the same exams and the results are shown below.
Maths: 56 45 82 90 41 32 65 60 55 69
Chemistry: 55 63 39 92 84 46 47 50 58 62
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation for Shun Mei’s sample in each subject.
b By converting each of Shun Mei’s marks to z-scores, state the subject in which she
performed best.
10 Ricardo scored 85 on an entrance test for a job. The test has a mean score of 78 and a
standard deviation of 8. Kory sits a similar exam and scores 27. In this exam the mean
is 18 and the standard deviation is 6. Who is better suited for the job? Explain your
answer.
1
1 In a normal distribution the mean is 32 and the standard deviation 6. Convert a score
of 44 to a z-score.
2 In a normal distribution the mean is 1.2 and the standard deviation is 0.3. Convert a
score of 0.6 to a z-score.
3 The mean of a distribution is 254 and the standard deviation is 39. Write a score of
214 as a standardised score, correct to 2 decimal places.
4 The mean mark on an exam is 62 and the standard deviation is 9.5. Convert a mark of
90 to a z-score. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
5 Explain what is meant by a z-score of 1.
6 Explain what is meant by a z-score of –2.
7 In a distribution, the mean is 50 and the standard deviation is 10. What score
corresponds to a z-score of 0?
8 In a distribution the mean score is 60. If a mark of 76 corresponds to a standardised
score of 2, what is the standard deviation?
9 Cynthia scored a mark of 65 in English where the mean was 55 and the standard
deviation is 8. In Maths Cynthia scored 66 where the mean was 52 and the standard
deviation 10. Convert the mark in each subject to a z-score.
10 In which subject did Cynthia achieve her best result?
Comparison of subjects
1 List all the subjects that you study. Arrange the subjects in the order that you
feel is from your strongest subject to your weakest.
2 List your most recent exam results in each subject.
3 From your teachers, find out the mean and standard deviation of the results in
each subject.
4 Convert each of your marks to a standardised score.
5 List your subjects from best to worst based on the standardised score and see
how this list compares with the initial list that you wrote.
Distribution of scores
In any normal distribution, the percentage of scores that lie within a certain number
of standard deviations of the mean is always the same, provided that the sample is
large enough. This is true irrespective of the values of the mean and standard
deviation.
In any normal distribution, approximately
68% of the values will lie within one standard
deviation of the mean. This means 68% of
scores will have a z-score between −1 and 1. 68%
This can be shown on a normal curve as: z
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
Approximately 95% of the values lie within

2 standard deviations, or have a z-score of
between −2 and 2. 95%
z
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
Approximately 99.7% of scores lie within 3

standard deviations, or have a z-score that lies
between −3 and 3.
99.7%
z
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
If we know that a random variable is approximately normally distributed, and we

know its mean and standard deviation, then we can use this rule to quickly make some
important statements about the way in which the data values are distributed.
WORKED Example 6
Experience has shown that the scores obtained on a commonly used IQ test can be
assumed to be normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
Approximately what percentage of the distribution lies:
a between 85 and 115?
b between 70 and 130?
c between 55 and 145?
THINK WRITE
85 – 100 115 – 100
a 1 Calculate the z-scores for a z = --------------------- z = ------------------------
15 15
85 and 115. = –1 =1
2 68% of scores have a z-score 68% of the scores will lie between
between −1 and 1. 85 and 115.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
70 – 100 130 – 100
b 1 Calculate the z-scores for b z = --------------------- z = ------------------------
15 15
70 and 130. = –2 =2
2 95% of scores have a z-score 95% of the scores will lie between 70 and 130.
between −2 and 2.
55 – 100 145 – 100

c 1 Calculate the z-scores for c z = --------------------- z = ------------------------
15 15
55 and 145. = –3 =3
2 99.7% of scores have a z-score 99.7% will lie between 55 and 145.
between −3 and 3.
We can also make statements about the percentage of scores that lie in the tails of the
distribution by using the symmetry of the distribution and remembering that 50% of
scores will have a z-score greater than 0 and 50% will have a z-score less than 0.
WORKED Example 7
In an exam x = 60 and σn = 12. What percentage of candidates in the exam scored
above 84?
THINK WRITE
x–x
1 Calculate 84 as a z-score. z = -----------
s
84 – 60
z = ------------------
12
z=2
2 Draw a sketch showing 95% of z-scores
lie between −2 and 2.
3 5% of z-scores therefore lie outside this
range. Half of these scores lie below −2
and half are above 2.
95%
2.5% 95% 2.5%
60 84
4 Give a written answer. 2.5% of scores are greater than 84.
Some important terminology is used in connection with this rule. We can say that if
95% of scores have a z-score between −2 and 2, then if one member of the population
is chosen, that member will very probably have a z-score between −2 and 2.
If 99.7% of the population has a z-score between −3 and 3, then if one member of
that population is chosen, that member will almost certainly have a z-score between −3
and 3.
WORKED Example 8
A machine produces tyres that have a mean thickness of 12 mm, with a standard deviation
of 1 mm. If one tyre that has been produced is chosen at random, within what limits will
the thickness of the tyre:
a very probably lie?
b almost certainly lie?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Tyre thickness will very probably a If z = – 2 If z = 2
have a z-score between −2 and 2. x = x – 2s x = x + 2s
2 A z-score of −2 corresponds to a tyre = 12 – 2 × 1 = 12 + 2 × 1
of 10 mm thickness. = 10 = 14
3 A z-score of 2 corresponds to a tyre A tyre chosen will very probably have a
of 14 mm thickness. thickness of between 10 and 14 mm.
b 1 Tyre thickness will almost certainly b If z = – 3 If z = 3

have a z-score between −3 and 3. x = x – 3s x = x + 35
2 A z-score of −3 corresponds to a tyre = 12 – 3 × 1 = 12 + 3 × 1
of 9 mm thickness. = 9 = 15
3 A z-score of 3 corresponds to a tyre A tyre chosen will almost certainly have a
of 15 mm thickness. thickness of between 9 and 15 mm.
Because it is almost certain that a member of the data set will lie within three standard
deviations of the mean, if a possible member of the data set is found to be outside this
range one should suspect a problem.
For example, if a machine is set to deposit 200 mL of liquid into a bottle, with a
standard deviation of 5 mL, and then a bottle is found to have contents of 220 mL, one
would expect there to be a problem with the settings on the machine.
This knowledge of z-scores is then used in industry by the quality control depart-
ment. In the above example a sample of bottles would be tested and the z-scores
recorded. The percentage of z-scores between −1 and 1, −2 and 2, and −3 and 3 are
checked against the above rule. If these percentages are not correct, the machinery
needs to be checked for faults.
remember
1. In a normal distribution:
• 68% of scores will have a z-score between −1 and 1
• 95% of scores will have a z-score between −2 and 2
• 99.7% of scores will have a z-score between −3 and 3.
2. The symmetry of the normal distribution allows us to make calculations about
the percentage of scores lying within certain limits.
3. If a member of a normally distributed population is chosen, it will:
• very probably have a z-score between −2 and 2
• almost certainly have a z-score between −3 and 3.
4. Any score further than three standard deviations from the mean indicates that
there may be a problem with the data set.
11C Distribution of scores

WORKED 1 The temperature on a January day in a city is normally distributed with a mean of 26°
Example
6 and a standard deviation of 3°. What percentage of January days lie between:
a 23° and 29°? b 20° and 32°? c 17° and 35°?
2 The marks of students sitting for a major exam are normally distributed with x = 57
and σn = 13. What percentage of marks on the exam were between:
a 44 and 70? b 31 and 83? c 18 and 96?
3 The mean thickness of bolts produced by a machine is 2.3 mm, with a standard
deviation of 0.04 mm. What percentage of bolts will have a thickness between
2.22 mm and 2.38 mm?
WORKED 4 Experience has shown that the scores obtained on a commonly used IQ test can be
Example
7 assumed to be normally distributed with a mean µ = 100 and a standard deviation
σ = 15. What percentage of scores lie above 115?
5 The heights of young women are normally distributed with a mean x = 160 cm and a
standard deviation σn = 8 cm. What percentage of the women would you expect to
have heights:
a between 152 and 168 cm?
b greater than 168 cm?
c less than 136 cm?
6 The age at which women give birth to their first child is normally distributed with
x = 27.5 years and σn = 3.2 years. From these data we can conclude that about 95%
of women have their first child between what ages?
7 Fill in the blanks in the following statements. For any normal distribution:
a 68% of the values have a z-score between ___ and ___
b ___% of the values have a z-score between –2 and 2
c ___% of the values have a z-score between ___ and ___.
8 multiple choice
Medical tests indicate that the amount of an antibiotic needed to destroy a bacterial
infection in a patient is normally distributed with x = 120 mg and σn = 15 mg. The
percentage of patients who would require more than 150 mg to clear the infection is:
A 0.15% B 2.5% C 5% D 95%
9 multiple choice
The mean mark on a test is 55, with a standard deviation of 10. The percentage of
students who achieved a mark between 65 and 75 is:
A 13.5% B 22.5% C 34% D 95%
10 In a factory, soft drink is poured into cans such that the mean amount of soft drink is
500 mL with a standard deviation of 2 mL. Cans with less than 494 mL of soft drink
are rejected and not sold to the public. What percentage of cans are rejected?
11 The distribution of IQ scores for the inmates of a certain prison is approximately
normal with a mean of 85 and a standard deviation of 15.
a What percentage of this prison population have an IQ of 100 or higher?
b If someone with an IQ of 70 or less can be classified as mentally disabled, what
percentage of the prison population could be classified as mentally disabled?
12 The distribution of blood pressures (systolic) among women of similar ages is normal
with a mean of 120 (mm of mercury) and a standard deviation of 10 (mm of mercury).
Determine the percentage of women with a systolic blood pressure:
a between 100 and 140 b greater than 130
c between 120 and 130 d between 90 and 110
e between 110 and 150.
WORKED 13 The mass of packets of chips is normally distributed with x = 100 g and σn = 2.5 g. If
Example
8
I purchase a packet of these chips, between what limits will the mass of the packet:
a very probably lie? b almost certainly lie?
14 The heights of army recruits are normally distributed about a mean of 172 cm and a
standard deviation of 4.5 cm. A volunteer is chosen from the recruits. The height of
the volunteer will very probably lie between what limits?
15 A machine is set to deposit a mean of 500 g of washing powder into boxes with a
standard deviation of 10 g. When a box is checked, it is found to have a mass of 550 g.
What conclusion can be drawn from this?
SHEE
T 11.2
Work
16 The average mass of babies is normally distributed with a mean of 3.8 kg and a standard
deviation of 0.4 kg. A newborn baby will almost certainly have a mass between what
limits?
Examining a normal distribution

Complete a sample of the
heights or masses of 50 people.
1 Calculate the mean and the
standard deviation of your
sample.
2 Calculate the percentage of
people whose height or mass
has a standardised score of
between −1 and 1.
between −2 and 2.
between −3 and 3.
summary
z-scores
• A data set is normally distributed if it is
symmetrical about the mean.
• A z-score measures the position of a score
relative to the mean and standard deviation.
• A z-score is found using the formula
x–x x–
z = -----------
s
where x is the score, x is the mean, and s is the standard deviation.
Comparison of scores
• Standardising both scores best compares scores from different data sets.
• When comparing exam marks, the highest z-score is the best result.
Distribution of scores
• A data set that is normally distributed will be symmetrical about the mean.
• 68% of scores will have a z-score of between −1 and 1.
• 95% of scores will have a z-score between −2 and 2. A score chosen from this data
set will very probably lie in this range.
• 99.7% of scores will have a z-score of between −3 and 3. A score chosen from the
data set will almost certainly lie within this range.
CHAPTER
review
1 Measurements of the amount of acid in a certain chemical are made. The results are
normally distributed such that the mean is 6.25% and the standard deviation is 0.25%. 11A
Harlan gets a reading of 5.75%. What is Harlan’s reading as a z-score?
2 A set of scores is normally distributed such that x = 15.3 and σn = 5.2. Convert each of the
following members of the distribution to z-scores. 11A
a 15.3 b 20.5 c 4.9 d 30.9 e 10.1
3 On an exam the results are normally distributed with a mean of 58 and a standard deviation
of 7.5. Jennifer scored a mark of 72 on the exam. Convert Jennifer’s mark to a z-score, 11A
giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
4 A set of scores is normally distributed with a mean of 2.8 and a standard deviation of 0.6.
Convert each of the following members of the data set to z-scores, correct to 2 decimal 11A
places.
a 2.9 b 3.9 c 1 d 1.75 e 1.6
5 Anji conducts a survey on the water temperature at her local beach each day for a month.
The results (in °C) are shown below. 11A
20 21 19 22 21 18 17 23 17 16 22 20 20 20 21
20 21 18 22 17 16 20 20 22 19 21 22 23 24 20
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the scores.
b Find the highest and lowest temperatures in the data set and express each as a z-score.
6 The table below shows the length of time for which a sample of 100 light bulbs will burn.
11A
Length of time (hours) Class centre Frequency
0–500 3
500–1000 28
1000–1500 59
1500–2000 10
a Find the mean and standard deviation for the data set.
b A further sample of five light bulbs are chosen. The length of time for which each light
bulb burned is given below. Convert each of the following to a standardised score.
i 1000 hours ii 1814 hours iii 256 hours iv 751 hours v 2156 hours
7 Betty sat exams in both Physics and Chemistry. In Physics the exam results showed a mean
of 48 and a standard deviation of 12, while in Chemistry the mean was 62 with a standard 11B
deviation of 9.
a Betty scored 66 in Physics. Convert this result to a z-score.
b Betty scored 71 in Chemistry. Convert this result to a z-score.
c In which subject did Betty achieve the better result? Explain your answer.
8 In Geography Carlos scored a mark of 56, while in Business studies he scored 58. In
11B Geography x = 64 and σn = 10. For Business studies x = 66 and σn = 15.
a Convert each mark to a standardised score.
b In which subject did Carlos achieve the better result?
9 A psychologist records the number of errors made on a series of tests. On a literacy test the
11B mean number of errors is 15.2 and the standard deviation is 4.3. On the numeracy test the
mean number of errors is 11.7 with a standard deviation of 3.1. Barry does both tests and
makes 11 errors on the literacy test and 8 errors on the numeracy test. In which test did
Barry do better? Explain your answer.
10 A data set is normally distributed with a mean of 40 and a standard deviation of 8. What
11C percentage of scores will lie in the range:
a 32 to 48? b 24 to 56? c 16 to 64?
11 The value of sales made on weekdays at a store appears to be normally distributed with a
11C mean of $1560 and a standard deviation of $115. On what percentage of days will the days’
sales lie between:
a $1445 and $1675? b $1330 and $1790? c $1215 and $1905?
12 A data set is normally distributed with a mean of 56 and a standard deviation of 8. What
11C percentage of scores will:
a lie between 56 and 64? b lie between 40 and 56? c be less than 40?
d be greater than 80? e lie between 40 and 80?
13 A machine is set to produce bolts with a mean diameter of 5 mm with a standard deviation
11C of 0.1 mm. A bolt is chosen and it is found to have a diameter of 4.5 mm. What conclusion
can be drawn about the settings of the machine?

1 multiple choice
The mean time for 12-year-old boys to
swim 50 m is 50.5 s with a standard
deviation of 4.2 s. Kyle swims 50 m in
44.2 s. Kyle’s time as a standardised score
is:
A −6.3 B −1.5
C 1.5 D 6.3
2 multiple choice
A teacher converts the marks on every test that she gives her class to a standardised score. On
a test the mean mark was 50 and the standard deviation was 10. Adam’s standardised score on
the test was −0.6. Adam’s mark on the test was:
A 40 B 44 C 56 D 60
3 multiple choice
The details of Andrea’s half-yearly exams are shown in the table below.
Subject Andrea’s mark Mean Standard deviation
English 65 50 12
Maths 62 52 6
History 75 58 15
Geography 50 44 4
In which subject did Andrea achieve her best result?
A English B Maths C History D Geography
4 multiple choice
The details of Brett’s half-yearly exams are shown in the table below.
Subject Brett’s mark Mean Standard deviation
English 40 50 12
Maths 48 52 6
History 49 58 15
Geography 42 44 4
In which subject did Brett achieve his best result?
A English B Maths C History D Geography
5 multiple choice
A data set is normally distributed with x = 25 and σn = 2.5. The percentage of scores that will
lie in the range 25 to 30 is:
A 34% B 47.5% C 68% D 95%
6 multiple choice
A fishing boat catches a load of fish and finds the mass of each fish. The masses of the fish are
normally distributed with a mean of 800 g and a standard deviation of 75 g. If a fish is chosen
from the catch, its mass will almost certainly lie between:
A 725 g and 875 g B 650 g and 950 g
C 575 g and 1025 g D 800 g and 1025 g
7 Theresa attempts to review her exam results in Physics and Chemistry. Theresa samples 10 of
her friends and finds the following results.
Physics: 65 64 67 69 72 50 66 66 63 69
Chemistry: 72 50 69 55 62 68 51 75 78 44
a Find the mean and standard deviation in each subject.
b Theresa’s marks were 65 in Physics and 67 in Chemistry. Convert each to a standardised
score.
c In which subject did Theresa score her best result? Explain your answer.
d A student is chosen at random from the Physics class. Between what two marks will this
person’s result very probably lie?
e If the marks within the class follow a normal distribution, within what two marks will
approximately 99.7% of all Chemistry scores lie?
8 A machine is set to cut lengths of metal such that the mean length of metal cut is 12.5 cm
with a standard deviation of 0.05 cm.
test a A piece of metal is measured to have a length of 12.4 cm. Express this as a standardised
yourself score.
CHAPTER
b A second piece of metal is measured and found to have a length of 13 cm. What conclusion
11 can be drawn from this measurement?
Correlation
12
syllabus reference
Data analysis 7
• Correlation
In this chapter
12A Scatterplots
12B Fitting a straight line by
eye
12C Fitting a straight line —
the 3-median method
12D Correlation
areyou
a copy.
12.1 Finding the median

1 Find the median of:
a 3, 5, 6, 3, 4, 2, 5, 2, 7 b 12, 15, 10, 11, 15, 15, 16, 11, 19, 16.
12.2 Using the regression equation to make predictions

2 For the equation y = 5x – 2 find:
a y if x = 40 b x if y = 258.
12.3 Finding the gradient I

3 Find the gradient of the line joining the points:
a (1, 3) and (4, 12) b (–2, –4) and (6, –2).
12.4 Finding the gradient II

4 Calculate the gradient of the following lines, and state whether the gradient is positive or
negative.
a Vertical rise = 12, horizontal run = 2
b Vertical rise = –6, horizontal run = 4
Chapter 12 Correlation 351
Scatterplots
The manager of a small ski resort has a problem. He wants to be able to predict the
number of skiers using his resort each weekend in advance, so that he can organise
additional resort staffing and catering if needed. He knows that good deep snow will
attract skiers in big numbers but scant covering is unlikely to attract a crowd. To
investigate the situation further, he collects the following data over twelve consecutive
weekends at his resort.
Depth of snow (m) Number of skiers

0.5 120
0.8 250
2.1 500
3.6 780
1.4 300
1.5 280
1.8 410
2.7 320
3.2 640
2.4 540
2.6 530
1.7 200
As there are two types of data in this example, they are called bivariate data. For
each item (weekend), two variables are considered (depth of snow and number of
skiers). When analysing bivariate data, we are interested in examining the relationship
between the two variables. In the case of the ski resort data we might be interested in
answering the following questions.
• Are visitor numbers related to depth of snow?
Number of skiers
• If there is a relationship between visitor 800

numbers and depth of snow, is it always true? or 600
is it just a guide? In other words, how strong is 400
the relationship?
200
• How much confidence could be placed in the
prediction? 0
0 1 2 3 4
To help answer these questions, the data can be Depth of snow (m)
arranged on a scatterplot.
Each of the data points is represented by a single visible point on the graph.
When drawing a scatterplot, it is important to choose the correct variable to assign to
each of the axes. The convention is to place the independent variable on the x-axis and
the dependent variable on the y-axis. The independent variable in an experiment or
investigation is the variable that is deliberately controlled or adjusted by the
investigator. The dependent variable is the variable that responds to changes in the
independent variable.
Neither of the variables involved in the ski resort data was controlled directly by the
investigator, but ‘Number of skiers’ would be considered the dependent variable
because it is likely to change depending on depth of snow. (The snow depth does not
depend on numbers of skiers). As ‘Number of skiers’ is the dependent variable, we
graph it on the y-axis and the ‘Depth of snow’ on the x-axis.
Notice how the scatterplot for the ski resort data shows a general upward trend. It is
not a perfectly straight line, but it is still clear that a general trend or relationship has
formed: as the depth of snow increases, so too does the number of skiers.
WORKED Example 1
The table below shows the height and mass of ten Year 12 students.
Height (cm) 120 124 130 135 142 148 160 164 170 175
Mass (kg) 45 50 54 59 60 65 70 78 75 80
Display the data on a scatterplot.

THINK WRITE
1 Show the height on the horizontal axis 80
and the mass on the vertical axis. 70
Mass (kg)
60
2 Plot the point given by each pair. 50
40
30
0
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Height (cm)
Graphics Calculator tip! Drawing a scatterplot

Your graphics calculator can draw a scatterplot by storing the two sets of data in
separate lists. Consider worked example 1.
2. Delete any existing data, and store the data for height
in List 1 and mass in List 2.
3. Press F1 (GRPH) (you may have to press F6 for
more options first); then press F6 (SET). Set the
graph type to Scatter by arrowing down to graph type
and pressing F1 (Scat) (again you may have to
press F6 for more options first). Ensure that XList
is List 1, YList is List 2 and Frequency is 1 as shown
at right.
4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen, and
then press F1 (GPH1). The scatterplot will then be
drawn.
Note that the graphics calculator sets the values on the x- and y-axes automatically.
You can press SHIFT F3 (V-Window) to set the scale as you see fit.
Once the scatterplot has been drawn, we can determine if any pattern is evident.
Worked example 1 shows how, as a general rule, as height increases so does mass.
We can also look to see if the pattern is linear. In worked example 1, although the
points are not in a perfect straight line, they approximate a straight line. The figures
below show examples of linear and non-linear relationships.
Linear relationships
y y
0 x 0 x
Non-linear relationships
y y
0 x 0 x
y y
0 x 0 x
In other cases it may be that there is no relationship y

at all between the two variables. Such a scatterplot
would look like the one shown on the right.
0 x
WORKED Example 2
The table below shows the length and mass of a dozen eggs.
Length (cm) 6.2 3.9 4.5 5.8 7.2 7.6 6.1 6.7 7.3 5.1 6.0 7.3
Mass (g) 60 15 25 50 95 110 55 75 95 35 54 96
a Display this information in a scatterplot.

b Determine if there is any relationship between the length and mass of the eggs and state
if the relationship is linear.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Display length on the x-axis and mass a 120
on the y-axis.
100
2 Plot the point given by each pair.
80
Mass (kg)
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Length (cm)
b 1 Study the scatterplot to see if mass b As length increases, so does the mass of
increases as length increases. the egg.
2 Study the scatterplot to see if the points The points do not approximate a straight
seem to approximate a straight line. line, and so the relationship is not linear.
remember
1. A scatterplot is a graph that is used to compare two variables.
2. One variable (the independent variable) is on the horizontal axis, and the other
variable (the dependent variable) is on the vertical axis.
3. Points are plotted by the pair formed by each variable.
4. A relationship between the variables exists if one increases as the other
increases or if one decreases as the other increases.
5. If the points on the scatterplot seem to approximate a straight line, the
relationship can be said to be linear.
12A Scatterplots
L Spre
XCE ad
1 The table below shows the marks obtained by a group of ten students in History and
sheet
E
WORKED
Example
1
Geography. Display this information on a scatterplot. Scatterplot
History 36 65 82 72 58 39 58 74 82 66
L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
Geography 45 78 66 72 50 51 61 70 60 88
Two
variable
2 The table below shows the maximum temperature each day, together with the number statistics
of people who attend the cinema that day. Display the information on a scatterplot.
Temperature (°C) 25 33 30 22 15 18 27 22 28 20
No. at cinema 256 184 190 312 458 401 200 357 312 423
3 The table below shows the wages, W, of 20 people and the amount of money they spend
each week on entertainment, E. Display this information in a scatterplot.
Wages ($) 370 380 500 510 395 430 535 490 495 550
Amount spent on
55 85 150 75 145 100 130 115 70 150
entertainment ($)
Wages ($) 810 460 475 520 530 475 610 780 350 460
Amount spent on
220 50 100 150 140 160 90 130 40 50
entertainment ($)
WORKED 4 The table below shows the marks obtained by nine students in English and History.
Example
2
English 55 20 27 33 73 18 37 51 79
History 72 37 53 74 73 44 59 55 84
a Display the information on a scatterplot.

b Is there any relationship between the mark obtained in English and in History? If
there does appear to be a relationship, is the relationship linear?
5 The table below shows the daily temperature and the number of hot pies sold at the
school canteen.
Temperature (°C) 24 32 28 23 16 14 26 20 29 21
No. of pies sold 56 20 24 60 84 120 70 95 36 63

b Determine if there appears to be any relationship between the two variables and if
the relationship appears to be linear.
6 Container ships arriving on a wharf are unloaded by work

teams. The table below shows the number of people in the
work team and the time taken to unload the container ship.
No. in work 15 18 12 19 22 21 17 16 18 20
team
Hours taken 20 16 25 15 14 13 18 20 17 14

b Determine if there appears to be a relationship between
the number of people in the work team and the time taken
to unload the container ship. If there is a relationship,
does the relationship appear to be linear?
7 multiple choice
Which of the following scatterplots does not display a linear relationship?
A y B y
x
x
C y D y
x x
8 multiple choice
In which of the following is no relationship evident between the variables?
A y B y
x
x
Cy Dy
x x
9 Give an example of a situation where the scatterplot may look like the ones below.
a y b y
0 x 0 x
Collecting bivariate data

1 Choose one of the following and collect data from within your class.
a Each person’s hand span and height.
b Each person’s resting heart rate and the time it takes for them to run 400 m.
c Each person’s mark in Mathematics and in Science.
2 Display the results on a scatterplot.
3 Discuss any relationship that may be evident between the two variables.
Regression lines
The process of ‘fitting’ straight lines to bivariate data enables us to analyse relation-
ships between the data and possibly make predictions based on the given data set.
Fitting a straight line by eye y

Consider the set of bivariate data points shown at right. In this case
the x-values could be heights of married women, while y-values
could be the heights of their husbands. We wish to determine a
linear relationship between these two random variables. x
Of course, there is no single straight line that would go through all the points, so we
can only estimate such a line.
Furthermore, the more closely the points appear to be on or near a straight line, the
more confident we are that such a linear relationship may exist and the more accurate
our fitted line should be.
Consider the estimate, drawn by eye in the figure below. It is clear that most of the
points are on or very close to this straight line. This line was easily drawn since the
points are very much part of an apparent linear relationship.
However, note that some points are below the line and some are above it. Further-
more, if x is the height of wives and y is the height of husbands, it seems that husbands
are generally taller than their wives.
y
Regression analysis is concerned with finding
these straight lines using various methods so that
the number of points above and below the lines
are balanced.
Method of fitting lines by eye x
There should be an equal number of points above and below the line. For example, if
there are 12 points in the data set, 6 should be above the line and 6 below it. This may
appear logical or even obvious, but fitting by eye involves a considerable margin of error.
WORKED Example 3
y
Fit a straight line to the data in the figure using
the equal-number-of-points method.
x
THINK DRAW
1 Note that the number of points (n) is 8.
2 Fit a line where 4 points are above the line. Using a y
clear plastic ruler, try to fit the best line.
x
3 The first attempt has only 3 points below the line y
where there should be 4. Make refinements.
x
4 The second attempt is an improvement, but the line is y
too close to the points above it. Improve the position
of the line until a better balance between upper and
lower points is achieved.
x
remember
To fit a straight line by eye, when using bivariate data, make sure there are an
equal number of points above and below the fitted line.
12B Fitting a straight line by eye

The questions below represent data collected by groups of students conducting different
environmental projects. The students have to fit a straight line to their data sets.
Note: For many of these questions your answers may differ somewhat from those in the
back of the book. The answers are provided as a guide but there are likely to be indi-
vidual differences when fitting straight lines by eye.
WORKED 1 Fit a straight line to the data in the scatterplots using the equal-number-of-points method.
Example
3 a y b y c y
x x x
d y e y f y
x
x x
g y h y i y
SHEE
T 12.1
Work
x x x
Fitting a straight line — the 3-median method

Fitting lines by eye is useful, but it is not the most accurate of methods. Greater accuracy
is achieved through closer analysis of the data. Upon closer analysis it is possible to find
the equation of a line of best fit of the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient and c
is the y-intercept. Several mathematical methods provide a line with a more accurate fit.
One of these methods is called the 3-median method and y

involves the division of the data set into 3 groups, and the 7
use of the 3 medians in these groups to determine a line of 6
best fit. It is used when data show a linear relationship. It 5
can even be used when the data contain outliers. The 4
3-median method is best described as a step-by-step method. 3
2
Step 1. Plot the points on a scatter diagram. This is shown in 1
figure 1. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Step 2. Divide the points into 3 groups using vertical Figure 1
divisions (see figure 2). The number of points in a
data set will not always be exactly divisible by 3. y
7
Thus, there will be three alternatives, as follows.
6
(a) If the number of points is divisible by 3, divide 5
them into 3 equal groups, for example, 3, 3, 3 or 4
7, 7, 7. 3
(b) If there is 1 extra point, put the extra point in the 2
middle group, for example, 3, 4, 3 or 7, 8, 7. 1
(c) If there are 2 extra points, put 1 extra point in 0
each of the outer groups, for example, 4, 3, 4 or 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
8, 7, 8. Figure 2
FM Fig 03.13
Step 3. Find the median point of each of the 3 groups and y
mark each median on the scatterplot (see figure 3). 7
Recall that the median is the middle value. So the 6
(xU, yU)
median point of each group has an x-coordinate that 5
is the median of the x-values in the group and a 4
(xM, yM)
3
y-coordinate that is the median of the y-values in the (xL, yL)
2
group.
1
(a) The left group is the lower group and its median
0
is denoted by (xL, yL). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
(b) The median of the middle group is denoted by
(xM, yM). Figure 3
(c) The right group is the upper group and its median y
is denoted by (xU, yU). 7
6
Note: Although the x-values are already in ascending order on
5
the scatterplot, the y-values within each group may need re- (xM, yM)
(xU, yU)
4
ordering before you can find the median. 3
Step 4. Draw in the line of best fit. Place your ruler so that it 2 (xL, yL)
passes through the lower and upper medians. Move the 1
ruler a third of the way toward the middle group 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
median while maintaining the slope. Hold the ruler
there and draw the line. Figure 4
Step 5. Find the equation of the 3-median regression line (general form y = mx + c).
Draw on your knowledge of finding equations of lines to find the equation of
the line drawn on the scatterplot. If the scale on the axes begins at zero, you
can read off the y-intercept of the line and calculate the gradient of the line.
This will enable you to find the equation of the line.
The equation of a straight line can be found using y = mx + b , where m is the
gradient and b is the y-intercept. The gradient of the regression line is best found with
a ruler and using the formula:
vertical change in position
m = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
horizontal change in position
WORKED Example 4
Find the equation of the regression line for the x 1 2 3 4 5 7
data in the table at right using the 3-median
method. y 1 3 2 6 5 6
THINK WRITE
1 Plot the points on a scatterplot, and y
divide the data into 3 groups. Note 7
there are 6 points, so the division will 6
be 2, 2, 2. 5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
2 Find the median point of each group. (xL, yL) = (1.5, 2)

Since each group has only 2 points, (xM, yM) = (3.5, 4)
medians are found by averaging them. (xU, yU) = (6, 5.5)
3 Mark in the medians, and place a ruler y
on the outer 2 medians. Maintaining the 7
same slope on the ruler, move it one- 6
third of the way towards the middle 5
median. Draw the line. 4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
4 Read off the y-intercept from the graph. y-intercept = 1
5.5 – 2
5 Use (xL, yL) and (xU, yU) to calculate the Gradient (m) = ----------------
6 – 1.5
gradient.
3.5
= -------
4.5
7
= ---
9
7
6 Write the equation of the 3-median y = --- x + 9 or
9
regression line.
9y = 7x + 81
WORKED Example 5
The scatterplot below shows a comparison between the heights and weights of 12 boys.
The median points A and B in the first and last sections have been found for you.
100
90
80 A
Weight (kg)
70 B
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Height (cm)
a Find the coordinates of median point C, and hence find the median regression line.
b Find the gradient and y-intercept of the regression line, and hence find the equation of
the regression line.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Find the coordinates of point C by a x-values are: 165, 170, 170 and 175
finding the median of the x-values 170 + 170
and finding the median of the y- Median x-value = ------------------------ = 170
2
values. y-values are: 65, 70, 70 and 80
70 + 70
Median y-value = ------------------ = 70
2
The coordinates of C are (170, 70).
2 Mark point C on the diagram.
3 Rule a line through points A and B.
4 Move the line AB one-third of the way

towards C, keeping the new line parallel
to AB.
100
90
80 A
Weight (kg)
70 B
60 C
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Height (cm)
THINK WRITE
rise
b 1 Calculate the gradient, m, by finding b m = --------
the rise and run between two points on run
the line. 78 – 70
m = ------------------------
190 – 140
m = 0.16
2 Read the value from the graph to state b = 49
the y-intercept, b.
3 Substitute m and b into the formula The equation is of the form y = mx + b,
y = mx + b to find the equation of the where x represents height in cm and
regression line. y represents weight in kg.
y = 0.16x + 49
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the equation of

a regression line
The Casio graphics calculator can be used to find the equation of a median regression
line. Consider worked example 5.
2. Enter the data into List 1 and List 2 and draw the scat-
terplot as shown in the previous section. Since we are
using the calculator it is not necessary to draw the
scatterplot from 0 on the axes.
3. Press F2 (Med) to find the equation of the median

regression line. The value of a is the gradient of the
line and the value of b is the y-intercept.
4. If you want to see the regression line drawn on the

scatterplot, press F6 (DRAW).
In the above example we would give the equation y = 0.15x + 49, which is slightly dif-
ferent from the example done on paper. Because the method relies on the eye to find
two points on the regression line to find the gradient and y-intercept, minor differences
are insignificant and quite acceptable.
Once the regression line has been found, we are able to use the equation to make
predictions about other pieces of data.
WORKED Example 6
A casino records the number of people, N, playing a jackpot game and the prize money, p,
for that game and plots the results on a scatterplot. The regression line is found to have the
equation N = 0.07p + 220.
a Find the number of people playing when the prize money is $2500.
b Find the likely prize on offer when there are 500 people playing.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation of the regression line. a N = 0.07p + 220

2 Substitute 2500 for p. N = 0.07 × 2500 + 220
3 Calculate N. = 395
4 Give a written answer. There would be approximately
395 people playing.
b 1 Write the equation of the regression line. b N = 0.07p + 220

2 Substitute 500 for N. 500 = 0.07p + 220
3 Solve the equation. 280 = 0.07p
p = 4000
4 Give a written answer. The prize would be approximately $4000.
remember
1. The median regression line is the line of best fit that is drawn on a scatterplot.
2. The median regression line can be drawn using the method of three medians.
3. To find the median regression line:
(a) divide the points into three approximately equal sections. If the number of
points is not divisible by three, make sure there is the same number of
points in the first and last sections.
(b) mark median points in the first and last sections by finding the median of
the x-values and finding the median of the y-values for each section. Label
these points A and B.
(c) find the median point in the middle section and label this point C.
(d) draw the line AB and then move the line one-third of the way towards C,
keeping the line parallel to AB.
4. The equation of the regression line can be found by measuring the gradient and
the y-intercept of the regression line and using the formula y = mx + b .
Sometimes the gradient of the median regression line will be negative.
5. Once the equation of the regression line has been found, it can then be used to
make predictions about the variables.
12C Fitting a straight line — the

3-median method
WORKED 1 The table below shows the marks achieved by a class of students in English and Maths. 12.1 SkillS
Example
4
HEET
English 64 75 81 63 32 56 47 59 73 64
Finding
Maths 76 62 89 56 49 57 53 72 80 50 the
median
Show these data on a scatterplot, and on the graph show the regression line using the
3-median method. 12.2 SkillS
2 Position the median regression line, using the 3-median method, through each of the
HEET
following graphs, and find the equation of each. Using
the regression
a 70 b 70 equation
60 60 to make
50 50 predictions
40 40
30 30
20 20 12.3 SkillS
10 10
HEET
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Finding the
gradient I
c
3000
2500 12.4 SkillS
HEET
2000
Finding the
1500 gradient II
1000
500 L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 3-median
regression
WORKED 3 In an experiment, a student measures the length of a spring when different masses
Example
5
are attached to it. Her results are shown below. L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
Mass (g) Length of spring (mm) Making
0 220 predictions
100 225
200 231
300 235
400 242
500 246
600 250
700 254
800 259
900 264
a Draw a scatterplot of the data, and on it draw the median line of regression, using
the 3-median method.
b Find the gradient and y-intercept of the regression line, and hence find the equation
of the regression line.
4 A scientist who measures the volume of a gas

at different temperatures provides the table of Temperature Volume
values at right. (°C) (L)
a Draw a scatterplot of the data and on it −40 1.2
draw the line of regression using the −30 1.9
3-median method. −20 2.4
b Give the equation of the line of best fit. Write 0 3.1
your equation in terms of the variables: 10 3.6
volume of gas, V, and its temperature, T.
20 4.1
5 A sports scientist is interested in the 30 4.8
importance of muscle bulk to strength. He
40 5.3
measures the biceps circumference of ten
people and tests their strength by asking them 50 6.1
to complete a lift test. His results are given in 60 6.7
the following table.
Circumference of biceps (cm) Lift test (kg)
25 50
25 52
27 58
28 51
30 60
30 62
31 53
33 62
34 61
36 66
a Draw a scatterplot of the data and draw the median line of regression using the
3-median method.
b Find a rule for determining the ability of a person to complete a lift test, S, from
the circumference of their biceps, B.
WORKED 6 A taxi company adjusts its meters so that the fare is charged according to the
Example
6
following equation: F = 1.2d + 3, where F is the fare, in dollars, and d is the distance
travelled, in km.
a Find the fare charged for a distance of 12 km.
b Find the fare charged for a distance of 4.5 km.
c Find the distance that could be covered on a fare of $27.
d Find the distance that could be covered on a fare of $13.20.
7 Detectives can use the equation H = 6.1f − 5 to estimate the height of a burglar who
leaves footprints behind. (H is the height of the burglar, in cm, and f is the length of
the footprint.)
a Find the height of a burglar whose footprint is 27 cm in length.
b Find the height of a burglar whose footprint is 30 cm in length.
c Find the footprint length of a burglar of height 185 cm. (Give your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.)
d Find the footprint length of a burglar of height 152 cm. (Give your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.)
8 A pie seller at a football match finds that the number of pies sold is related to the
temperature of the day. The situation could be modelled by the equation
N = 870 − 23t, where N is the number of pies sold and t is the temperature of the day.
a Find the number of pies sold if the temperature was 5 degrees.
b Find the number of pies sold if the temperature was 25 degrees.
c Find the likely temperature if 400 pies were sold.
d How hot would the day have to be before the pie seller sold no pies at all?
9 The following table shows the average annual costs of running a car. It includes all
fixed costs (registration, insurance etc.) as well as running costs (petrol, repairs etc.).
Distance (km) Annual cost ($)
5 000 4 000
10 000 6 400
15 000 8 400
20 000 10 400
25 000 12 400
30 000 14 400
a Draw a scatterplot of the data.

b Using the 3-median method, draw in the line of best fit.
c Find an equation which represents the relationship between the cost of running a
vehicle, C, and the distance travelled, d.
d Use your graph and its equation to find:
i the annual cost of running a car if it is driven 15 000 km
ii the annual cost of running a car if it is driven 1000 km
iii the likely number of kilometres driven if the annual costs were $8000
iv the likely number of kilometres driven if the annual costs were $16 000.
10 A market researcher finds that the number of people Price Weekly sales
who would purchase ‘Wise-up’ (the thinking man’s ($) (× 1000)
deodorant) is related to its price. He provides the
1.40 105
table of values at right.
a Draw a scatterplot of the data. 1.60 101
b Draw in the line of best fit. 1.80 97
c Find an equation that represents the relationship
between the number of cans of ‘Wise-up’ sold, N 2.00 93
(in thousands), and its price, p. 2.20 89
d Use the equation to predict the number of cans
2.40 85
sold each week if:
ii the price was $3.10 2.60 81
ii the price was $4.60. 2.80 77
e At what price should ‘Wise-up’ be sold if the
manufacturers wished to sell 80 000 cans? 3.00 73
f Given that the manufacturers of ‘Wise-up’ can 3.20 69
produce only 100 000 cans each week, at what
3.40 65
price should it be sold to maximise production?
11 The following table gives the adult return air fares between some Australian cities.
City Distance (km) Price ($)

Melbourne–Sydney 713 580
Perth–Melbourne 2728 1490
Adelaide–Sydney 1172 790
Brisbane–Melbourne 1370 890
Hobart–Melbourne 559 520
Hobart–Adelaide 1144 820
Adelaide–Melbourne 669 570
a Draw a scatterplot of the data and on it draw the median regression line using the
line of best fit.
b Find an equation that represents the relationship between the air fare, A, and the
distance travelled, d.
c Use the equation to predict the likely air fare (to the nearest dollar) from:
i Sydney to the Gold Coast (671 km)
ii Perth to Adelaide (2125 km)
iii Hobart to Sydney (1024 km)
iv Perth to Sydney (3295 km).
12 Rock lobsters (crayfish) are sized according to the length of their carapace (main body
shell). The table below gives the age and carapace length of 16 male rock lobsters.
Length of
Age (years) carapace (mm)
3 65
2.5 59
4.5 80
4.5 80
3.25 68
7.75 130
8 150
6.5 112
12 200
14 210
4.5 82
3.5 74
2.25 51
1.76 48
10 171
9.5 160
a Display this information on a scatterplot, and on your scatterplot draw the median
line of regression using the line of best fit.
b Find the equation of the median regression line.
c Use the equation to find the likely size of a 5-year-old male rock lobster.
d Use the equation to find the likely size of a 16-year-old male rock lobster.
e Rock lobsters reach sexual maturity when their carapace length is approximately
65 mm. Use the equation to find the age of the rock lobster at this stage.
f The fisheries department wants to set minimum size restrictions so that the rock
lobsters have three full years from the time of sexual maturity in which to breed
before they can be legally caught. What size should govern the taking of a male
rock lobster?
Note: Answers for this exercise are approximate and may vary due to the precise
location of the line of best fit.
Relationship between variables

Earlier in the chapter you would have completed an investigation of bivariate data.
You should have displayed the information on a scatterplot.
1 On your scatterplot draw the median regression line.
2 Find the equation of the median regression line.
3 Find a few more people to test your data. See how accurately your equation
predicts the results. (For example measure a person’s hand span and use your
equation to predict their height.)
1
An electrical repair business charges its customers using the formula C = 40h + 35,
where C is the cost of the repairs and h is the time taken for the repairs, in hours. Find
the cost of a repair job that took:
1 2 hours 2 5 hours 3 1 hour and 15 minutes.
Estimate the time taken for repairs if the cost of the repairs were:
4 $175 5 $275 6 $145.
The information below is to be used for questions 7 to 10.
A survey relating exam marks to the amount of television watched finds that the median
regression line has the equation M = 95 − 15t, where M is the mark obtained and t is the
average number of hours of television watched each night by the students.
7 Estimate the mark of a person who averages one hour of television per night.
8 Estimate the mark of a person who watches an average 4 hours of television per night.
9 Estimate the amount of television watched per night by a person who scores a mark of
65.
10 Jodie scored 27.5 on the exam. Estimate the average amount of television that Jodie
watches each night.
Correlation
Correlation is a description of the relationship that exists between two variables. When
one variable increases with another, it is said that there is a positive correlation between
the variables. In such a case, the median regression line will have a positive gradient.
Similarly, if one variable decreases while the other increases, the median regression
line will have a negative gradient and the correlation is negative.
Consider the following example in which ten Year 11 students were surveyed to find
the amount of time that they spend doing exercise each week. This was compared with
their blood cholesterol level.
Period of exercise (h) 6 8 12 16 2 0 5 8 7 12
Blood cholesterol level 4 3 3 3 9 8 9 6 5 4
In this example there seems to be a

general downward trend, and the median
regression line therefore has a negative
Blood cholesterol level

10
gradient. As the amount of exercise
increases, the level of blood cholesterol 8
decreases. 6
Notice that in this case the points are 4
not as closely aligned as in the previous
2
examples. We can say that the relation-
ship (or correlation) between the vari- 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
ables is only weak. In general terms, the Period of exercise
closer that the points are to forming a
straight line, the stronger the relationship
is between the variables.
Sometimes we find that there is no
relationship between the variables. In the
scatterplot below, a researcher was
looking for a link between people’s
heights and their IQs. The points appear
to be randomly dispersed across the scat-
terplot. In cases like this, it can be con-
cluded that there is no clear relationship
between the variables.
140
120
IQ
100
80
60
120 140 160 180 200
Height (m)
WORKED Example 7
In the figure on the right, describe the
correlation as being positive or negative.
THINK WRITE
1 Add a median regression line to the
scatterplot.
2 The gradient of the regression line is positive. There is a positive correlation.

3 Therefore the correlation is positive.
The strength of a correlation is based on the correlation coefficient. The correlation

coefficient is a measure of a correlation.
Correlation coefficient Description Scatterplot
1 Perfect positive correlation
Between 0.75 and 1 Strong positive correlation
Between 0.5 and 0.75 Moderate positive

correlation
Between 0.25 and 0.5 Weak positive correlation
Between −0.25 and 0.25 No correlation
Between −0.5 and −0.25 Weak negative correlation

Correlation coefficient Description Scatterplot

Between −0.75 and −0.5 Moderate negative
correlation
Between −1 and −0.75 Strong negative correlation
−1 Perfect negative correlation
WORKED Example 8
The operators of a casino keep records of the number of people playing a ‘Jackpot’ type
game and compare the numbers playing to the size of the jackpot. The correlation
coefficient for this game is calculated to be 0.65. Describe the correlation between the
prize and the number of players.
THINK WRITE
The correlation coefficient is between 0.5 There is a moderate positive correlation
and 0.75 and so it is a moderate positive between the jackpot and the number of players
correlation. in the game.
Causality
Causality refers to one variable causing another.
For example, there is a high correlation between
a person’s shoe size and shirt size. However, one
does not cause the other. Similarly, there is a
high correlation between number of cigarettes
smoked and lung cancer but, in this case,
smoking causes lung cancer.
Explain whether a positive or negative
relationship exists and discuss causality in each
of the following.
1. Hours of study and exam marks
2. Hours of exercise and resting pulse rate
3. Weight and shirt size
4. The number of hotels and churches in country
towns
5. The number of motels in a town and the number of flights landing at the nearest
airport
It is possible to make a qualitative judgement as to the type of correlation that is
involved in a relationship by the general appearance of the graph. Care must be taken
before making a statement about one variable causing the other.
Just because there is a strong relationship between two variables, it does not mean
that one variable causes the other. For example, there is a very strong positive correlation
in people between their shoe size and their shirt size, but one does not cause the other.
Similarly, there is a very strong correlation between the amount of study done for an
exam and the result achieved on the exam. In this case it can be argued that the study
causes the high exam mark. Each case needs to be considered on its merit.
WORKED Example 9
A manufacturer who is interested in minimising the cost of training gives 15 of his plant
operators different amounts of training and then measures the number of errors made by
each of the operators. The results of the experiment are placed on a scatterplot and the
correlation between the number of hours of training and the number of errors made is
measured to have a correlation coefficient of −0.69.
a What can be said of the correlation between training and errors?
b What conclusion could the manufacturer make about causality in this case?
THINK WRITE
a 1 The correlation coefficient is a
between −0.75 and −0.5.
2 A correlation coefficient in this There is a moderate negative correlation between
range indicates a moderate the amount of training and the number of errors
negative correlation. made.
b In this case it would seem logical b The manufacturer could reasonably presume that
that those that have undertaken more the more training a person is given, the less likely
training would make fewer errors. they are to make errors with the machinery.
remember
1. The pattern of the scatterplot gives an
indication of the level of association Strong positive 1 Perfect positive
(correlation) between the variables. correlation correlation
0.75
2. When one variable increases with Moderate positive
correlation
another, there is a positive correlation 0.5
between them. Weak positive
3. When one variable decreases while the correlation 0.25
other increases, there is negative No correlation 0
correlation.
4. The extent of the correlation is then Weak negative – 0.25
correlation
measured by the correlation coefficient. – 0.5
The description of the correlation is Moderate negative
correlation
given in the figure on the right. – 0.75
Strong negative
5. Strong correlation between two correlation –1 Perfect negative
variables does not necessarily mean that correlation
one variable causes the other.
12D Correlation
WORKED 1 For each of the following, state whether a positive or negative correlation exists.
Example
7 a b c
2 A sample of 10 drivers was taken. Each driver was asked their age and the number of
speeding offences they had committed in the past five years. The results are in the
table below.
Age 22 36 48 40 58 64 23 25 30 45
Speeding offences 4 2 1 1 2 0 3 7 1 0

b State if there is a positive or a negative correlation between age and speeding
offences.
3 Match each of the following scatterplots with the correlation that it shows.
a b c
A B C
d e f
D E F
Strong positive correlation Moderate positive correlation

Weak positive correlation No correlation
Weak negative correlation Moderate negative correlation
Strong negative correlation
4 A pie seller at a football match notices that there seems to be a relationship between
the number of pies that he sells and the temperature of the day. He collects the
following data.
Daily temperature (°C) 12 22 26 11 8 18 14 16 15 16
Number of pies sold 620 315 295 632 660 487 512 530 546 492
a Draw a scatterplot of the data.

b State the type of correlation that the scatterplot shows and draw a conclusion from
the graph.
5 A researcher is investigating the effect of living in airconditioned buildings upon

general health. She records the following data.
Hours spent each week in

2 13 6 48 40 0 10 0 2 5 18 10
airconditioned buildings
Number of days sick due

3 6 2 15 13 8 14 1 16 9 9 6
to flu and colds
a Plot the data on a scatterplot.

b State the type of correlation the graph shows and draw a conclusion from it.
c The researcher finishes her experimental report by concluding that airconditioning
is the cause of poor health. Is she correct to say this? What other factors could have
influenced the relationship shown by the scatterplot?
6 The data below show the population and area of the Australian states and territories.
State Area (× 1000 km2) Population (× 1000)
Vic. 228 5092
NSW 802 6828
ACT 2 329
Qld 1727 4053
NT 1346 207
WA 2526 2051
SA 984 1555
Tas. 68 489

b State the type of correlation the graph shows and draw a conclusion from it.
7 In an experiment, 12 people were administered different doses of a drug. When the

drug had taken effect, the time taken for each person to react to a set stimulus was
measured. The results are detailed below.
Amount of drug (mg) Reaction time (s)

0.1 0.030
0.2 0.025
0.3 0.028
0.4 0.036
0.5 0.040
0.6 0.052
0.7 0.046
0.8 0.068
0.9 0.085
1.0 0.092
1.1 0.084
1.2 0.096

b State the type of correlation the graph shows, and draw a conclusion from it.
8 multiple choice
What type of correlation is shown by the graph on
the right?
A No correlation
B Weak negative correlation
C Moderate negative correlation
D Strong negative correlation
9 multiple choice
What type of correlation is shown by the graph on
the right?
A No correlation
B Weak positive correlation
C Moderate positive correlation
D Strong positive correlation
10 What type of correlation would be represented by scatterplots that had the following
correlation coefficients?
a 1.0 b 0.4 c 0.8 d −0.7 e 0.35
f 0.21 g −0.75 h −0.50 i −0.25 j −1.0
WORKED 11 A researcher investigating the proposition that ‘tall mothers have tall sons’ measures
Example
the heights of 12 mothers and the heights of their adult sons. The correlation coefficient
8
is found to be 0.67. Describe the correlation between tall mothers and tall sons.
12 A teacher who is interested in the amount of time students
spend doing homework asks 15 students to record the amount
of time that they spend on homework and on watching
television. The correlation coefficient is found to be −0.45.
Interpret the correlation between homework and television
watching.
13 A psychologist asked 20 people to rate their ‘level of

contentment’ on a scale of 0 to 10 (10 representing
‘perfectly content’). This rating is compared to annual
income.
a The correlation coefficient is found to be −0.18.
Describe the correlation between income and level
of contentment.
b The researcher then intends to write an essay entitled
‘Money can’t buy happiness’. Do the results confirm
this statement?
WORKED 14 An experimenter who is investigating the
Example
9
relationship between exercise and obesity
measures the weights of 30 boys (of
equal height) and also documents the
amount of physical exercise that the
boys completed each week.
The correlation coefficient is found to be −0.47.
a What can be said of the correlation between obesity and exercise?
b What conclusion could be made about causality in this case?
15 multiple choice
A researcher is interested in the association between the work rate of production
workers and the level of incentive that they are offered under a certain scheme. After
drawing a scatterplot, she calculates the correlation between the two variables at 0.82.
The researcher can conclude that:
A There is a strong positive correlation between the variables; the greater the incen-
tive, the lower the work rate.
B There is a strong positive correlation between the variables; the greater the incen-
tive, the greater the work rate. SHEE
T 12.2
Work
C There is a strong negative correlation between the variables; the greater the
incentive, the lower the work rate.
D There is a strong negative correlation; incentives cause an increase in the work rate.
summary
Scatterplots
• When looking for a relationship between two variables, data can be represented on
a scatterplot.
• One variable (the independent variable) is on the x-axis and the other variable (the
dependent variable) is on the y-axis.
• Points are plotted by the coordinates formed by each piece of data.
• If the dependent variable consistently increases or decreases as the independent
variable increases, a relationship exists.
• If all points on the scatterplot form a straight line, the relationship is said to be
linear.
• The pattern of the scatterplot gives an indication of the strength of the relationship
or level of association between the variables. This level of association is called
correlation.
• A strong correlation between variables does not imply that one variable causes the
other to occur.
Median regression lines
• A regression line is the line of best fit on a scatterplot.
• By measuring the gradient and the y-intercept on the regression line, we can use the
formula y = mx + b to find the equation.
• When the equation of a regression line has been found, it can then be used to make
predictions about the data.
• We can find the regression line by using the eye method or the method of
3-medians.
Correlation
• Correlation is the measure of the relationship between two variables.
• A correlation can be positive or negative and has the same sign as the gradient of
the median regression line.
• A positive correlation means that one quantity will increase as the other increases.
• A negative correlation means that one quantity will decrease as the other increases.
• Correlation can be quantified by using a correlation coefficient.
• The correlation coefficient may be interpreted as follows:
q=1 Perfect positive correlation
0.75 ≤ q < 1 Strong positive correlation
0.5 ≤ q < 0.75 Moderate positive correlation
0.25 ≤ q < 0.5 Weak positive correlation
−0.25 < q < 0.25 No correlation
−0.5 < q ≤ −0.25 Weak negative correlation
−0.75 < q ≤ −0.5 Moderate negative correlation
−1 < q ≤ −0.75 Strong negative correlation
q = –1 Perfect negatve correlation
• The correlation coefficient will always be a number between −1 and 1 or equal to
–1 or 1.
CHAPTER
review
1 The table below shows the maximum and minimum temperature on 10 days chosen at
random throughout the year. Display this information on a scatterplot. 12A
Maximum temperature (°C) 25 36 21 40 24 26 30 18 20 25
Minimum temperature (°C) 12 21 11 23 12 15 19 10 8 13
2 The table below shows the number of sick days taken by ten employees and relates this to
the number of children that they have. 12A
No. of children 1 0 3 2 2 4 6 0 1 2
No. of sick days 5 3 10 8 4 12 12 0 1 5
a Show this information on a scatterplot.

b Does a relationship appear to exist between the number of sick days taken and the
number of children they have? If so, is the relationship linear?
3 The table below shows the number of cars and number of televisions in each household.
12A
No. of cars 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 0 1 2
No. of televisions 2 1 1 2 0 1 4 3 1 1
a Show this information on a scatterplot.

b Does a relationship appear to exist between the number of televisions in each household
and the number of cars they have? If so, is the relationship linear?
4 The table below shows the relationship between two variables, x and y.
12B
x 2 4 18 7 9 12 2 7 11 10 16
y 103 75 20 66 70 50 95 40 27 42 30
a Prepare a scatterplot of the data.

b On the scatterplot, fit a regression line by eye.
c By measuring the gradient and the y-intercept of the median regression line, find its
approximate equation.
5 A survey is conducted comparing household income, I, with house value, V. A scatterplot is

drawn and the regression line is found to have the equation V = 3.7I + 50 000. Use the 12C
equation to find:
a the likely value of a house owned by a family with an income of $52 000
b the likely income (to the nearest $1000) of a family living in a house valued at $320 000.
6 An entomologist conducted an experiment in which small amounts of insecticide were

12C introduced to a container of 100 blowflies. The results are detailed below.
Insecticide (I) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(micrograms)
No. remaining after 2 h (F) 99 92 81 74 62 68 52 45 38 24
a Display the above information on a scatterplot and, on the scatterplot, draw the median
line of regression.
b Find the equation of the regression line.
c Use the equation to predict the number of blowflies that would remain after two hours if
4.25 micrograms of insecticide was introduced.
d Estimate the amount of insecticide needed to remove all blowflies.
7 For each of the following scatterplots, state whether the correlation is positive or negative.
12D a b c
8 The table below shows the relationship between the crowd at cricket matches and the
12D number of matches the home team has won during the season.
No. of wins by home team Crowd
3 8 000
10 21 000
7 11 000
14 22 000
8 13 000
9 12 000
12 19 000
a Display this information on a scatterplot.

b On the scatterplot, draw the median regression line.
c State if a positive or negative correlation exists between the number of wins by the home
team and the crowd at their matches.
9 For each of the following, state the type of correlation if the correlation coefficient is:
12D a 0 b 1 c −0.5 d −0.84 e 0.3
10 An experiment that tested the strength of wooden beams of different thickness demonstrated
12D a correlation of 0.9 between the variables.
a What type of correlation exists in this case?
b What can be said about causality in this case?
11 A survey in which people were asked to state their age and the age of their car revealed a
correlation coefficient of −0.65. 12D
a What type of correlation exists in this case?
b What can be said about causality in this case?

1 multiple choice
A researcher administers different amounts of fertiliser to a number of trial plots of potato
crop. She then measures the total mass of potatoes harvested from each plot. When drawing
the scatterplot, the researcher should graph:
A mass of harvest on the x-axis because it is the independent variable, and amount of
fertiliser on the y-axis because it is the dependent variable
B mass of harvest on the y-axis because it is the independent variable, and amount of
fertiliser on the x-axis because it is the dependent variable
C mass of harvest on the x-axis because it is the dependent variable, and amount of fertiliser
on the y-axis because it is the independent variable
D mass of harvest on the y-axis because it is the dependent variable, and amount of fertiliser
on the x-axis because it is the independent variable.
2 multiple choice
Which of the following graphs best depicts a strong negative correlation between variables?
A y B y
x x
C y D y
x x
3 multiple choice
What type of correlation is shown by the graph on the right?
y
A Strong positive correlation
B Moderate positive correlation
C Moderate negative correlation
D Strong negative correlation
x
4 multiple choice
A researcher finds that there is a correlation coefficient of −0.62 between the number of pedestrian
crossings in a town and the number of pedestrian accidents. The researcher can conclude that:
A Pedestrian crossings cause pedestrian accidents.
B Pedestrian crossings save lives.
C There is evidence to show that pedestrian crossings cause accidents.
D There is evidence to show that the greater the number of pedestrian crossings, the smaller
the number of pedestrian accidents.
5 multiple choice
A researcher, who counts the amount of time taken for production line workers to assemble
components, relates it to the number of weeks that each worker has spent on the production
line. He finds a correlation of −0.82 and can conclude that:
A the greater the number of weeks spent on the production line, the quicker the assembly of
components
B the greater the number of weeks spent on the production line, the slower the assembly of
components
C many weeks doing the same task causes production workers to become efficient
D many weeks doing the same task causes production workers to become bored and slow as
a result.
6 The scatterplot on the right shows the
Number of skiers
number of skiers at a resort and the depth of 800
snow. The median regression line has been 600
drawn on the scatterplot and has the equation
400
N = 191s + 25, where N is the number of
skiers and s is the snow depth. 200
a Does a linear relationship exist between 0
depth of snow and number of skiers? 0 1 2 3 4 5
Snow depth (m)
b Use the equation of the median regression line to estimate:
i the number of skiers if the depth of snow is 3.6 m
ii the depth of snow if there are 500 skiers (correct to 1 decimal place).
c By studying the scatterplot:
i state if the correlation between depth of snow and number of skiers is positive or
negative
ii describe the correlation as strong, moderate or weak.
7 The table below shows world population from 1955 to 2005.
Year 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
World pop. 2750 3000 3400 3700 4000 4400 4800 5300 5750 6073 6451
(million)
a Display this information on a scatterplot.

b Draw the median regression line on your scatterplot.
test c Let Y be the number of years since 1950 and P the world population. Find the equation of
yourself your median regression line.
CHAPTER
12 d Use your graph to estimate the world population in 2010.

e Estimate from your graph when world population will exceed 10 billion.
Spherical
geometry
13
syllabus reference
Measurement 7
• Spherical geometry
In this chapter
13A Arc lengths
13B Great circles and small
circles
13C Latitude and longitude
13D Distances on the Earth’s
surface
13E Time zones
areyou
a copy.
13.1 Circumference of a circle

1 Find the circumference of the following circles. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
11 cm 6400 km
28 m
13.2 Calculating arc length

2 Find the arc length of each of the following. Answer correct to 3 significant figures.
a b c
6m
240°
120° 9.9 m
12.2 cm
13.3 Converting units of time

3 Convert each of the following to the unit indicated in brackets.
a 160 minutes (hours and minutes)
b 3 1--- hours (minutes)
2
c 4 weeks (days)
d 15 months (years)
4 Use 1 nautical mile ⯝ 1.852 km to convert the following.

a 6 nautical miles to kilometres
b 80 kilometres to nautical miles
c 4.2 nautical miles to metres
d 7530 metres to nautical miles
Chapter 13 Spherical geometry 385
Arc lengths
An arc is a section of the circumference of a circle. To calculate an arc length we must
first revise the circumference of a circle. The circumference of a circle can be found
using either of the formulas:
C = π d, where d is the diameter
C = 2π r, where r is the radius.
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the circumference of a circle that has a radius of 6 m. Give your answer correct
THINK WRITE
2 Substitute the value of r. C=2×π×6
3 Calculate the circumference. C = 37.70 m
The length of an arc can be calculated as the fraction of l

the circle determined by the angle subtended by the arc
at the centre, as shown in the figure on the right.
The arc length, l, can be calculated using the formula:
r
θ
l = --------- 2π r
360 θ
where θ = number of degrees in the central angle.
WORKED Example 2 l
Calculate the length of the arc shown on the right,
7.1 cm
60°
THINK WRITE
θ
1 Write the formula. l = --------- 2π r
360
60
2 Substitute the value of θ and r. l = --------- × 2 × π × 7.1
360
3 Calculate the arc length. l = 7.4 cm
The arc length formula is then used to make calculations about the distance between
points on the Earth’s surface.
WORKED Example 3
The radius of the Earth at the equator is approximately 6400 km.
a Calculate the circumference of the Earth at the equator, correct to the nearest
kilometre.
b Two points on the equator subtend at a 5° angle at the centre of the Earth. Calculate the
distance between them, correct to the nearest kilometre.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula. a C = 2π r
2 Substitute the value of r. = 2 × π × 6400
3 Calculate the circumference. = 40 212 km
θ
b 1 Write the formula. b d = --------- 2π r
360
5
2 Substitute for θ and r. = --------- × 2 × π × 6400
360
3 Calculate the distance. = 559 km
remember
1. The circumference of a circle can be found using either of the formulas C = π d
or C = 2π r.
2. An arc length is calculated by using the angle the arc subtends at the centre of
a circle. The arc length is calculated using the formula:
θ
l = --------- 2π r
360
where θ is the number of degrees in the central angle.
3. The arc length formula can be used to find the distance between points on the
equator.
13A Arc lengths
13.1 WORKED 1 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles, correct to 1 decimal place.
HEET Example
a b c
SkillS
1
Circumference
of a circle 62 mm
4 cm
9m
omet
i Ge ry
Cabr
Arc d e f
length
13.9 km 8.3 m
4.1 km
2 Calculate the circumference of a circle with a radius of 100 km. Give your answer
correct to the nearest 10 km.
3 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles. Give your answer correct
to 3 significant figures.
a b c
60 km
14 cm 39 m
d e f
117 mm
3.7 km 219 km
4 Calculate the circumference of a circle that has a diameter of 3000 km. Give your
answer correct to the nearest 100 km.
5 Use the formula C = π d to find the diameter of a circle with a circumference of
100 cm. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
6 Find (correct to 3 significant figures):
a the diameter of a circle with a circumference of 80 m
b the radius of a circle with a circumference of 42.3 cm
c the diameter of a sphere with a circumference of 2500 km.
WORKED 7 Calculate the length of the arc shown on the right,
Example
2
correct to 2 decimal places.
50°
10 cm
8 Calculate the lengths of each of the arcs drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place. 13.2 SkillS
a b c HEET
Calculating
arc
m m
length
43
45°
120°
13 m 72 cm
d e f
220° 72 km
cm 150°
7.2
7.9 km
4°
WORKED 9 The radius of the Earth at the equator is 6400 km.

Example
a Calculate the circumference of the Earth at the equator, correct to the nearest
3
100 km.
b Two points on the equator subtend an angle of 40° at the centre. Calculate the
distance between them, correct to the nearest 10 km.
10 A circle has a radius of 30 km.
a Two points on the circle subtend an angle of 100° at the centre. Calculate the
length of the arc joining them, correct to the nearest kilometre.
b The outer arc between the two points subtends an angle of 260°. Calculate the
length of the outer arc, correct to the nearest kilometre.
c Show that the sum of the lengths of the two arcs is equal to the circumference of
the circle.
11 A sphere has a radius of 40 cm.
a Calculate the circumference of the sphere, correct to the nearest centimetre.
b Calculate the distance between two points on the sphere that subtend an angle of
90° at the centre, correct to 1 decimal place.
12 Calculate the distance, correct to 1 decimal place, between two points on a sphere:
a of radius 10 cm, which subtend an angle of 30° at the centre
b of radius 2 m, which subtend an angle at 122° at the centre
c of radius 6400 km, which subtend an angle of 51° at the centre.
13 Calculate the distance between two points on the Earth’s surface that subtend an angle
of 1° at the centre. Give your answer correct to the nearest kilometre.
Great circles and small circles
Consider the sphere drawn on the right. The axis of Pole
Axis
the sphere is a diameter of that sphere. The ends of
the axis are called the poles.
If we draw any lines around the sphere passing
through both poles, a great circle is formed. A great
circle is the largest possible circle that can be drawn
around the sphere.
Great circle Pole
The length of a great circle is found using the formulas for the circumference of a
circle:
C = π d, where d is the diameter of the sphere
or C = 2π r, where r is the radius of the sphere.
WORKED Example 4
Calculate the length of a great circle on a sphere with a radius of 40 cm. Give your answer
correct to the nearest centimetre.
THINK WRITE
2 Substitute the radius of the sphere. C = 2 × π × 40
3 Calculate the length of the great circle. C = 251 cm
Now consider a circle drawn perpendicular to the axis of

the sphere. Only one circle, called the equator, will be a
great circle. The centre of the equator will be the centre of
the sphere as shown on the right.
Other circles that are perpendicular to the axis of the Equato r
sphere will be smaller than a great circle and are called
small circles.
Small circle
Equat o r
To calculate the length around a small circle, we need to Radius of small circle
know the small circle’s radius. The small circle will have a
radius smaller than that of the great circle, as shown in the
figure on the right.
Radius of great circle
WORKED Example 5
Calculate the length of the small circle on the right, correct to
1 decimal place.
2m
1.5 m
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula for the circumference C = 2π r
of a circle.
2 Substitute for r. C = 2 × π × 1.5
3 Calculate the circumference. C = 9.4 cm
remember
1. A great circle is the circle of the greatest possible size that lies on the surface
of a sphere.
2. The length of a great circle is calculated using the formula for the
circumference of a circle.
3. A small circle is any circle smaller in size than the great circle.
Great circles and

13B small circles
WORKED 1 Calculate the length of a great circle around a sphere of radius 7 cm. Give your
Example
4
answer correct to 2 decimal places.
2 Calculate the length of a great circle on each of the spheres drawn below. Give each
answer correct to 3 significant figures.
a b c
9m
30 m
74 mm
3 The Earth is a sphere with a radius of approximately 6400 km. Calculate the length of
a great circle around the Earth’s surface, correct to the nearest 10 km.
4 Calculate the length of a great circle that lies on a sphere with a diameter of 1 m. Give
your answer correct to the nearest centimetre.
5 Below are the diameters of the other planets in our solar system. Calculate the length
of a great circle on the surface of each planet, correct to the nearest 10 km.
a Mercury 4878 km b Venus 12 100 km c Mars 6796 km
d Jupiter 142 984 km e Saturn 120 540 km f Uranus 51 118 km
g Neptune 49 100 km
WORKED 6 Calculate the length of a small circle on a sphere of radius 4 m if the radius of the
Example
5
small circle is 2 m. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
7 Calculate the length of each of the small circles below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 1100 km
6.4 m 80°
25°
6400 km
7.1 m
9m
10°
8.8 m
8 multiple choice
The diameter of the moon is 3476 km. The length of a great circle on the moon’s sur-
face is closest to:
A 5460 km B 10 920 km C 21 840 km D 43 680 km
9 The diameter of the sphere drawn on the right
is 50 cm. Calculate the distance along the
surface from one pole to the other. Give your 50 cm
answer correct to the nearest centimetre.
10 Calculate the distance between the north and

south poles along the Earth’s surface, correct
to the nearest 100 km. (Take the radius of the
Earth to be 6400 km.)
11 A and B are two points on a small circle of radius
60 cm, as shown in the figure on the right.
a Calculate the circumference of the small
circle, correct to the nearest centimetre.
b Calculate the length of the arc, AB, correct to
60 cm
the nearest centimetre. B
A
12 Calculate the length of each arc below, correct to
a b
1000 km
X 100° Y
SHEE
T 13.1
50 m
Work
60° Q
P
1
1 Calculate the circumference of a circle that has a radius of 4.7 m. Give your answer
2 Calculate the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 56 cm. Give your answer
3 An arc on a circle of radius 9 cm subtends an angle of 60° at the centre. Calculate the
length of the arc, correct to 1 decimal place.
4 What is a great circle?
5 What is a small circle?
6 Calculate the length of a great circle that lies on a sphere of radius 15 cm. Give your
answer correct to 2 decimal places.
7 Calculate the distance between the north and south poles on a planet that has a
diameter of 4500 km. Give your answer correct to the nearest 100 km.
8 Calculate the distance between two points on the great circle of the planet in question 7
that subtend an angle of 80° at the centre. Give your answer correct to the nearest 10 km.
9 A planet has a radius of 2300 km. Calculate the length of a great circle lying on the
surface of the planet, correct to the nearest 10 km.
10 Sydney lies on a small circle of the Earth that has a radius of approximately 5400 km.
Calculate the circumference of the small circle (correct to the nearest 100 km).
Latitude and longitude North Pole
As the Earth is a sphere, great circles and small cir-

cles on the surface of the Earth are used to locate
points on the surface. Equat o r
Consider the axis of the Earth to be the diameter
joining the North Pole and the South Pole. The only
great circle that is perpendicular to this axis is the
equator. The angular distance either north or south of South Pole
the equator is the latitude.
Small circles parallel to the equator are called
parallels of latitude. These small circles are used to
describe how far north or south of the equator a place
is. For example Sydney lies close to the small circle
30°S.
This means Sydney subtends a 30° angle at the
centre of the Earth and is south of the equator. 30°
30°S
The maximum latitude for any point on the Earth Sydney
is 90° N or 90° S. The north and south poles lie at
these points.
For latitude, the equator is the line of reference for
all measurements.
To locate a place on the globe in an east–west North Pole
direction, the line of reference is the Greenwich
enwich Meridian
Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian is half a great
circle running from the North to the South Pole.
The Greenwich Meridian is named after Green-
Equato r
wich, a suburb of London through which the circle
runs.
Gre
All other places on the globe are located by the

half great circle on which they lie. These half great South Pole
circles are called meridians of longitude.
Each meridian of longitude is identified by the
angle between it and the Greenwich Meridian and by
whether it is east or west of Greenwich.
The meridian of longitude opposite the Greenwich
Meridian is the International Date Line. The Inter-
national Date Line has longitude 180° either east or
40°
west. On either side of the International Date Line
the day changes. (This will be explained in more
detail later in the chapter.)
For the convenience of some small island nations Greenwich International
and Russia, the International Date Line is bent so not Meridian Date Line
to pass through them.
World maps or globes are drawn with both paral-
lels of latitude and meridians of longitude shown.
Any location on a map or globe can be giv en a pair
of coordinates: the first is the parallel of latitude that
it lies on, the second is the meridian of longitude. For
example, the coordinates of Sydney are 30°S, 150°E.
394
60ºW 30ºW 0º 30ºE 60ºE 90ºE 120ºE 150ºE 180º 150ºW 120ºW 90ºW 60ºW 30ºW 0º
GREENLAND
FINLAND Alaska
ICELAND
RUSSIA (USA)
NORWAY SWEDEN
60ºN Oslo 60ºN
UK Moscow
IRELAND Amsterdam CANADA
London NETHERLANDS Vancouver Montreal
FRANCE ITALY JAPAN
Rome NORTH KOREA UNITED STATES
PORTUGAL Madrid Beijing
SPAIN OF AMERICA
IRAQ CHINA SOUTH KOREA Tokyo New York
Los Angeles
30ºN Baghdad Shanghai 30ºN
ALGERIA
LIBYA Cairo
EGYPT INDIA TAIWAN MEXICO
MALI PHILIPPINES
NIGER Hawaii (USA) JAMAICA
Manila
Colombo
KENYA SRI LANKA SINGAPORE COLOMBIA
0º INDONESIA PAPUA ECUADOR 0º
Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course
NEW GUINEA
Port Moresby PERU BRAZIL
ANGOLA Darwin Lima
FIJI
MADAGASCAR Suva BOLIVIA
NAMIBIA PARAGUAY
Johannesburg AUSTRALIA CHILE Rio de Janeiro
Brisbane
30ºS SOUTH AFRICA Perth 30ºS
Cape Town Sydney Santiago URUGUAY
Auckland
Buenos Aires
International Date Line
Melbourne NEW ARGENTINA

Hobart
ZEALAND
30ºW 0º 30ºE 60ºE 90ºE 120ºE 150ºE 180º 150ºW 120ºW 90ºW 60ºW 30ºW
WORKED Example 6
Identify the major cities closest to each of the following locations using the map on
page 394.
a 30°S, 30°E b 30°N, 120°E c 45°N, 75°W
THINK WRITE
a Look for the city closest to the a Johannesburg
intersection of the 30°S parallel of
latitude and the 30°E meridian of
longitude.
b Look for the city closest to the b Shanghai

intersection of the 30°N parallel of
latitude and the 120°E meridian of
longitude.
c Look for the city closest to the c Montreal

intersection of the 45°N parallel of
latitude and the 75°W meridian of
longitude.
WORKED Example 7
Write down the approximate coordinates of each of the following cities using the map on
page 394.
a Singapore b Perth c Los Angeles
THINK WRITE
a 1 Use the parallels of latitude drawn to a
estimate the latitude.
2 Use the meridians of longitude 1°N, 104°E
drawn to estimate the longitude.
b 1 Use the parallels of latitude drawn to b

2 Use the meridians of longitude 32°S, 115°E
c 1 Use the parallels of latitude drawn to c

2 Use the meridians of longitude 35°N, 118°W
remember
1. The Earth’s axis runs from the North Pole to the South Pole.
2. The only great circle perpendicular to the Earth’s axis is the equator.
3. Places are located either north or south of the equator using parallels of
latitude. Each parallel of latitude is a small circle parallel to the equator and is
identified by the angle it subtends at the centre.
4. Places are located as being east or west of the Greenwich Meridian. The
Greenwich Meridian is half a great circle from the North Pole to the South
Pole.
5. All meridians of longitude are half great circles and are measured by the angle
made to the east or west of the Greenwich Meridian.
6. A pair of coordinates can identify every point on the Earth’s surface. These are
called its latitude and longitude.
13C Latitude and longitude

For the following questions use the map on page 394.
WORKED 1 Write down the name of the city closest to each of the following pairs of coordinates.
Example
6
a 30°N, 30°E b 30°N, 120°E
c 15°S, 135°E d 45°N, 75°W
e 50°N, 0° f 37°S, 175°E
g 35°N, 140°E h 40°N, 115°E
1
i 22 --- °S, 43°W j 60°N, 11°E
2
WORKED 2 State the approximate latitude and longitude of each of the following major cities or
Example
7
islands.
a Melbourne
b New York
c Jamaica
d Johannesburg
e Rome
f Buenos Aires
g Baghdad
h Moscow
i Singapore
j Suva
Important parallels of latitude
Four significant parallels of latitude on the surface of the Earth are the:
1 Arctic Circle
2 Antarctic Circle
3 Tropic of Cancer
4 Tropic of Capricorn.
Find out the latitude of these small circles and state the significance of each.
Distances on the Earth’s surface

From the previous section on latitude and longitude
it can be seen that angular geometry is of great
importance when making measurements on the
Earth’s surface. θ
Now consider a meridian of longitude on the
Earth’s surface with two points on it. The angular
distance between them will be the difference
between their latitudes.
The angular distance is calculated by subtracting the latitudes of points if both are on
the same side of the equator and adding the latitudes if on opposite sides of the equator.
WORKED Example 8
The coordinates of A are (20°S, 130°E) and the coordinates of B are (15°N, 130°E).
Find the angular distance between them.
THINK WRITE
A and B are on opposite sides of the Angular distance = 20° + 15°
equator so add the latitudes. Angular distance = 35°
Now consider two points on the same great circle that have an angular distance of
1 minute. (Remember 60′ = 1°.) The distance between these two points is defined to be
1 nautical mile (M). Therefore, an angular distance of 1o on a great circle will equal
60 nautical miles.
1 nautical mile ⯝ 1.852 km
Using this information, we are able to calculate the distance between two points on a
great circle on the Earth’s surface in both nautical miles and kilometres.
WORKED Example 9
P and Q are two points on the Earth’s surface with coordinates (27°N, 30°W) and
(39°N, 30°W) respectively.
a Calculate the distance between P and Q in nautical miles.
b Use 1 M ⯝ 1.852 km to give the distance, PQ, to the nearest kilometre.
THINK WRITE
a 1 P and Q are on the same great circle. a
2 Calculate the angular distance, PQ. Angular distance = 39° − 27°
Angular distance = 12°
3 Convert the angular distance to Distance = 12 × 60
nautical miles using 1° = 60 M. Distance = 720 M
b Multiply 720 by 1.852 to convert to b Distance = 720 × 1.852

kilometres. Distance = 1333 km
We can also calculate the distance between two points on the same great circle, in kilo-
metres, using the fact that the radius of the Earth is 6400 km.
WORKED Example 10
X and Y are two points on the Earth’s surface with coordinates (32°N, 120°E) and
(45°S, 120°E). Calculate the distance, XY, correct to the nearest 100 km.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the angular distance, XY. Angular distance = 32° + 45°
Angular distance = 77°
θ
2 Use the arc length formula to calculate l = --------- 2π r
the distance between X and Y, correct 360
77
to the nearest 100 km. l = --------- × 2 π r
360
77
l = --------- × 2 × π × 6400
360
l = 8600 km
In marine and aerial navigation, speed on the Earth’s surface is measured in knots.
1 knot = 1 nautical mile/hour
WORKED Example 11
The coordinates of two points on the Earth’s surface are given by the coordinates
A(50°N, 120°W) and B(30°S, 120°W). Calculate the time taken for a ship to sail the
shortest distance between these two points at an average speed of 40 knots.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the angular distance between Angular distance = 50° + 30°
A and B. Angular distance = 80°
2 Calculate the distance, AB, in nautical Distance = 80 × 60
miles. Distance = 4800 M
distance distance
3 Use the formula time = ------------------- to Time = -------------------
speed speed
calculate the time taken for the journey. 4800
Time = ------------
40
Time = 120 hours (5 days)
remember
1. The angular distance between two points on the same great circle (meridian of
longitude) can be found by:
• subtracting the latitudes if the points are on the same side of the equator
• adding the latitudes if the points are on opposite sides of the equator.
2. An angular distance can be converted to a linear distance using the relationship,
1° = 1 nautical mile (M).
3. 1 M ⯝ 1.852 km
4. The distance between two points on the same great circle can also be found
using the arc length formula and taking the radius of the Earth as being
6400 km.
5. Speed can be measured in knots. A speed of 1 knot = 1 M/hour.
Distances on the Earth’s

13D surface
WORKED 1 Two points, A and B, on the Earth’s surface are at (30°N, 25°W) and (20°S, 25°W).
Example
8 Calculate the angular distance between A and B.
2 In each of the following calculate the angular distance between the pairs of points
given.
a (70°N, 150°E) and (30°N, 150°E) b (25°N, 40°W) and (15°S, 40°W)
c (64°N, 0°) and (7°S, 0°) d (42°S, 97°W) and (21°S, 97°W)
e (0°, 60°E) and (0°, 20°W)
3 The city of Durban is at approximately (30°S, 30°E) while Cairo is at approximately
(30°N, 30°E). What is the angular distance between Durban and Cairo?
WORKED 4 P and Q are two points on the Earth’s surface with coordinates (45°N, 10°W) and
Example
(15°N, 10°W) respectively.
9
a Calculate the distance between P and Q in nautical miles (M).
b Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, PQ, correct to the nearest km.
5 Calculate the distance between each of the points below in nautical miles.
a A (10°N, 45°E) and B (25°S, 45°E) b C (75°N, 86°W) and D (60°S, 86°W)
c E (46°S, 52°W) and F (7°S, 52°W) d G (34°N, 172°E) and H (62°S, 172°E)
6 The city of Osaka is at (37°N, 135°E) while Alice Springs is at (23°S, 135°E).
a Calculate the distance between Osaka and Alice Springs in nautical miles.
b Use 1 M = 1.852 km to write this distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
7 The Tropic of Cancer is at latitude 22 1--- °N while the Tropic of Capricorn is at latitude
2
22 1--- °S. Calculate the distance between these two tropics along the same great circle in:
2
a nautical miles b kilometres (correct to the nearest km).
WORKED 8 M and N are two points on the Earth’s surface with coordinates (56°N, 122°W) and
Example
10
(3°S, 122°W). Calculate the distance, MN, correct to the nearest 100 km, using the
arc length formula. (Take the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km.)
9 Calculate the distance between each of the points below, correct to the nearest
kilometre, using the arc length formula and taking the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km.
a P (85°S, 89°E) and Q (46°S, 89°E) b R (24°N, 0°) and S (12°S, 0°)
c T (34°S, 17°W) and U (0°, 17°W)
10 multiple choice
Perth is at approximately (31°S, 115°E) while Hong Kong is at approximately (22°N,
115°E). The distance between Perth and Hong Kong is approximately:
A9M B 53 M C 540 M D 3180 M
11 multiple choice
Rachel is a flight navigator. She is responsible for calculating the distance between
Stockholm (60°N, 18°E) and Budapest (47°N, 18°E). Rachel calculates the distance
using the arc length formula, assuming the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. Rachel’s
answer would be closest to:
A 1445 km B 1452 km C 11 952 km D 11 890 km
WORKED 12 The coordinates of two points on the Earth’s surface are X (40°S, 30°E) and Y (10°S,
Example
11
30°E). Calculate the time taken for a plane to fly from X to Y at a speed of 240 knots.
13 Quito (0°, 78°W) and Kampala (0°, 32°E) are two cities on the Equator.
a Calculate the angular distance between Quito and Kampala.
b Calculate the distance between them in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to find the distance, correct to the nearest 100 km.
d Calculate the time taken to fly from Quito to Kampala at a speed of 480 knots.
14 Calculate the distance between the North Pole and the South Pole in nautical miles.
15 The city of Kingston is at approximately (18°N, 76°W). Ottawa is at approximately
(46°N, 76°W).
a Calculate the angular distance between Kingston and Ottawa.
b Calculate the distance between Kingston and Ottawa in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
d Use the arc length formula to calculate the distance between the two cities, correct
to the nearest kilometre.
e Explain the discrepancy between the two answers.
2
1 Calculate the length of a great circle lying on the surface of a sphere of radius 24 cm.
Give your answer correct to the nearest centimetre.
Using the map on page 394, give the coordinates of the following cities.
2 Amsterdam
3 Brisbane
4 Vancouver
Using the same map, state the name of the major city closest to the following
coordinates.
5 (40°N, 10°E)
6 (12°N, 77°E)
Two points on the Earth’s surface are P (13°N, 75°W) and Q (49°N, 75°W).
7 What is the angular distance between P and Q?
8 Calculate the distance, PQ, in nautical miles.
9 Use 1 M = 1.852 km to give the distance, PQ, correct to the nearest 10 km.
10 Use the arc length formula to calculate the distance, PQ, correct to the nearest 10 km.
Time zones
As the Earth rotates, different parts of the globe are experiencing day and night. This
means that each meridian of longitude on the Earth’s surface should have a different
time of day. To simplify this, the Earth is divided into time zones.
Time zones are all calculated in relation to Greenwich. The time on the Greenwich
Meridian is known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Time zones are then stated in
terms of the number of hours they are ahead or behind GMT. All places with longitudes
east of Greenwich are ahead of GMT, while all place with longitudes west of Green-
wich are behind GMT. For example, Eastern Standard Time is GMT +10, meaning that
Sydney is 10 hours ahead of GMT. When GMT is noon, EST is 10.00 pm.
The International Date Line is 12 hours ahead of Greenwich when travelling east and
12 hours behind when travelling west, so this totals 24 hours, or one day. Therefore, the
day changes on either side of the International Date Line.
The time difference between two places is calculated by subtracting the comparative
time with GMT.
WORKED Example 12
Sydney is GMT +10 while New York is GMT −5. Calculate the time difference between
Sydney and New York.
THINK WRITE
1 Subtract the comparative times. Time difference = 10 − (−5)
Time difference = 15
2 State the difference and which city is Sydney is 15 hours ahead of New York.
ahead in time.
Once we have calculated the time difference, we are able to calculate the time in one
place given the time in another. To calculate the time in a city further ahead of GMT we
add time, or to calculate the time in a city further behind GMT we subtract time.
WORKED Example 13
Perth is GMT +8 while Cape Town is GMT +1. When it is 11.00 am in Cape Town, what is
the time in Perth?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the time difference and state Time difference = 8 − 1
which city is ahead. Time difference = 7 hours
Perth is 7 hours ahead of Cape Town.
2 Add the time difference to the time in Time in Perth = 11.00 am + 7 hours
Cape Town to calculate the time in Time in Perth = 6.00 pm
Perth.
The time as calculated by the longitude is called the standard time. Time zones are cal-
culated to approximate all the standard times within a region.
Australian time zones

At times when daylight saving time does not apply, Australia is divided into three
time zones, Eastern Standard Time (EST), Central Standard Time (CST) and
Western Standard Time (WST).
1 Which states are in each of the three time zones?
2 What is the time difference between each of these zones?
3 In which states does daylight saving time apply in summer?
4 When daylight saving is in force in each of the states that have daylight saving,
how many time zones is Australia divided into?
As there are 24 hours in a day and 360° of longitude (180°E and 180°W), we can
calculate that:
1 hour = 15° of longitude
1° = 4 minutes
We are now able to compare the time in various cities given the longitude of each.
WORKED Example 14
Calculate the time in Los Angeles (34°N, 120°W) when it is 8.00 am on Wednesday in
Sydney (33°S, 150°E).
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the difference in longitudes. Longitude difference = 150° + 120°
Longitude difference = 270°
2 Convert this angular distance into hours Time difference = 270 × 4
using 1° = 4 minutes. Time difference = 1080 minutes
Time difference = 18 hours
3 Subtract the time difference from the Time in Los Angeles = 8.00 am Wednesday
time in Sydney. Time in Los Angeles = − 18 hours
Time in Los Angeles = 2.00 pm Tuesday
It is important to note that, for convenience, places that have almost the same longitude
have the same time. An example of this is Australia’s time zones where all of Queens-
land, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania are in the same standard time zone
although there is a difference of 12° in longitude from the easternmost and westernmost
points in this zone.
These calculations can then be used to calculate the arrival and departure times for
international travel.
WORKED Example 15
A plane leaves London (50°N, 0°) at 9.00 am Sunday, London time, and flies to Sydney
(33°S, 150°E). The flight takes 20 hours. Calculate the time in Sydney when the plane
arrives.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the longitude difference Longitude difference = 150° − 0°
between Sydney and London. Longitude difference = 150°
2 Use 1° = 4 minutes to calculate the time Time difference = 150 × 4
difference. Time difference = 600 minutes
Time difference = 10 hours
3 Calculate the time in Sydney when the When the plane leaves London at 9.00 am
plane is departing London by adding (London time)
the time difference. Time in Sydney = 9.00 am Sunday + 10 hours
Time in Sydney = 7.00 pm Sunday
4 Add the flying time to calculate the Plane arrives at 7.00 pm Sunday + 20 hours
time when the plane lands. Time in Sydney = 3.00 pm Monday.
More challenging examples will require you to allow for daylight saving time. When
daylight saving time applies, we add one hour to the standard time at that location.
remember
1. Time zones are calculated by comparison with Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
2. For places to the east we add time, for places to the west we subtract time to
calculate the time zone.
3. The time zone is calculated using the longitude.
• 1 hour = 15° of longitude
• 1° of longitude = 4 minutes
4. To calculate the time, subtract the time when heading west and add time when
heading east.
5. Care must be taken when crossing the International Date Line as you will need
to add a day when travelling east or subtract a day when heading west.
6. Time differences need to be used when calculating departure time and arrival
time for international travel.
7. When daylight saving time applies, we add one hour to the standard time.
13E Time zones
13.3 WORKED 1 The time zone in New Zealand is GMT +12 while in Turkey it is GMT +2. Calculate
HEET Example
the time difference between New Zealand and Turkey.
SkillS
12
Converting 2 Calculate the time difference between each of the following locations.
units of
time
a Tokyo GMT +9 and New York GMT −5
b Los Angeles GMT −8 and Dakar GMT −1
c Rio De Janeiro GMT −3 and Perth GMT +8
d Hawaii GMT −11 and Fiji GMT +11
WORKED 3 Sydney is GMT +10, while San Francisco is GMT −8. When it is 5.00 pm on Tuesday
Example
13
in Sydney, what is the time in San Francisco?
4 For each of the following calculate:
a the time in Perth (GMT +8) when it is 10.00 pm in Sydney (GMT +10)
b the time in Washington (GMT −5) when it is 4.00 am Saturday in Sydney
(GMT +10)
c the time in Auckland (GMT +12) when it is 7.00 am Wednesday in Johannesburg
(GMT +2)
d the time in Sydney (GMT +10) when it is 6.00 am Tuesday in Salt Lake City
(GMT −7)
e the time in Adelaide (GMT +9.5) when it is 8.15 pm Sunday in the Cook Islands
(GMT −10).
5 Jane is in Sydney (GMT +10) and wants to telephone her friend in Paris (GMT) at
7.00 pm Friday, Paris time. At what time must she call from Sydney?
6 Carl is holidaying in Hawaii (GMT −11). If he wants to call his parents in Sydney
(GMT +10) at 8.00 pm on Wednesday, what time must he call from Hawaii?
7 Neville is in Sydney (GMT +10). He wants to set his video recorder to tape the
Superbowl which is being played in Atlanta (GMT −5) and televised live in Sydney.
The Superbowl is due to begin at 7.00 pm on Sunday in Atlanta. At what day and time
will Neville need to set his video to begin taping?
8 Sydney is GMT +10.
a What is the time in Sydney when it is noon GMT?
b When daylight saving time is applied, describe the time zone in Sydney as
compared to GMT.
c During daylight saving time, what will the time be in Sydney when it is:
i 4.00 am Monday GMT? ii 9.00 pm Thursday GMT?
9 Sydney is GMT +10 and Los Angeles is GMT −8. Calculate the time difference
between Sydney and Los Angeles when:
a both cities are on standard time
b Sydney has daylight saving time and Los Angeles is on standard time
c Los Angeles has daylight saving time and Sydney is on standard time.
WORKED 10 Beijing is at approximately (40°N, 120°E). Rome is at approximately (40°N, 15°E).
Example
14
Calculate the difference in standard time between Beijing and Rome.
11 Calculate the time difference in standard time between each of the following cities.
a Mumbai (19°N, 73°E) and Casablanca (23°N, 82°W)
b Tokyo (36°N, 140°E) and Adelaide (23°S, 134°E)
c Miami (26°N, 80°W) and Seattle (47°N, 122°W)
12 multiple choice
At a point on the Earth’s surface, the coordinates are (45°N, 135°W). The standard
time at this point would be:
A GMT −3 B GMT +3 C GMT −9 D GMT +9
13 multiple choice
It is 11.00 am Tuesday at a point X with coordinates (32°S, 90°W). At a point, Y, with
coordinates (51°N, 120°E), what is the time if daylight saving time applies at Y?
A 9.00 pm Monday B 10.00 pm Monday
C 1.00 am Wednesday D 2.00 am Wednesday
WORKED 14 A plane leaves Sydney (32°S, 150°E) at 2.00 pm on Tuesday. If it is an 18-hour flight
Example
15
to Los Angeles (33°N, 120°W), at what time will the plane touch down in Los Angeles?
15 A plane leaves Perth (32°S, 120°E) on an 8-hour flight to Cape Town (33°S, 15°E) at
3.00 pm Wednesday.
a At what time will the plane arrive in Cape Town?
b The return flight leaves Cape Town at 5.00 pm Saturday. At what time will it arrive
in Perth?
16 A flight leaves Melbourne (40°S, 150°E) at 5.00 pm Tuesday on an 18-hour flight to SHEE
T 13.2
Work
Frankfurt (50°N, 15°E). Calculate the time of arrival in Frankfurt if it is:

a daylight saving time in Melbourne
b daylight saving time in Frankfurt.
The keepers of time

Information about the world time zones can be found at the internet site for the
Royal Observatory Greenwich, which is recognised worldwide as the keeper of
time. Information can be found here about all time zones throughout the world and
other facts about time. Their address is www.rog.nmm.ac.uk.
summary
Arc lengths
• The circumference of a circle is found using either C = π d or C = 2π r.
• The length of an arc can be found using the formula:
θ
l = --------- 2π r
360
where θ is the number of degrees in the central angle.
Great circles and small circles
• An axis of the sphere is any diameter. A diameter must pass through the centre of
the sphere. The endpoints of the axis are called the poles.
• A great circle is any circle of maximum diameter that can be drawn on the surface
of a sphere. The circumference of a great circle can be found using the formula
C = 2π r.
• A small circle is any circle on the surface of the sphere that is smaller than a great
circle.
Latitude and longitude
• A point on the Earth’s surface is located using a pair of coordinates.
• A point is located as being either north or south of the equator using latitude.
Latitude is the angle subtended at the centre of the sphere by the small circle on
which the point lies.
• A point is located as being either east or west of the Greenwich Meridian by the
meridian of longitude. Each meridian of longitude is measured by the angle
between the meridian of longitude and the Greenwich Meridian.
Distances on the Earth’s surface
• If two points lie on the same great circle, the angular distance between them can be
found by finding the difference between their latitudes.
• The distance between two points can then be found in nautical miles using
1° = 60 M.
• 1 M ⯝ 1.852 km.
• The distance between two points can also be found in kilometres using the arc
length formula.
• Speed can be measured in knots, where 1 knot = 1 M/h.
Time zones
• The longitude of a city determines its time zone.
• The standard time at any location can be calculated using 15° = 1 hour or
1° = 4 minutes.
• Points to the east of the Greenwich Meridian have standard time ahead of GMT.
Points to the west of the Greenwich Meridian have standard time behind GMT.
CHAPTER
review
1 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 13A
19.2 cm 8.6 cm 92 mm
2 Calculate the length of each of the following arcs, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 13A
9m
260°
6.2 cm
40° 135°
9.3 m
3 A sphere has a radius of 7.5 cm.

a Calculate the circumference of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place. 13A
b Calculate the distance between two points on the surface of the sphere that subtend an
angle of 60° at the centre. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
4 Calculate the circumference of each of the following spheres, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 13B
33 cm 7 cm 9.2 m
5 Calculate the circumference of a great circle that lies on the surface of a sphere with a radius
of 9 km. (Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.) 13B
6 A sphere has a diameter of 45 cm. Calculate the distance between the poles on this sphere.
Give your answer correct to the nearest centimetre. 13B
7 Calculate the circumference of each of the small circles drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b 2.8 m c 13B
48°
1500 km
8.1 m
7 cm 3000 km
20°
6.6 cm
8 Use the world map on page 394 to identify the cities at each of the following locations.
13C a (14°N, 121°E) b (12°S, 76°W) c (33°S, 71°W)
9 Use the world map on page 394 to give the approximate coordinates of each of the following
13C cities.
a Madrid b Singapore c Hobart
10 The points X and Y on the Earth’s surface have coordinates (32°N, 120°E) and (26°S,
13D 120°E). Calculate the angular distance between X and Y.
11 A ship gives its coordinates as (56°N, 14°W) and is sailing to a port at (40°N, 14°W).
13D a Calculate the angular distance through which the ship must sail to reach port.
b Calculate the distance the ship must sail, in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
12 The angular distance between two points on the same great circle is 120°. Calculate the time
13D that it would take to sail between these points at a speed of 48 knots.
13 Santiago has approximate coordinates (33°S, 70°W), while Santo Domingo has approximate
13D coordinates (18°N, 70°W).
a Calculate the distance between Santiago and Santo Domingo:
i in nautical miles
ii correct to the nearest kilometre.
b Calculate the time taken to fly from Santiago to Santo Domingo at a speed of 480 knots.
14 The coordinates of Perth are approximately (32°S, 115°E), while Hong Kong is
13D approximately at (22°N, 115°E). Taking the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km, use the arc
length formula to calculate the distance between Perth and Hong Kong, correct to the
nearest 100 km.
15 Calculate the time difference between each of the following cities.
a Sydney (GMT +10) and Istanbul (GMT +2) 13E
b Perth (GMT +8) and New York (GMT −3)
c Ottawa (GMT −5) and Fiji (GMT +12)
16 In Dhahran (GMT +4) the time is 10.00 pm on Wednesday. Calculate the time in Tokyo
(GMT +9). 13E
17 Ann is on a skiing holiday in Winnipeg, Canada (GMT −6). She needs to call her parents at
7.30 pm on Tuesday night, Sydney time. At what time should she make the call from 13E
Winnipeg?
18 Kingston, Jamaica is at approximately (18°N, 75°W) while Oslo, Norway is at

approximately (60°N, 15°E). Calculate the time: 13E
a in Oslo when it is 5.00 am in Kingston
b in Kingston when it is 5.00 pm in Oslo.
19 A plane is flying from Munich (48°N, 15°E) to New York (41°N, 75°W). The flight departs
Munich at 6.00 pm and takes 7 hours. Calculate the time of arrival in New York. 13E

1 multiple choice
A circle has a diameter of 12 cm. An arc is drawn on the circumference of the circle such that
the arc subtends an angle of 45° at the centre of the circle. The length of the arc is closest to:
A 4.7 cm B 9.4 cm C 14.1 cm D 37.7 cm
2 multiple choice
A great circle on the surface of a planet has a circumference of approximately 10 700 km. The
diameter of the planet would be closest to:
A 850 km B 1700 km C 3400 km D 6800 km
3 multiple choice
Point X on the Earth’s surface has coordinates (69°S, 12°E), while point Y is at (8°S, 12°E).
The distance between X and Y is:
A 61 M B 77 M C 3660 M D 4620 M
4 multiple choice
The coordinates of two points, M and N, on the surface of the Earth are (45°N, 45°W) and
(30°S, 60°E). Which of the following statements is correct about the time difference between
M and N?
A M is 5 hours behind N. B M is 5 hours ahead of N.
C M is 7 hours behind N. D M is 7 hours ahead of N.
5 The city of St Petersburg is at approximately (60°N, 30°E), while the city of Johannesburg
has approximate coordinates of (25°S, 30°E).
a Calculate the angular distance between St Petersburg and Johannesburg.
b Taking the radius of the Earth to be equal to 6400 km, calculate the distance between
St Petersburg and Johannesburg, correct to the nearest 100 km.
c In Sydney (30°S, 150°E) daylight saving time applies. Calculate the time difference
between St Petersburg and Sydney.
6 The approximate coordinates of Tokyo are (36°N, 140°E), while San Francisco is at
approximately (36°N, 120°W).
a Do San Francisco and Tokyo lie on the same great circle or the same small circle? Explain
your answer.
b An aeroplane takes 8 hours to fly between Tokyo and San Francisco. If a plane leaves
test Tokyo at 10.00 pm on Saturday, Tokyo time, what day and time will it arrive in San
yourself Francisco?
CHAPTER
c If the return flight leaves San Francisco at 8.00 am Tuesday, what day and time will it
13 arrive in Tokyo?
Glossary 411
Glossary
Annuity — A form of investment involving Cosine rule — A trigonometric formula used in
regular periodical contributions to an account. non-right-angled triangles that allows:
On such an investment, interest compounds at • a side length to be found when given the
the end of each period and the next contri- two other side lengths and the size of the
bution to the account is made. included angle
Annulus — The area between two circles that • an angle to be found when given the three
have the same centre (concentric). side lengths of the triangle.
Area chart — When line graphs are stacked on Cubic function — A function where the
top of each other so that the area between independent variable is raised to the power of
each of the lines can be used to compare each 3. A cubic function is in the form y = x3.
data set. Declining balance method — The depreciation
Asset — An item that is of value to its owner. of an item is calculated as a percentage of the
value at the beginning of the period.
Causality — When the occurrence of one
variable causes another. For example there is Depreciation — The reduction in value of an
a strong positive correlation between a asset.
person’s shirt size and shoe size but one does Ellipse — An oval shaped figure. The shortest
not cause the other. On the other hand, there distance from the centre of an ellipse to the
is a strong positive correlation between the circumference is called the semi-minor axis
amount of a Lottery jackpot and the number and the longest distance from the centre to
of tickets sold. In this case, it would seem the circumference is called the semi-major
that one does cause the other. axis.
Compass radial survey — A survey taken from Expected outcome — The number of times that
a central point in a field. Critical points are an outcome can be expected to occur in a
sighted from this central point and radial lines given number of trials.
are drawn. The distance from the central Exponential function — A function where the
point to each critical point is then measured independent variable is in the exponent
and the compass bearing of each radial line is (index). An exponential function is of the
noted on the survey. form y = ax or y = b(ax).
Correlation — A statement reflecting the Extrapolate — To extend a graph so as to make
relationship between two variables. A posi- predictions about future trends.
tive correlation indicates that as one variable
Financial expectation — The average financial
increases so does another, while a negative
result from a situation where money will be
correlation indicates that as one variable
gained or lost.
increases, the other decreases.
Flat rate loan — A loan where the interest is
Correlation coefficient — A figure between −1
calculated using only the initial amount
and 1 which indicates the strength of a
borrowed.
correlation. The closer to 1 the coefficient is,
the stronger the positive correlation; the Future value of an annuity — The value of an
closer to −1 the coefficient is, the stronger the annuity at the end of a given period of time.
negative correlation. A coefficient close to Great circle — A circle of the greatest possible
zero indicates no correlation or, at best, a diameter that can be drawn on the surface of
very weak correlation. a sphere.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) — The stan- Parallel of latitude — A line on the Earth’s
dard time in Greenwich which is used as the surface parallel to the equator. Each parallel
basis for calculating the time in all other parts of latitude is measured in terms of the angular
of the world. distance either north or south of the equator.
Greenwich Meridian — The meridian of longi- Plane table radial survey — A survey taken
tude from which angular distances in the from a central point in a field where critical
east–west direction are measured. Using the points are sighted from this central point and
longitude calculated from the Greenwich radial lines are drawn. The distance from the
Meridian, time in different places on the plane table to each critical point is then
Earth’s surface is calculated. measured and the angle between the radial
Hyperbolic function — A function where the lines is measured with a protractor.
independent variable is in the denominator of
Present value of an annuity — The single sum
the function. A hyperbolic function is of the
a of money which, if invested at the present
form y = --- . time, will produce the same financial out-
x
International Date Line — The meridian of come as an annuity.
longitude opposite to the Greenwich Meridian. Quadrant — A quarter of a circle.
The International Date Line is, however, bent
for convenience. When crossing the Interna- Quadratic function — A function where the
tional Date Line, the date changes. independent variable is raised to the power of
2. A quadratic function will take the form
Interpolate — Drawing a graph using data
y = ax2 or y = ax2 + bx + c.
found at the end points.
Latitude — The angular distance of a point on Reducing balance loan — A loan where the
the Earth’s surface either north or south of the interest is calculated periodically on the out-
equator. standing balance at that point in time.
Line of best fit — A line drawn on a scatterplot Salvage value — The current value of an item
that passes through or is close to as many that has depreciated in value.
points as possible. Scatterplot — A graph that shows two
Meridian of longitude — A line on the Earth’s variables, one on each axis, and their relation-
surface that runs from the North Pole to the ship by plotting the points generated by each
South Pole. Each meridian of longitude is data pair.
measured by the number of degrees east or Sector — The area between any two radii of a
west it is of the Greenwich Meridian. circle.
Nautical mile (M) — A distance on the surface Simulation — An experiment where a computer
of the Earth that is equal to an angular distance or other device replicates the results that
of 1 minute on a great circle. 1 M = 1.852 km.
would be obtained if an experiment were per-
Normal distribution — Occurs when a data set formed in reality.
of scores is symmetrically distributed about
Sine rule — A trigonometric formula used in
the mean.
non-right-angled triangles that allows:
Offset survey — A survey where critical points
• a side length to be found when given one
are measured when they are sighted at right
other side length and the size of two angles
angles to a traverse line.
• an angle to be found when given two side
Outlier — A score in a data set which is an
lengths and one non-included angle.
extreme value. The outlier can be much
greater or much less than all other scores in Skewness — The distribution of a set of scores
the data set. The effect of an outlier is to in a data set.
greatly increase or decrease the mean such (a) Positively skewed — more scores are
that the mean is no longer a reliable indicator gathered at the lower end of the
of a typical score in the data set. distribution.
Glossary 413
(b) Negatively skewed — more scores are Term of the loan — The length of time that a
distributed at the upper end of the loan is repaid over.
distribution. 3-median regression line — A line of best fit
Small circle — A circle that is drawn on the that is extrapolated to make predictions about
surface of a sphere that is of a smaller dia- data. This is found by using the 3-median
meter than a great circle. method.
Standardised score — (also called z-score) — Two-way table — A 2-dimensional table that
A figure which represents the distance of a displays the results of an experiment in terms
score from the mean in terms of the standard of two variables.
deviation. The standardised score is the z-score — see standardised score
number of standard deviations that a member
of the data set is from the mean.
Straight line method — The depreciation of an
item is calculated by subtracting a constant
amount from the value each year.
FORMULA SHEET
Simple interest Sine rule
I = Prn a b c
------------ = ------------ = -------------
P = initial quantity sin A sin B sin C
r = percentage interest rate per period,
expressed as a decimal Area of a triangle
n = number of periods
A = 1--- ab sin C
2
Area of a sector
Cosine rule
θ
A = --------- π r 2 c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
360 or
θ = number of degrees in central angle 2 2 2
a +b –c
cos C = ----------------------------
Area of an annulus 2ab
A = π (R2 – r2)
R = radius of outer circle
Mean of a sample
r = radius of inner circle Σx
x = ------
n
Area of an ellipse Σfx
x = --------
A = π ab Σf
a = length of semi-major axis x = mean
b = length of semi-minor axis x = individual score
n = number of scores
Simpson’s rule for area approximation f = frequency
h
A ≈ --- (df + 4dm + dl) Probability of an event
3
h = distance between successive measurements The probability of an event where outcomes are
df = first measurement equally likely is given by:
dm = middle measurement number of favourable outcomes
P(event) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
dl = last measurement total number of outcomes
Surface area Future value (A) of an annuity

Sphere A = 4π r 2
Closed cylinder A = 2π rh + 2π r2  ( 1 + r )n – 1 
A = M  ---------------------------- 
r = radius  r 
h = perpendicular height M = contribution per period, paid at the end of
the period
Volume
Cone V = --1- π r 2h Compound interest
3
Cylinder V = π r 2h A = P(1 + r)n
Pyramid V = 1--- Ah A = final balance
3
Sphere V = 4--- π r 3 P = initial quantity
3 n = number of compounding periods
r = radius r = percentage interest rate per compounding
h = perpendicular height period, expressed as a decimal
A = area of base
Formula sheet 415
FORMULA SHEET
Present value (N) of an annuity Formula for a z-score
 ( 1 + r )n – 1  x–x
z = -----------
N = M  ---------------------------
n 
- s
 r(1 + r )  s = standard deviation
or
A Gradient–intercept form of a straight line
N = ------------------n-
(1 + r ) y = mx + b
m = gradient
Straight-line formula for depreciation b = y-intercept
S = V0 – Dn
Gradient of a straight line
S = salvage value of asset after n periods
V0 = purchase price of the asset vertical change in position
m = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
D = amount of depreciation apportioned per horizontal change in position
period
n = number of periods Arc length of a circle
θ
Declining balance formula for l = --------- 2π r
360
depreciation
θ = number of degrees in central angle
S = V0(1 – r)n
S = salvage value of asset after n periods
r = percentage interest rate per period,
expressed as a decimal
417
answers
Answers
Answers
CHAPTER 1 Credit and 4 a
Principal Interest Balance
borrowing Month ($) ($) ($)
Are you ready? 1 255 000.00 1912.50 254 618.19
1 a 0.40 b 0.12 c 0.08
d 0.024 e 0.003 f 0.075 2 254 618.19 1909.64 254 233.52
g 0.0025 h 0.0002
2 a $1500 b $369.50 c $9250 3 254 233.52 1906.75 253 845.96
d $16.20 e $410 f $46.80
3 a $2520 b $7475 c $16 875 d $2340 4 253 845.96 1903.85 253 455.49
4 a n = 5, r = 6% = 0.06
b n = 8, r = 4.5% = 0.045 5 253 455.49 1900.92 253 062.10
c n = 12, r = 2.2% = 0.022
d n = 120, r = 0.6% = 0.006 6 253 062.10 1897.97 252 665.75
e n = 30, r = 0.058% = 0.000 58 7 252 665.75 1894.99 252 266.44
5 a $9881.07 b $108 184.55
c $5439.07 d $194 445.84 8 252 266.44 1892.00 251 864.13
6 a d = 10 b A = 45 c s = 32.75
9 251 864.13 1888.98 251 458.80
Exercise 1A — Flat rate interest
1 a $700 b $1200 c $7500 10 251 458.80 1885.94 251 050.43
d $2850 e $390
2 $1584 3 $5000 11 251 050.43 1882.88 250 639.00
4 a $4060 b $21 330 c $1803.75
d $308.25 e $275 000 12 250 639.00 1879.79 250 224.48
5 a $1650 b $3850 c $693
d $6193
6 a $1600 b $6600 c $137.50 b
Principal Interest Balance
7 a $800 b $2800 c $53.85 Month ($) ($) ($)
8 a $2000 b $6000 c $2160
d $8160 e $226.67 1 255 000.00 1912.50 254 412.50
9 $43.33 10 B 11 C 12 8%
13 a $2400 b $9600 2 254 412.50 1908.09 253 820.59
c $16 319.88 d 15%
14 15% 3 253 820.59 1903.65 253 224.25
Exercise 1B — Home loans 4 253 224.25 1899.18 252 623.43
1 a $800 b $79 950
2 a $1125, $179 456.38 b $543.62 5 252 623.43 1894.68 252 018.11
c $1121.60, $178 909.36 d $547.02
3 6 252 018.11 1890.14 251 408.24
Principal Balance
Month ($) Interest ($) ($) 7 251 408.24 1885.56 250 793.80
1 150 000.00 1200.00 149 791.99
8 250 793.80 1880.95 250 174.76
2 149 791.99 1198.34 149 582.32
3 149 582.32 1196.66 149 370.96 9 250 174.76 1876.31 249 551.07
4 149 370.96 1194.97 149 157.92 10 249 551.07 1871.63 248 922.70
5 149 157.92 1193.26 148 943.18
11 248 922.70 1866.92 248 289.62
6 148 943.18 1191.55 148 726.71
7 148 726.71 1189.81 148 508.51 12 248 289.62 1862.17 247 651.79
8 148 508.51 1188.07 148 288.57
c $2572.69
9 148 288.57 1186.31 148 066.87 5 $243 123
10 148 066.87 1184.53 147 843.40 6 a $302 308.80 b $241 500 c $60 808.80 1A
1B
answers 418 Answers
7 A
8 B
9 a $112 034 b $86 072
c $61 789.40 d $39 329.60
10 a Smith family pays $24 000; Jones family pays $36 000
b Smith family Jones family
Month Principal ($) Interest ($) Balance ($) Principal ($) Interest ($) Balance ($)
1 200 000.00 1583.33 199 583.33 200 000.00 1583.33 198 583.33
2 199 583.33 1580.04 199 163.37 198 583.33 1572.12 197 155.45
3 199 163.37 1576.71 198 740.08 197 155.45 1560.81 195 716.27
4 198 740.08 1573.36 198 313.44 195 716.27 1549.42 194 265.69
5 198 313.44 1569.98 197 883.42 194 265.69 1537.94 192 803.62
6 197 883.42 1566.58 197 450.00 192 803.62 1526.36 191 329.98
7 197 450.00 1563.15 197 013.14 191 329.98 1514.70 189 844.68
8 197 013.14 1559.69 196 572.83 189 844.68 1502.94 188 347.62
9 196 572.83 1556.20 196 129.03 188 347.62 1491.09 186 838.70
10 196 129.03 1552.69 195 681.72 186 838.70 1479.14 185 317.84
11 195 681.72 1549.15 195 230.87 185 317.84 1467.10 183 784.94
12 195 230.87 1545.58 194 776.44 183 784.94 1454.96 182 239.91
c $12 536.53 4 $18.13

5 a $1800 b $31.50 c $1831.50
10 Quick Questions 1 d $1863.55
1 $420 2 $1135.20 6 a $1767.50 b $88.38 c $20.26, $2046.68
3 $7025 4 $975 7 a $296.40, $256.40 b $4.12, $260.52
5 $5525 6 $2817.75 8 a 0.0452% b $19.34 c $73.34
7 $8342.75 8 $231.74
d $1411.37
9 $1640 10 $265 577
9 a $1000 b $15 c $530.23
Exercise 1C — The cost of a loan d $17.50 e $11.87 f $535.55
1 11.6% g The card with the interest-free period
2 a 11.6% b 8.32% c 15.2%
d 10.6% e 12.2% 10 Quick Questions 2
3 a 8.32% b 8.66% c 9.01% 1 $2835 2 160% p.a.
d 9.39% e 11.6% f 18.3% 3 $299 191.20 4 10.3%
4 a $213 996 b $128 996 c 6.0704% 5 6.0%
5 9.01% 6 The customer has until the due date of the next
6 Loan 1 statement to pay the whole balance before any
7 a $231 546 b $200 745.60 interest is charged.
c $145 593.60 7 $164.88 8 $41.96
8 Loan 2 – they will save $6041 9 $32.98 10 $61.28
9 C
Exercise 1E — Loan repayments
10 a $341 376 b $337 578
1 $674.25
11 D
12 a $562 279.20 b 6.25% c 5.8% 2 a $90.46 b $341.25 c $819.84
d $1101.00 e $1515.54
Exercise 1D — Credit cards 3 a $400 b $3600 c $123.05
1 $136.50 4 They will not need to increase their repayments.
2 a $175 b $59.73 c $24.64 5 a $1510.20 b $1620.14
d $10 e $46.03 6 Yes. The repayment is $744 and the most he can
3 $27.75 afford is $750.
419
answers
Answers
7 a $7000 b $1750 c $178 000 14 a 0.0534% b $34.82

8 a $733.40 b $174.80 c $102.98 d $32.82
9 a $2895 b $868 500 c $493 500 15 a $316.75 b $599.40
d $19 740 e 5.262% c $2369.11 d $5100
10 a $1696.80 b $509 040 c $269 040 16 a $2453.49 b $2618.06
d 4.481% e i 4.3% ii 4.12%
Chapter review 1 C
1 a $1120 b $7187.50 c $1281.60 2 C
d $39.60 e $12 285.00 3 A
2 $6760 4 D
3 $191.02 5 a $4140 b $6292.80
4 6.15% c $30.25 d 15.76%
5 a $1250 b $124 873.64 6 a $1678.50 b $402 840
c $1825.34 d $422 193.55
6 a 7 a $13.78 b $261.72 c $4.58
Principal Interest Balance d The card with this interest-free period is cheaper as
Month ($) ($) ($) the card without the interest-free period would
1 130 000.00 866.67 129 779.30 have charged $6.75 interest.
2 129 779.30 865.20 129 557.12
3 129 557.12 863.71 129 333.47
CHAPTER 2 Further applications
4 129 333.47 862.22 129 108.32 of area and volume
5 129 108.32 860.72 128 881.67
Are you ready?
6 128 881.67 859.21 128 653.51
1 a 50.3 cm2 b 1206.9 cm2
7 128 653.51 857.69 128 423.83 c 63.6 cm2 d 304.8 cm2
2
8 128 423.83 856.16 128 192.62 2 a 20.25 cm b 40.33 cm2 c 52.44 cm2
9 128 192.62 854.62 127 959.87 3 a 5832 cm2 b 2376 cm2 c 624 cm3
3
4 a 3820 cm b 7238.2 cm3
10 127 959.87 853.07 127 725.56 5 163.3 cm3
11 127 725.56 851.50 127 489.70 6 a 14.5 cm–15.5 cm b 8.25 m–8.36 m
12 127 489.70 849.93 127 252.26 c 4750 km–4850 km
Exercise 2A — Area of parts of the
b Principal Interest Balance circle
Month ($) ($) ($) 1 128.7 cm2
1 130 000.00 866.67 129 366.67 2 a 254.47 cm2 b 3421.19 mm2
c 172.03 m2 d 2206.18 cm2
2 129 366.67 862.44 128 729.11 e 46.32 m2 f 113.85 m2
3 128 729.11 858.19 128 087.31 3 176.7 m2
4 128 087.31 853.92 127 441.22 4 40.7 m2
5 a 14.16 cm2 b 6451.26 mm2
5 127 441.22 849.61 126 790.83 c 92.33 m2 d 110.79 mm2
6 126 790.83 845.27 126 136.10 e 796.39 m2 f 955.67 mm2
7 126 136.10 840.91 125 477.01 6 827.3 cm2
7 339.3 cm2
8 125 477.01 836.51 124 813.52
8 a 239 cm2 b 240 m2 c 18 100 mm2
9 124 813.52 832.09 124 145.61 9 a 2.5 m b 3.5 m c 18.8 m2
10 124 145.61 827.64 123 473.25 10 188.5 cm2
11 123 473.25 823.16 122 796.40 11 a 5892 mm2 b 308 m2 c 924 cm2
12 B
12 122 796.40 818.64 122 115.05 13 B
c $5137.21 14 A
7 a $596 844 b $18 884 15 a 78.5 m2 b 122.5 m2 c 25.5 m2
8 a 7.25% b 13.70% 16 a 314.16 cm2 b 5 cm c 157.08 cm2
c 25.65% d 14.11%
9 a $18 223.20 b $4723.20 c 7% Exercise 2B — Area of composite
10 Loan 2 shapes
11 $21.15 1 248 m2
12 $17.00 2 a 222 cm2 b 375 cm2 c 335 cm2
13 $3.21 d 228.5 cm2 e 44.6 cm2 f 130.3 cm2
3 a 8 cm b 84 cm2 1B
2B
answers 420 Answers
4 a 5.3 m b 31.8 m2 11 B
5 a 120 m2 b 168 cm2 c 6658 mm2 12 a 565 cm2 b 452 cm2
6 a 174 cm2 b 510 m2 c 4032 mm2 13 a 113 cm2 b r = 3 cm, h = 18 cm
7 A c 28 cm2 d 368 cm2 e 339 cm2
8 B
9 a b 250 m c 3582.5 m2 Exercise 2E — Volume of composite
solids
1 a 178 cm2 b 712 cm3
2 a 700 cm3 b 3000 cm3 c 3720 cm3
50 m d 2.128 m3 e 12.75 m3 f 18 m3
3 a 8 m3 b 2 m3 c 10 m3
10 a 80 m2 b 109.7 cm2 4 a 22 619 cm3 b 6032 cm3 c 28 651 cm3
c 12.2 cm2 d 58.4 cm2 5 a 19 000.4 cm3 b 103.7 cm3
e 4600 mm2 f 20.1 m2 c 157 724.9 cm3
11 2513 m2 6 B
12 a 7 D
1m
8 a 16 875 cm3 b 16.875 L
25 m 9 a
2.5 cm
40 m
2
b 1000 m 5 cm
c 134 m2 d $2345
10 Quick Questions 1 b 50 mL c 20
1 452.4 cm2 2 31.2 m2 10 a 8.64 m2 b 86.4 m3
3 171.3 cm2 4 13 939.2 mm2 11 a 8 cm b 332 cm3 c 35%
5 306 cm2 6 625 cm2 12 5.76 g
7 1428.3 m2 8 1147.6 cm2
9 17 121.8 mm2 10 670.9 cm2 10 Quick Questions 2
1 58.1 cm2 2 226.19 cm2
Exercise 2C — Simpson’s rule 3 129.2 cm2 4 452 cm2
1 a 30 m 5 77.47 cm2 6 3710 m2
b df = 40 m, dm = 9 m, dl = 18 m 7 2073 cm2 8 21.237 cm2
c 940 m2 9 2100.6895 cm3 10 536 cm3
2 a 1296 m2 b 1560 m2 c 936 m2
3 a 620 m 2
b 880 m2 c 1500 m2 Exercise 2F — Error in measurement
4 a 2535 m2 b 1184 m2 c 2934 m2 1 a 1152 cm3 b 118.625 cm3
5 C 2 a 0.05 cm b 181.5 cm2
6 B c 2.4 cm2 d 1.3%
7 2514 m2 3 a 4096 mm3 b 3723.875 mm3
8 a 2970 m2 b 11 840 m2 c 1386 m2 c 4492.125 mm3 d 9.7%
9 a 768 m2 b 640 m2 e 1536 mm2 f 1441.5 mm2
10 2484 m 2 g 1633.5 mm2 h 6.3%
4 a 302 cm3 b 212 cm3 c 414 cm3 d 37%
Exercise 2D — Surface area of 5 24%
cylinders and spheres 6 a 11.5 m3 b 1.3 m3 c 11.1%
2
1 502.7 cm2 d 24.6 m e 1.8 m2 f 7.3%
2 a 282.7 cm2 b 18.7 m2 c 3141.6 cm2 7 a 382 L b 89 L c 23%
d 785.4 cm2 e 437.4 cm2 f 54.9 m2 8 a 39 032 cm3 b 7890 cm2
3 37.4 m2 c 60 cm × 40 cm × 20 cm
4 452 cm2 d 23% e 11.5%
5 a 395.4 cm2 b 1616.5 cm2 9 a 27.72 m2 b 28 L c 1L
c 2199.1 cm2 d 367.9 cm2 10 a 17 m × 10 m b 170 m2
e 640.9 cm2 f 52.8 m2 c $5142.50 d $221.43
6 a 231 cm2 b 154 cm2
7 113 cm2 Chapter review
8 a 804.2 cm2 b 55.4 cm2 1 a 43.0 cm2 b 8494.9 mm2
c 2463.0 cm2 d 12.6 m2 c 2.3 m2
e 145.3 cm2 f 40.7 m2 2 a 2215.9 mm2 b 18.1 m2 c 323.2 cm2
9 5542 cm2 3 a 7147.1 mm2 b 37.7 m2 c 2723.8 cm2
10 A 4 a 4241.2 mm2 b 329.5 m2 c 19.8 cm2
421
answers
Answers
5 705 cm2 2 a b 34 km
a 5.75 m2 b 27 cm2 c 1804.94 cm2
34 km
6 45°
7 1722 m2
8 a 840 m2 b 2672 m2 c 5548 m2 x
9 4190 m2 3 a B b 30.4 M
10 2010 m2 43 M
c 56.3008 km
11 a 747.7 cm2 b 728.8 cm2 c 11.7 m2 x
12 488 cm2 A 45°
13 a 314 cm2 b 72 m2 c 76 454 mm2
4 B 5 B 6 6.4 km
14 3.438 m3
7 a d b 13.9 M
15 a 5797 cm3 b 14 283 cm 3
L
c 1260 cm3
8M
16 5343.85 cm3 60°
17 a 0.25 cm b 2145 cm3 c 9.7%
18 a 500 mL b 20% 8 437 km
9 a CP CG b 11.1 km
3.8 km
1 D 2 B 3 A 4 C 70°
5 a 12.6 m2 b 62.8 m3 c 35 300 L d 151 m2
6 a 292 m2 b 233 600 m3 c 6.25% 290°
10 D 11 A
12 a b 229°
4 km
CHAPTER 3 Applications of 3.5 km
trigonometry
Are you ready? 13 342°
1 a 14.26 m b 19.30 km c 20.62 m
2 a 44° b 56° c 37°
3 a 63° b 53° c 47° Exercise 3C — Using the sine rule to
4 a 7.408 km b 27 M find side lengths
c 2222.4 m d 1.92 M a b c
1 a ------------ = ------------ = -------------
5 a 32° b 46° c 7° sin A sin B sin C
6 a x = 15 b x = 1.5 x y z
c x = 14.25 d x = 22.5 b ------------ = ------------ = ------------
sin X sin Y sin Z
Exercise 3A — Review of right-angled p q r
c ------------ = ------------- = ------------
triangles sin P sin Q sin R
1 a 12.2 cm b 110.9 mm c 10.0 m 2 a 14.8 cm b 1.98 km c 112 mm
d 409.9 mm e 29.8 m f 19.3 cm 3 a 10.0 mm b 22.1 cm c 39.6 km
2 a 27° b 56° c 57° 4 B
3 62 m 5 C
4 a R 6 9.8 cm
7 27.0 m
8 37.8 m
P
28°
Q
9 a B b 43.2 m c 33 m
5 km
b 2.659 km c 5.663 km 34°
5 15° 49° M
N 20 m
6 a b 16°
10 a ∠WYX = 40°
65 m 239 m 80 XY
In LWYX ---------------- = ----------------
sin 40° sin 30°
7 a 28.01 m b 25° 80 sin 30°
∴ XY = ------------------------
8 52° sin 40°
Exercise 3B — Bearings b In LYXZ sin 70° = --------
h
1 a b 2.970 km XY
x
80 sin 30°
4.2 km
∴ h = ------------------------ × sin 70°
45° sin 40°
c 58.5 m 2B
3C
answers 422 Answers
Exercise 3D — Using the sine rule to 4 A 5 D 6 42° 7 23°

find angles 8 81°, 54°, 44°
1 a 43° b 34° c 27° 9 a W 9.2 X b 73°
d 75° e 37° f 2°
2 B 3 B 4 38° 13.6
14
5 20° 6 84° Z Y
7 a 57° b 63° 10 32°
8 54° 11 a 39° b 25°
10 Quick Questions 1 12 148°
1 26.9 m 2 157 mm 3 69.8 cm
4 60° 5 860 mm 6 110 m 10 Quick Questions 2
7 15 cm 8 43° 9 50° 1 452 mm 2 0.782 m
10 32° a b c
3 40° 4 ------------ = ------------ = -------------
sin A sin B sin C
Exercise 3E — Area of a triangle
5 12.7 m 6 32°
1 a Area = 1--2- ab sin C b Area = 1--2- yz sin X 7 c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
c Area = 1--2- am sin G a2 + b2 – c2
8 210 m 9 cos C = ----------------------------
2ab
2 a Area = --12- ab sin C b Area = --12- bh 10 49°
1 1
c Area = --- bh d Area = bh ---
2
2
2 Exercise 3H — Radial surveys
3 a 42.4 cm b 3522.6 mm2 c 4660.9 mm2 1 102 m
4 a 133 cm2 b 555.4 cm2 c 608 cm2 2 a 286 m b 432 m c 540 m
5 D 3 12 993 m2
6 B 4 a 4923 m2 b 8861 m2 c 18 382 m2
7 3.865 cm2 5 a 85° b 75 m
8 a A B b 12.2 m2 6 389 m
7 a 214 m b 531 m c 301 m
m
2.5
8 a 2719 m2 b 12 425 m2 c 5809 m2

70°
D 5.2 m C
9 a 72° b 59 cm2
Chapter review
10 710 m2 1 a 8.6 cm b 13.6 km c 11.2 cm
2 a 61° b 66° c 45°
Exercise 3F — Using the cosine rule to 3 3087 m
find side lengths 4 a 106 m b 28°
1 a a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A 5 56.569 km
b r2 = p2 + q2 − 2pq cos R 6 21.7 km
c n2 = l2 + m2 − 2lm cos N 7 a 297° b 117°
2 a 8.05 m b 14.3 cm c 12.0 m 8 a 1.67 cm b 81.7 mm c 9.81 km
3 a 185.1 cm b 14.4 m c 104.4 mm 9 12.4 cm
4 D 5 A 6 C 10 a 52° b 21° c 68°
7 14.4 cm 8 1140 mm 9 6.742 km 11 809 cm2
10 40 m 12 3000 m2
11 a b 8.5 cm c 15.5 cm 13 a 8.64 m b 8.80 m c 11.8 cm
134°
14 84.0 cm
cm
5.3
46° 15 985 m
11.3 cm 16 a 60° b 112° c 139°
12 55 cm 17 34°
Exercise 3G — Using the cosine rule to 18 29°
find angles 19 a 284 m b 4020 m2
20 a 783 m b 34 910 m2
b2 + c2 – a2
1 a cos A = ----------------------------
2bc Practice examination questions
1 D 2 B 3 A 4 D
+ – p2 r2 q2
b cos Q = ---------------------------- 5 a 7m b 13°
2 pr
a2 + m2 – p2
cos P = ------------------------------
c 25 m
20 m
2am
2 a 85° b 83° c 45°
3 a 103° b 137° c 10° N
423
answers
Answers
6 a 15° c Median ⯝ 14
Cumulative frequency
25
BT 30 30 sin 20°
b In LABT ---------------- = ---------------- ∴ BT = ------------------------ 20
sin 20° sin 15° sin 15° 15
h 10
c In LTBC sin 35° = -------
BT 5
∴ h = BT × sin 35° 0
3 8 13 18 23 28
Class centre
30 sin 20°
h = ------------------------ × sin 35°
sin 15° 5 a 7 b 1 c Mean = 27.3, σn = 1.7
d 22.7 m 6 a 6
7 a 100.3 m b 1625 m2 b i 9 ii Lower quartile = 8, upper quartile = 10
iii 2
c i Mean = 9.04 ii σn = 1.44
CHAPTER 4 Interpreting sets of d
data 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Are you ready? 7a
1 a Mean = 5 b Mean = 19.5 Class Cumulative
c Mean = 3.31 Crowd centre Frequency frequency
2 a 3 b 12 and 30 c 3
3 a Median = 4.5 b Median = 17 10 000–15 000 12 500 5 5
c Median = 3
15 000–20 000 17 500 8 13
4 a 6 b 21 c 4
5 a 3.5 b 15 c 1 20 000–25 000 22 500 6 19
6 a Sample standard deviation = 1.32
b Population standard deviation = 1.41 25 000–30 000 27 500 4 23
7 Key: 1 | 9 = 19
Stem Leaf 30 000–35 000 32 500 3 26
0 9
1 14599 b
25
2 0122336677788
20
3 012234789 15
4 0015 10
8 5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 0 0 0
50 50 50 50 50
12 17 22 27 32
0
Class centre
Exercise 4A — Measures of location
and spread c 9500 d x = 21 000, σn = 6300
1 a 1.6 b 1 8 a Team A = 16, Team B = 16
2 a Mean = 49, median = 44, mode = no mode b i Team A = 10, Team B = 40
b Mean = 3.4, median = 3.5, mode = 1 ii Team A = 4, Team B = 20
c Mean = 9.575, median = 9.7, mode = 9.8, 9.9 iii Team A = 3.1, Team B = 12.5
d Mean = 15.2, median = 15, mode = 13, 15 c Both teams had the same mean score. However,
3 a 6.5 b 6.5 c 7 Team A was more consistent as shown by a lower
reading in all three measures of spread.
4 a
Class Cumulative 9 B 10 A 11 A 12 C
Score centre Frequency frequency 13 a i 80 ii 80 iii 80
b i 70 ii 79 iii 80
1–5 3 2 2 c The outlier had a great effect on the mean, a
small effect on the median and no effect on the
6–10 8 4 6 mode.
14 The outlier will greatly increase the mean.
11–15 13 8 14 15 A
16 a Mean = $647.00
16–20 18 7 21 Median = $397.50
Mode = $397.50
21–25 23 3 24 b i Increase ii None iii None
c i The median or mode as it is a lower figure,
26–30 28 1 25 making it look as though they deserve a rise.
ii The mean as it is a much greater figure, making
b 14.6 it look as though the employees are well paid. 3D
4A
answers 424 Answers
Exercise 4B — Skewness 3 a Ford: median = 15, Holden: median = 16

1 a Yes b 3 c Yes, both equal 3 b Ford: range = 26, Holden: range = 32
2 a No b 5–9 and 20–24 c No c Ford: interquartile range = 14,
3 a b Yes Holden: interquartile range = 13.5
6 d
5 Ford
Frequency
4
3 Holden
2
1 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Scale
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 4
Number of goals Brand A
c 0 and 5 d Yes, both equal 2.5
Brand B
4 a 1–2 b Positively skewed
5 a Negatively skewed b Symmetrical 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 Scale
c Positively skewed 5 a Key: 85 = 8.5
6 a Positively skewed b Negatively skewed Station A Station B
7 a b Negatively skewed 8 7 5 8 1 2 4 5 7 7 8 9
25
20 9 7 5 4 3 2 2 1 0 9 0 2
Frequency
15 1105
10 112 4
5
0 b
0 0 0 0 0
Station A
–2 –3 –4 –5 –6
11 21 31 41 51
Number of goals Station B
8 A 9 A
10 a b No 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 Scale
10 6 a Team A
8
b Team A: range = 60, Team B: range = 90
Frequency
6
4 c Team A: interquartile range = 13,
2 Team B: interquartile range = 11
0
50 00 50 00 50
7 a
1– 1–1 1–1 1–2 1–2 Emad
5 10 15 20
Number of people
Larry
c 151–200 and 201–250
d Negatively skewed 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Scale
11 a Chemistry is symmetrical. b Emad: range = 35, Larry: range = 24
b Maths is negatively skewed. c Emad: interquartile range = 12,
c Chemistry: mode = 41–50 and 81–90, Larry: interquartile range = 14
Maths: mode = 71–80 8 C
d Maths, because there are more scores further 9 a July b 13° c 21.7°
away from the centre of the distribution. 10 a Supermarket X, range = 111
12 Check with your teacher. Supermarket Y, range = 90
10 Quick Questions 1 b Both supermarkets follow a similar pattern.
1 23.3 2 21.5 3 16 There are very few customers from midnight to
4 29 5 5 6 7.93 6 am. Then the number peaks between 10 am and
7 Positively skewed 8 Yes, 45 is an outlier. noon, remaining fairly constant until 8 pm, when
the number reduces.
9 Median, because the outlier inflates the mean.
10 The outlier makes the range very large. The outlier 11 Month Sydney Melbourne Brisbane
also affects the mean. There is no change to the IQR. January 12 8 13
Exercise 4C — Displaying multiple data February 12 7 14
sets March 13 9 15
1 Key: 1.55 = 1.55
April 12 12 11
Boys Girls
9 9 7 1.51 2 5 6 7 8 8 May 12 14 10
9 8 6 6 5 5 4 0 1.64 4 6 7 8 9 9 June 12 14 8
4 4 2 1 1.70 July 10 15 7
2 Key: 18 = 18
Team A Team B August 10 16 7
8 0 7 9 September 10 15 7
9 8 7 1 October 12 14 9
9 5 4 3 2 0 1 3 4 7
4 2 3 0 5 8 November 11 12 10
2 0 4 1 6 December 12 11 12
425
answers
Answers
Exercise 4D — Comparison of 15 a
Matchbox A
data sets
1 a English 66, Maths 63.5 Matchbox B
b English 32, Maths 53 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 Scale
c The marks are more spread in Maths than in
English. b Machine A: x = 49.96, sn = 2.90,
2 a Machine B: x = 50.12, sn = 2.44
Boys
c Machine B has a lower standard deviation and so
Girls is more dependable.
1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 Scale Chapter review
b Boys 1.64, girls 1.62 1 a 25.4 b 26
c Boys 0.34, girls 0.18 2 a Number of Cumulative
d Boys 0.14, girls 0.07 house calls Frequency frequency
e The spread of heights is much greater among 0 1 1
boys than among girls.
3 a Year 7: range = 0.4, Year 12: range = 0.26 1 6 7
b Year 7: interquartile range = 0.15, 2 8 15
Year 12: interquartile range = 0.11 3 9 24
c The range of heights is greater in Year 7 as 4 6 30
shown by the range and the IQR. The heights 5 2 32
become less spread by the time they get to
Year 12. b 2.593 75 c 3 d 3
4 The pattern of software sales follows after the 3 a 80.6 b 84 c 20 d 24.4
pattern of hardware sales with a slight time delay. 4 x = 10.3 σn = 1.6
5 a Southern 5 a Waiting Class Cumulative
b Western time centre Frequency frequency
c Similar peaks and troughs 0–1 minute 0.5 1 1
6 a 43.2%
b 1.9% 1–2 minutes 1.5 4 5
c 0.9% 2–3 minutes 2.5 10 15
d 2.6% 3–4 minutes 3.5 13 28
e More evident in males with three times the 4–5 minutes 4.5 9 37
number of drivers over the limit 5–6 minutes 5.5 3 40
7 a 90.5% b 55.6%
c Yes, as a much greater percentage of games are b x = 3.35 σn = 1.17
won with Ashley playing. c
40
8 a 9.5% b 9.7%
35
c i 48.7% ii 51.3% 30
d There is no significant difference between the 25
20
city and country results. 15
9 a Chemistry, 69.25 10
b Physics, because of the lower standard deviation 5
10 a Point A: x = 61, σn = 4.27, 0
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5
Point B: x = 58.8, σn = 12.06 Waiting time (minutes)
b Point A because of the higher mean
c Point B because of the greater standard deviation d 1.75
11 a Aaron: x = 38.1, Sunil: x = 39.3 6 a 29.5 b 34.5
b Aaron: range = 76, Sunil: range = 65 c Outlier reduces the mean greatly.
c Aaron: interquartile range = 16, 7 a Yes b Both are 17.5.
Sunil: interquartile range = 57 c 17 and 18
d Aaron is more consistent because although he 8 a b Positively skewed
12
has a larger range this is caused by one outlier. 10
Frequency
Aaron’s interquartile range is much less, showing 8

his consistency. 6
4
12 C (based on the interquartile range) 2
13 B 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
14 A Class centre
9 A histogram that shows more columns to the right of

centre than to the left.
4B
4D
answers 426 Answers
10 a Key: 56 = 56 d
Boys
English Maths
5  4 9 Girls
7 6 6 2  5 0 1 5 8 0 Scale
20
40
60
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8 7 6 6 5 4 0  6 0 1 5 6 6 6 8 9
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
26
7 7 4 4  7 0 0 1 1 4 e Boys: x = $107, σn = 22.4,
4 2 0  8 5 Girls: x = $97, σn = 53.1
1  9 9 f Generally, the girls’ is more consistent. The range
b English: median = 66.5, Maths: median = 66 and standard deviation for the girls is inflated by
the outlier so the best measure of consistency is the
c English: range = 46, Maths: range = 50
interquartile range which is lower for the girls.
d English: interquartile range = 18.5,
7 a Sharks: median = 24, Bulldogs: median = 24
Maths: interquartile range = 11.5 b Bulldogs’ scores are more clustered around the
11 a Surf sales Ski sales median and so can be seen to be more consistent.
D $25 000 J F
$20 000
c Negatively skewed
N $15 000
$10 000
M d x = 23.96, σn = 5.58
$5 000
O $0 A
CHAPTER 5 Algebraic skills and
S M techniques
A J
J Are you ready?
b There is a peak in surf sales through summer, 1 a 2300 b 161.2 c 3120 d 375.9
while the ski sales are greatest in winter, with a 2 a 5r b 10m c 16x + 15
short peak occurring around Christmas. d a – 5b e 4y – x f 9m – 8n
3 a r10 b 18a3 c 28p6
12 Day Economy Night
d 35q6 e 48m6 f 27r3s11
30 4 a d4 b 6m4 c 42x5
Price per minute
2
20 k
d 2q5 e 8s5 f -----
8
10
5 a a8 b 64b3 c 16c8
0 6 a z = 118 b y = 24 c w = 13
Telecomm Omtus Tel One
Company
d v = 5 1--3- e t = 14 f n = 34
13 a Home: 23 000 Away: 16 000 7 a 2.5 × 104 b 2.36 × 108
b Home: 27 000 Away: 19 000 c 4 × 105 d 2.6 × 1013
c Home: 19 000 Away: 9000
d Exercise 5A — Substitution
Home 1 32.16
Away
2 a 30.75 b 2327.5 c 27.1
d 120 e −154
Scale 3 26.4
00
00
12 00
15 00
18 00
21 00
24 00
27 00
30 00
33 00
36 00
0
00
30
60
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4 29.8 m
14 a 2003: median = 7, 2004: median = 8 5 181.5
b 2004 6 a 1.41 b 12.06 c 137.26
c 2003 d 82.8 e 254.04
d 2004 — Higher median, lower limit, lower 7 126 cm2
quartile and upper limit 8 101.25
15 a 9.7% b 8.0% 9 6.3
c No significant difference 10 a 15 b 16.2 c 8.5
16 a English: x = 71, maths: x = 69.3 d 6.0 e 30.5
b English: range = 43, maths: range = 37 11 5.2 cm
12 a 10.5 b 16.0 cm2
c English: σn = 11.6, maths: σn = 12.0
d English, because of the lower standard deviation Exercise 5B — Algebraic manipulation
1 a 12a b 18b c 14c
Practice examination questions d 41d e 4e f f
1 B, C and D 2 A 3 C g −7g h 5h i −9i
4 B 5 B j 11j k 4k l −2l
6 a Boys: median = $105, Girls: median = $85 2 a 11m − 9 b 8n − 4 c 10p2 + 4p
b Boys: range = 75, Girls: range = 200 d 3r + 11s e 3t − 6 f −u − 6v
c Boys: interquartile range = 35, g 6w2 − 4w3 h 5xz − xy i 5p2 − 16
Girls: interquartile range = 20 j 10x + 4y − 6xy
427
answers
Answers
3 a a13 b b4 c 12c7 Exercise 5D — Solution by substitution

d 7d4 e 12p9q5 f 63g3h4 1 x = 6.6 2 x=7 3 x=7 4 n = 14
g 28m6n5 h 20p5q4 i 24x3y3z 5 a 500 000 = 265 000(1.04)n b 16 years
j 48u4v5w9 6 5 years
4 a k3 b 3m5 c 6n5
d 2x4 e 8m2n2 f 5x5 7 a t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 8 p3 11a
g mn h --------- i --------- d 5 20 45 80 125 180 245 320 405 500
q3 b
4
j 4qr b 8 seconds
5 a a12 b 4b8 c 27m6
4 6 8 a Length 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
d 16x y e 16p4q8
2
6 a 2m + 10 b x + 2x
Width 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
c 9a2 + 6ab d 18q6 − 6q2
e 5mn − 25n2 f 14a6b4 − 21a2b10
g −3d − 15 h −3m2 + 6mn Area 175 300 375 400 375 300 175
i −12r3 + 18r6 j 18p2q2r − 6pqr2 b 20 m × 20 m
7 a 10x + 6 b a2 + 13a − 10 c 40 m × 20 m
c 2m2 + 4mn − 12n2 d 18x − 45
e 4p2 − 15p + 30 f 7x2y − 8xy2 − xy 10 Quick Questions 2
8 a a7 b m3 c 16mn5 1 10 2 32
3 3 4 127.3
d 10xy11 e 1 f m
5 ±20 6 a − 3b
7 20x7y4 8 64m9n12
9 3mn2 10 x = 12
10 Quick Questions 1 Exercise 5E — Scientific notation
1 10 2 101.87 1 a 9 × 104 b 2 × 1010 c 7 × 102
3 15.3 4 −5x 2 a 1.458 × 106 b 2.365 × 1013 c 2.589 × 103
5 a − 6b 6 15b6 3 a 2 × 10−8 b 4.57 × 10−3 c 4.9321 × 10−11
7 6g3h2 8 25p6q8 4 a 9.32 × 107 km b 7.85 × 1010 mm
9 10x − 5x2 10 6a2 − 19ab + 24b2 c 4
4.59 × 10 t d 3.65 × 10−3 g
e 2.14 × 10−1 mL f 5.69 × 10−6 s
5 a 34 000 b 2 870 000
Exercise 5C — Equations and formulas c 30 248 000 000
6 a 0.000 585 b 0.000 001 97
1 12.7 cm
c 0.001 002
2 38 m
7
3 a 7.3 b 12.4 c 4.1 d 26 e 20.4 Distance Distance in km
4 ±5 Planet (AU) (Scientific notation)
5 10.22 cm
6 a 0.75 b 2.20 c 3.19 d 4.70 e 0.6 Mercury 0.39 5.85 × 107
y–1
7 x = -----------
2 Venus 0.72 1.08 × 108
A
8 l = --- Earth 1.0 1.50 × 108
b
2A 2A
9 a a = ------- – b b h = ------------ Mars 1.52 2.28 × 108
h a+b
A Jupiter 5.20 7.80 × 108
10 r = ± ---
π
Saturn 9.54 1.43 × 109
E E
11 a m = ----- b c = ± ----
c2 m Uranus 19.18 2.88 × 109
12 D 13 B 14 D
V Neptune 30.06 4.51 × 109
15 a r = ± ---- b u = ± v 2 – as
π
8 a 2.35 × 104 m b 8.4 × 104 km
3V T 2 c 6.4 × 106 mm d 6.58 × 103 t
c r = 3 ------- d L = g  ------
4π  2 π e 7.802 × 109 kg f 8.29 × 1013 g
g 1.87 × 105 kL h 2.178 × 1010 L
e a = ± c2 – b2 i 5.55 × 1010 mL 5A
5E
answers 428 Answers
Chapter review Exercise 6A — Tree diagrams

1 162 1 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
child child child child
2 36.952 Boy
Boy Girl
3 13 Boy Girl Boy
Boy Girl
4 a 136.00 b 37.78 c 8.57 d 8 Boy
Boy Girl
5 a 5m b 16q c 12p Girl Girl Boy
Girl
d t e 4m + 4n f 4x − 5 Boy
Boy Girl
g 3k − 2l h 8x2 + 14x i ab + 7a − 2b Boy Girl Boy
Girl
6 a 28a9 b 45b2 c 21g4h8 Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl
6 7 2
d 12m n e 6x f 8s3 Girl Girl Boy
Girl
g 7q h 27p6q12 i 4m2
2 2
7 a 2a + 18 b 2p − 4p 1st die 2nd die
1
c −3x5 + x2 d 12m7 − 8m5n 2
3
e −16xy + 4xy2 f 12a5b3 − 24a2b5 1 4
5
8 a 8m + 40 b 2p2 − 3p 6
1
c 11x − 52 d 7yz + 8y2 − 6z2 2
3
e 2p2q − 4pq2 + 8p 2 4
5
9 15 10 21.6 m 11 s = ±6 12 7.2 cm 6
1
13 a x = 2.9 b x = 3.8 c x = 4.8 2
3
14 8 years 3 4
5
15 3 years 6
16 a 6 × 105 b 2 × 10−10 1
2
c 7.892 × 10 13
d 1.25 × 10−3 4 3
4
e 4.589 × 10−6 f 1.245 89 × 1014 5
6
17 a 1.26 × 10 4
b 1.25 × 10−4 1
2
c 3.21 × 10−2 d 5.86 × 108 5 3
4
e 1.24 × 104 f 5.19 × 10−8 5
6
18 a 250 b 38 700 1
2
c 98 504 000 d 0.289 6 3
4
e 0.000 000 367 02 f 0.0011 5
6
19 a 2.5 × 108 mm b 2.8 × 105 kg
c 3.43 × 107 L d 1.45 × 103 km 3 1st bag 2nd bag
10
e 4.243 × 10 kg f 1.3 × 105 L R
B
Red Y
Practice examination questions G
R
1 A 2 A 3 A Blue B
Y
4 B 5 A G
R
6 a 304.8 cm3 b 8.3 cm Yellow B
Y
SA – 2 π r 2 G
c 6.4 cm d h = ------------------------- R
2πr Green B
Y
7 a n = 10 b (0.85)n = 0.5 G
c n = 4.3
4 Male Female
Thuy
Petria
George Joan
CHAPTER 6 Multi-stage events Wendy
Amelia
Thuy
Are you ready? Frank
Petria
Joan
Wendy
1 a {hearts, diamonds, spades, clubs} Amelia
Thuy
b {red, blue, white} Petria
Stanisa Joan
c {a, b, c, … x, y, z} Wendy
Amelia
2 a Unlikely b Probable c Impossible Thuy
3 a Equally likely b Equally likely Petria
Ian Joan
Wendy
c Impossible Amelia
4 a 500 b 240 c 45 697 600
1 1 3
S = {George – Thuy, George – Petria, George –
5 a ---
8
b ------
50
c -----
14
-
Joan, George – Wendy, George – Amelia, Frank
6 a Selecting a consonant – Thuy, Frank – Petria, Frank – Joan, Frank –
b Selecting a white or clear marble Wendy, Frank – Amelia, Stanisa – Thuy,
c Selecting a number greater than 9 Stanisa – Petria, Stanisa – Joan, Stanisa –
Wendy, Stanisa – Amelia, Ian – Thuy, Ian –
7 a 3--5- b 1--5- c 0.27
Petria, Ian – Joan, Ian – Wendy, Ian – Amelia}
429
answers
Answers
5 1st digit 2nd digit Exercise 6C — Probability and counting

1
2
4 techniques
5 1
7 1 ------
24
1
2 4
5 1 1
7 2 a 120 b ---------
120
c ---------
120
1
2 1 2 2
4 5 3 a ---
6
b ---
3
c ---
3
7
1 1
5 2 4 ------
10
4
7
1 1 1
1
2
5 a ------
42
b ------
42
c ------
21
7 4
5 1 2 2
6 a ------
72
b ---
9
c ---
9
6 President Secretary Treasurer
1
Kate
7 ---
6
Dean Adrian
Dean 1 1
Belinda Kate
Adrian Adrian 8 a ----------------
13 800
b ------------
2300
Dean
Kate 1
Kate 9 a 20 b ------
20
Belinda Adrian
Dean Kate Belinda
1 3 3
Adrian Adrian
Belinda
10 a ------
10
b ------
10
c ---
5
Kate
Dean
Belinda Adrian
Belinda
10 Quick Questions 1
Kate Dean
Adrian Adrian 1 S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Belinda
Dean 2 36 3 120 4 3 628 800
Dean
Belinda Kate 5 720 6 72 7 70
Adrian Dean Belinda
Kate Kate 8 24 9 1680
Belinda
Dean 10 An ordered selection occurs when the order in which
each choice is made is important but in an unordered
7 S = {357, 358, 375, 378, 385, 387, 537, 538, 573, selection, order is not important.
578, 583, 585, 735, 738, 753, 758, 783, 785,
835, 837, 853, 857, 873, 875} Exercise 6D — Probability trees
25
8 C 9 1--2- 1 ------
64
10 a 1st digit 2nd digit b 7

------
2 a 1st marble 2nd marble
12 4
–
3 9 White
2 4 4
– White
7 9 5 Black
2 –
9 4
3 4 –
7 9 White
5
– Black
2 9
4 3 5
– Black
7 9
2
7 3 16 20
4 b P(WW) = ------
81
P(WB) = ------
81
20 25
11 a 1
------ b 3
------ c 2
--- d 3
--- P(BW) = ------
81
P(WW) = ------
81
20 10 5 5
6 12
12 1
--- 13 B 3 a ------
25
b ------
25
4
14 a S = {Bris – Peak – Ec, Bris – Peak – BC, Bris – 4 a 51.2% b 38.4%
Peak – FC, Bris – Off-peak – Ec, Bris – Off-peak 1
5 a -----
- b 1
--------- c 893
--------- d 19
---------
20 495 990 198
– BC, Bris – Off-peak – FC, GC – Peak – Ec, GC
– Peak – BC, GC – Peak – FC, GC – Off-peak – 6 C
Ec, GC – Off-peak – BC, GC – Off-peak – FC, 7 B
1 7 8 7
Cairns – Peak – Ec, Cairns – Peak – BC, Cairns 8 a ------
15
b ------
15
c ------
15
d ------
15
– Off-peak – Ec, Cairns – Off-peak – BC} 9 a S = {BB, BG, GB, GG}
b i 3--8- ii 1--4- iii 1--8- b i 14
------
5
ii -----
- ii 20
------
39 39 39
Exercise 6B — Counting techniques 10 a 24

------
49
b 25
------
49
1 a 6 b 120 c 362 880 2 3 10
2 24 3 120 4 6 11 a ------
21
b ---
7
c ------
21
5 720 6 12 7 12 144 12 a 0.3025 b 0.2025
8 35 9 210 10 15 13 a 40.96% b 59.04%
11 72 12 C 13 D 14 0.01
14 B
15 a 624
--------- b 369
---------
15 a 20 b 6
16 a 362 880 b 504 c 36 16 D
625 625
6A
6D
answers 430 Answers
17 a 1
---
2
b 1
---
5
c 1
---
2
CHAPTER 7 Applications of
18 3
------
probability
10
19 a 0.32 b 0.56 c 0.88 Are you ready?
2 1 49
Chapter review 1 a ---
3
b ------
50
c ------
99
1 a 1st coin 2nd coin
2 First digit Second digit Sample space
Heads 5 35
Heads 3 6 36
Tails 7 37
3 53
Heads 5 6 56
Tails 7 57
Tails 3 63
6 5 65
7 67
b S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} 3 73
7 5 75
2 a S = {57, 58, 59, 75, 78, 79, 85, 87, 89, 95, 97, 98} 6 76
b S = {55, 57, 58, 59, 75, 77, 78, 79, 85, 87, 88, 89, 3 a b 1
------
First time Second time
95, 97, 98, 99} 25
1
–
3 a 1--8- b 3--8- c 1--2- 1 Ad
5 Ad
–
5 4 No ad
4 a S = {46, 47, 48, 49, 64, 67, 68, 69, 74, 76, 78, 79, –
5
84, 86, 87, 89, 94, 96, 97, 98} 4
1
–
5
– Ad
1 5
b i -----
20
- ii 2--5- iii 3--4- No ad
4 No ad
–
5
1 3
5 a ---
2
b ---
4
6 40 320 Exercise 7A — Expected outcomes
7 56 1 20 2 50 3 25
8 70 4 a 35 b 28 c 7
9 a 120 b 60 5 1.25
10 1
--------- 6 a 25 b 50 c 7.69 d 30.77 e 1.92
120
1
1
7 a -----
25
- b 2.08
11 a 12 b ------
12
8 a 0.0144 b 48.9
1 1 1
12 a 360 b ---------
360
c 15 d ------
15
e ---
3
9 B 10 B 11 5
1 1 12 a 90 b 90 c 30
13 a ------------
1024
b -----------------------
1 048 576 13
3 1
14 a ------
10
b ------
10 Outcome 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2
15 ---
5
1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 1
8 98 Probability ------ ------ ------ --- ------ --- ------ --- ------ ------ ------
16 a ---------
125
b ---------
125
36 18 12 9 36 6 36 9 12 18 36
17 91%
Expected 2.8 5.6 8.3 11.1 13.9 16.7 13.9 11.1 8.3 5.6 2.8
18 343
---------
512 no.
Practice examination questions 14 a 55.26 b 60.53 c 39.47 d 94.74
1 C
2 D
3 C Exercise 7B — Financial expectation
4 B 1 $0.00 2 $0.40 3 −$0.50
3 7
4 $0.15 5 −$0.30 6 $1.70
5 a 1st coin 2nd coin 3rd coin b ---
8
c ---
8 7 a 37
Heads Heads
Heads Tails
Heads
b i 18 ii 18 iii 1
Tails
Tails c −$0.27
Heads
Heads
Tails
8 A 9 C 10 $0.11 11 −$1.10
Tails
Tails Heads
Tails
6 a 1st shot 2nd shot 1 20 2 25 3 50 4 7.7
0.4 Lands 5 30.8 6 $0.17 7 −$0.11
0.4 Lands
0.6 Miss 8 The player can expect to have an average profit of
0.4 Lands 20% per game.
0.6 Miss
0.6 Miss 9 The player can expect to have an average loss of
20% per game.
b i 0.16 ii 0.48 iii 0.64 10 $0.45
431
answers
Answers
Exercise 7C — Two-way tables 14

Test results
1 Test results
With virus 48 2 50
With virus 98 2 100
Total 197 3
Total 486 14
15
Test results
2 Test results
Telling truth 77 3 80
Telling truth 777 23 800
Telling lies 17 3 20
Telling lies 156 44 200
Total 94 6
Total 933 67 1
16 a 140 b 30 c 90% d ------
10
3
3 a 1000 b 75 c 96.7% d ---
5 17 a 130 b 33.8% 39
c -----
-
40
4 a 200 b 44 c 90.9% d 5.1%
e 94% Practice examination questions
f A range of factors should be considered, e.g. for 1 C 2 B 3 A
an expensive system a 6% fail rate might be 4 a 1--6- b 15 1
c -----
- d $0.11
18
unsatisfactory.
5 a 200 b 96% c 34 d 93 1--3- % e 14
------
5 B 6 D 7 A 15
8 a
Test results
CHAPTER 8 Annuities and loan
Not repayments
Accurate accurate Total
Are you ready?
Bags with 48 2 50 1 a n = 5, r = 0.08 b n = 8, r = 0.03
prohibited c n = 12, r = 0.019 d n = 120, r = 0.008
items
e n = 30, r = 0.000 66
Bags with no 145 5 150 2 a $5000 b $7626 c $5922
prohibited 3 a $2292.19 b $16 808.55 c $18 499.35
items 4 a $8984 b $15 750 c $22 716
Total 193 7 Exercise 8A — Future value of an

annuity
b i 96% ii 3.3% iii 4% iv 96.5% 1 $7049.37
Chapter review 2 a $6691.13 b $16 859.14
c $6158.56 d $3974.56
1 18
e $17 713.21 f $3530.21
2 a 10 b 30 c 20 3 $4472.93
3 a 50 b 25 c 7.69 d 30.8 e 3.85 4 a i $2295.05 ii $2217.44 iii $2142.45
4 a 2.5 b 15 c 7.5 d 15 e 25 iv $2070.00 b $10 724.94
5 a 12.5 b 37.5 c 50 5 $73 105.94
6 a 5 b 45 c 15 6 a 22 b $21 696.15
7 $0.00 c $283 057.94
8 −$0.60 7 a $25 155.79 b $29 333.00
c $433 046.81 d $217 372.57
9 A positive financial expectation means that on
e $114 665.87
average a profit should be made while a negative
8 a 5
financial expectation means that on average a loss
b No — she has saved $29 041.96.
should be made.
c $4041.96
10 −$0.03 9 $90 237.49
11 $0.00 10 a $20 326.23 b $24 297.37
12 $0.30 c $45 881.32 d $69 770.03
13 $1.87 11 A 12 C 13 $4067.23 6D
8A
answers 432 Answers
14 a $4524.37 b $7068.59 c $1930.08 Chapter review

15 a $56 160 b $112 320 c $242 106.74 1 a $4917.25 b $2960.49
10 Quick Questions 1 c $31 053.57 d $5461.06
2 $16 398.20
1 $8857.81 2 $1179.42 3 $10 164.56
3 a $66 666.94 b $31 371.42
4 $195 857.88 5 $31 741.41 6 $66 574.26
7 $3626.32 8 $5980.14 9 $558.24 c $14 291.59 d $247 313.84
10 $891.50 4 $36 604.24
5 $3088.13
Exercise 8B — Present value of an 6 a $3793.40 b $468.93 c $217.69
annuity 7 $20 057.99
1 $7537.11 8 a $6139.13 b $4298.72
2 a $12 418.43 b $3786.09 c $94 222.37 c $3219.64 d $36 945.53
3 $48 987.91 9 $11 654.84
4 a $37 685.57 b $35 644.50 10 $5113.34
c $34 623.58 d $33 943.00 11 a $524 573.59 b $13 002.83
5 $3511.79 12 $41 039.20
6 a $11 257.78 b $6116.69 13 a $4399.95 b $34 641.25
c $14 783.59 d $24 767.78 c $1842.84 d $51 014.25
7 $22 851.87 14 $2242.95
8 $6113.60 15 a $1516.32 b $14 047.20
9 A 10 D c $4055.45 d $11 177.64
11 Investment A 16 $547.41
12 C 17 a $553.76 b $26 580.48
13 a $15 864.53 18 $503 055
b Yes, Kylie will have $32 547.59. 19 a $226.10 b $5426.40 c $1026.40
Exercise 8C — Future and present Practice examination questions
value tables 1 D 2 B 3 B 4 D
1 $4787.76 5 a $91 523.93 b $19 636.30 c $5362.05
2 a $1324.00 b $23 932.35 6 a $63 792.85 b $2384.89 c $67 443.86
c $7503.81 d $62 953.50 7 a $1651.63 b $246 391.20 c $112 692.48
3 a 4% b 10 c $6003.05
4 a $4103.92 b $5535.38 c $7546.74
5 5% for 6 years. $1 will grow to $6.8019 but at 6% CHAPTER 9 Modelling linear and
for 5 years it will grow to $5.6371.
6 D non-linear relationships
7 $6918.50
8 a $1845.09 b $12 289.20 Are you ready?
c $4455.79 d $16 604.40 1 a
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
1 $15 937.42 2 $15 937.42 3 $13 537.79 y –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
4 $1435.91 5 $5084.04 6 $19 277.16 b
7 $22 094.93 8 $8513.56 9 $10.63 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
10 $13 295.75
y –10 –7 –4 –1 2 5 8
Exercise 8D — Loan repayments c
1 $2637.97 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
2 $210.67
3 a $94.15 b $311.38 c $859.72 y 16 13 10 7 4 1 –2
d $484.17 e $1511.14
4 $1397.37 2 a Linear b Not linear c Not linear
5 a $375 b $3375 c $107.32 d Linear e Not linear f Linear
6 $374.53 3 a 5--4- b –3 c –2
7 a $28 000 b $138.21
4 a y b y
8 $16 847.35
5 5
9 a $4359.36 b $29 059.20
3 3
c $98 285.40 d $366 700.80 y =3x
1 1 0
10 D
11 B –5 –3 –1
–1 1 3 x –5 –3 –1
–1 1 3
x
12 9 years, 3 months –3 –3
13 a $1320.99 b $396 297.00 –5 –5 y =2x – 3
c 14 years, 6 months d $117 897
433
answers
Answers
c y 5 a P P = 3n – 24 000
5 50 000
40 000
3 30 000
20 000
1 10 000 0
x –10 000 n
–1 1 3
–5 –3 –1
0 00
0 00
–20 000
–30 000
10
20
–3
–5 y =5 – 2x
n 0 8 000 10 000
Exercise 9A — Linear functions P 24 000 0 6 000
1 y
5 b $36 000 c $9000 loss d 8000 people
3 y=x+3
6 a N b 500 c $1.80
10
–5 –3 –1
–1 1 3 x 1000
N = 1000 – 5P
–3 800
600
2 a y b y y = 3x – 2 400
4 4 200
3 3
2 y = 2x 2 0
1 10 0 P
40
0
12
20
–4 –2 0 1 2 3 x –4 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–2 –2
–3 –3 7 a y b (1, 3)
–4
5 y = 3x
4
3
c y d y 2
1
4 5 y = 5 – 2x
3 y = –x 4 –3 –1 01 2 3 4 5 x
2
10
3
2 –3 y = 4 – x
–3 –1 1 2 3 x 10
–2 –3 –1 x 8 Intersection (5, 4)
–3 –1 1 2 3 4 y
–4 5
–3 4 y=x–1
3
2
e f 1
y y
5 –3 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
5
4 4
–3 y = 2x – 6
3 y = 1– x + 3 3 1
2 2 2 y = 1 – –x
10 1 4
x
0
–3 –1–1 1 2 3 4 x 9 (0, 2)
–3 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–3
–2
–3
10 a, b B
120
2A = B
100
3 a x 0 2 4 80
y 3 0 −3 60 A + B = 120
40
b y 20
5
4 3x + 2y – 6 = 0 0
3 0 40 80 120 A
2
10
x c Game A: 40; Game B: 80.
–3 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2
–3 11 a d 0 1000 2000
4 a d 0 5 10 30 C (old) 0 1200 2400

C 3 10.5 18 48 C (new) 900 1200 1500
b C = 3 + 1.5d
C b C C = 1.2d c After 1000 days
2000
40
1500
C = 900 + 0.3d
1000
20
500
0 0
0 d
d
00
00
0 20 40
8A
10
20
c $33 d 14 km
9A
answers 434 Answers
12 a C b 300 6 a The coefficient will make the graph steeper if it is

10 000 C = 20n greater than 1 and flatten the graph if it lies
8000
C = 15n + 1500
between 0 and 1.
6000 b Adding a constant will lift the graph while
4000 subtracting a constant will lower the graph.
2000 7 y 2
They are the same function.
20 y = x – 2x + 5
0 n
0
0
0
16
10
30
50
12
Exercise 9B — Quadratic functions 8
4
1 a x 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
y 3 2 3 6 11 18
8 y
b y y = x2– 2x + 3
c Min. value = 2 4
18 2
15
12 0 12 45 x
9 –2
6
3 –4
–10 1 2 3 4 5 6 x –6
–1
y = 2 + 2x – x2
2 y y = x2– 4x – 2
9 a y b y c 2
6
16 y = 4 + 6x – x2 9 y y = (2 – x)
3 4
12 6
2
–3 0 1 3 5 x 8 3
–3 4 0 2 4 x
–6 0 12 45 x –2
0 12345 x –3
–4
3 a y b y y = x2 + x + 5 –4 –6
–6
6 y = x2– 6x + 5 25 –8 –9
4 20 y = 8 – x2
2 15 10 D 11 C 12 D
–2 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 10 13 y y = 2x2– 4x + 8
–2 5 25
–4 20
0 1 2 3 4 x
15
c y 10
10 y = (x– 2)2 5
8
6 C 1 2 3 4 5 x
4 14 a d b 80 m c 10 s
2 125
x 100 d = 5t2
0 1 2 3 4 5
75
4 y
y = 2x2 y = x2 50
25 (b) (a) 25
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
15 y = 1_ x2
2
(c)
10
15 a h h = 30t – 5t2
5
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
5 2
y y=x +3 y=x
2 20
9 y = x2– 3
0 t
0 2 4 6
6 (b)
b 45 m c 6 s
3 (a) (c) 16 a x
0 1 x 50 – x
2 3 4 5
–3 Sum of adjacent sides = 50 m
435
answers
Answers
b A=l×b 2 a y b y
A = x(50 – x) 50 10
A = 50x – x2 40 8 y = 1–3x3
y = 3x3 2
c 30 6
A A = 50x – x2
600 20 4
10 2
400 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 x 0 1 2 3 4 x
200 c y
0 0 2 3 4 x
0 20 40 x –2
–4
d 625 m2 when the field is 25 m × 25 m –6
y = –x3
17 a A = l × b
A = x(100 – 2x)
A = 100x – 2x2 3 y
b A = 100x – 2x2 4
1200
4
y = –x
2
800
0 x
400 0 1 2 3 4
4 a y b y
0 4
0 20 40 x
8
3
c 25 m × 50 m 2
1
y = –x 6
y=—
10
x
4
2
1 y y = 2x – 3 2 2 0
0 1 2 3 4 x 0 x
3 0 2 4 6 8
2
10
–3 –1 x c y
–1 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5
–3 0 x
–1 y = – 1–x
3 −3 4 y = 3x + 2 –2
5 Coefficient of x must be negative: e.g. y = –2x + 7 –3
–4
6 x 0 1 2 3 4 –5
y 4 3 0 −5 −12
5 y
7 y 40
4 30 y = 3x
3 y = 4 – x2
20
2 10
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 x
0 1 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
6 a y b y
100
40
80
8 4 30 y = 4x y = 10 x
60
9 Concave up because the x2 term is positive. 20
40
10 5 10
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 x 0
Exercise 9C — Other functions 0 1 2 3 4 x
1 y
8 c y
7
6 3
5 y = x3
4 2 x
3 y = (1–2 )
2 1
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 x
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
9A
9C
answers 436 Answers
7 y 10 a 20 b 2 hours
11 12 km/L or 8 1--3- L/100 km
40 12 8 amps
30
y = 5(2x)
20
Exercise 9E — Graphing physical
10
0
phenomena
x
0 1 2 3 4
8 C 1 a s 0 1 2 3 4 5
9 B
10 A A 0 6 24 54 96 150
1600
1400
b A
A = 1000(1.1)n 400
1200
320
1000
240
0
0 2 4 6 8 n 160 A = 6s2
11 a A = 50 000(1.12)n 80
b 0
A 0 2 4 6 8 10 s
65 000
2 d
A = 50 000(1.12)n 500
55 000
400
300
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 n 200
d = 5t2
c 3 years 100
0
12 V 0 2 4 6 8 10 t
40 000 V = 40 000(0.85)n
30 000
20 000 3 a v 0 10 20 30 40
10 000
0 d 0 8 18 30 44
0 1 2 3 4 5 n
b d = 0.01v 2 + 0.7v
Exercise 9D — Variations d
2 40
1 y = 5.5x
30
2 b = 0.5a3
20
3 a d = 4.9t 2 b d 10
50
0
40 0 10 20 30 40 50 v
30 100 000
20
4 a A = ------------------- b A
2 n 100 000
10 d = 4.9t
80 000
0
0 1 2 3 4 t 60 000
A = 100—
n
000
2
40 000
4 a 6 b 230.64 cm 20 000
5 a 3.14 b 452.16 cm2 0
6 a 0.25 b 54 g c 6.5 cm 0 2 4 6 8 10 n
50
7 y = ------
x 5 a Age
1 2 3 4 5
1 (years)
8 m = ---
n
Value $30 000 $24 000 $19 200 $15 360 $12 288
150
9 a t = --------- b t
s
50 b V
40 40 000
30 30 000 V = 30 000(0.8)n–1
150
20 t=—
s 20 000
10 10 000
0 s 0 n
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 2 4 6 8 10
437
answers
Answers
6 W b C
8 W = 3.3(1.2)n 24
C = 3 + 0.4d
6 18
4 12
2 6
0 n 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 10 20 30 40 50 d
3 a P = 1.25n − 320
7 a 6
b P
b V = l × b × h = (12 – 2x)(12 – 2x)x = x(12 – 2x)2 200
P = 1.25n – 320
100
c V V = x(12 – 2x)2
125 0 n
80
0
0
0
16
32
40
0
–100
24
100
–200
75
–300
50
–400
25
0 c i $55 profit ii $142.50 loss
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
d 256
4 y Intersection (2, 4)
8 a Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 y=x+2
5
4 y=6–x
Population 3
1.5 1.58 1.65 1.74 1.82
(million) 10
–3 –1 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
b P 5 a C = 1000 + 0.2w b C = 200 + w
4 P = 1.5(1.05)n
3
c C d 1000 washes
2000 C = 200 + w
2
1500
1 1000
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 n 500 C = 1000 + 0.2w
0 w
c 2027 0
0
0
0
12 0
50
25
50
75
0
10
d The graph will become a straight, horizontal line.
6 a x 0 1 2 3 4 5
Chapter review y 5 2 1 2 5 10
1 a y b y
4 4
b y c 1
3 3 y=x+3 10
2 y = 3x y = x2 – 4x + 5
1 10 8
–3 –1 01 2 3 4 x –5 –3 –1 x
–1 1 2 3 6
–2
–3 –3 4
–4
2
c y d y 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
4 5
3 y=2–x 4 y = 5 – 3x
2 3 7 y = x2 – 2x – 2
10 2 y
–3 –1 x 10
–1 1 2 3 4 x 6
–2 –3 –1
–1 1 3 4
–3 –2 4
–4 –3
2
e y f y 0 1 2 3 4 x
3 5 –2
2 4
1 0 2y = 4x – 3 3 3x – 2y + 6 = 0 –4
–3 –1 x
–1 1 2 3 4 10
–3 –1 x 8 a y b y
–3 –1 1 2 3 4 20 y = 5 – x2
–4 –2 4
–5 –3 16 y = (x – 4)2
–1 0 1 2 3 4 x
12 –4
2 a d 0 5 10 15 20 8 –8
4 –12
D 3 5 7 9 11 0
0 2 4 6 8x 9C
9E
answers 438 Answers
c y y = 4 + 2x – x2 16 y = 5x2
4 17 a m = 0.45l 3 b 56.25 g c 4.8 cm
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 64
–4 18 y = ------
x
–8
1000
–12 19 a A = ------------ b 8 days c 250 campers
n
9 a h b 10 s
500 h = 500 – 5t2 20 a r 0 1 2 3 4 5
400
300 A 0 3.14 12.57 28.27 50.27 78.54
200
100 b A
0 80
0 2 4 6 8 10 t
60 A = πr 2
10 a E
150 E = 24n – n2 40
120 20
0
90 0 1 2 3 4 5 r
60 21 a h
30 h = 20t – 5t2
20
0
n 16
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
b 144 kg, 12 workers 12
c Too many people getting in each other’s way etc. 8
11 a y b y 4
8 10 0
0 1 2 3 4 t
6 y = x3 8 1
y = –23x3 b i 20 m ii 4 s
4 6
22 a A
2 4 A = 10 000(1.06)n
18 000
0 x 2 16 000
0 1 2 3 4
0
0 1 2 3 4 x 14 000
12 a y b y 12 000
4 4 10 000
1 2 0
3 y = –x 3 y = –x
0 2 4 6 8 10 n
2 2
b $16 000 c 7 years
1 1
0 0 Practice examination questions
0 1 2 3 4 x 0 1 2 3 4 x 1 B 2 D 3 B 4 D
13 a y b y 5 a P = 10n – 500 b, d P
2 2000 P = 10n – 500
16 1 x
y = 2x 1 y = ( –2)
1500
12
0 1000
8 0 1 2 3 4 x P = 5n
500
4
0 0 n
4 x
50
0
0
0
0 1 2 3
10
15
20
–500
14 a C –1000
1000
750
c 50 e 100
500 C = 500(1.04)n 6 a t 0 1 2 3 4
250
0 h 20 30 30 20 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 n
b $740 c 2024 b h h = 20 + 15t – 5t2
15 a V 30
5000
4000 20
3000 V = 5000(0.8)n
2000 10
1000
0 0 t
0 2 4 6 8 10 n 0 1 2 3 4 5
b 7 years Max. height = 31.25 m when t = 1.5
439
answers
Answers
7 a y b (1, 2) Exercise 10A — Modelling depreciation

10 1 a 100 000
8
y = 2x3 80 000
Value ($)
6
60 000
4
40 000
2 y = 2–x
20 000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
8 a y b 10 years Age (years)
4 b V = 100 000 − 10 000A
x
3 y = 1.08 2 V = 50 000 − 8000A
50 000
2
40 000
Value ($)
1
30 000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x 20 000
c y d 8 years 10 000
1 0
y = 0.92x 0 2 4 6 8 10
0.75 Age (years)
0.5 3 a
0.25 50 000
40 000
Value ($)
0
0 2 4 6 8 x
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
CHAPTER 10 Depreciation b $20 000 c 9 years
Are you ready? 4 a V = 6400 − 2000A
b c 4
1 a y b y 7000
10 6000
6
Value ($)
5000
8 4000
4 y =2x – 1 6 3000
2 2000
4 y =8 – 4x
x 1000
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 2 0
–2 0 0 1 2 3 4
–4 –4 –2 2 4 6 8 10 12 x Age (years)
–2
–6 5 a b $2000
–4
20 000
–6
16 000
Value ($)
–8
12 000
–10
8 000
–12
4 000
0
2 a y b y y = 0.8x 0 2 4 6 8 10
10 y = 2x 1.0 Age (years)
9
8 (3, 8) 0.8 (2, 0.64) 6 a b $17 000 c 7
7 620 000
6 0.6
5 480 000
(2, 4)
Value ($)
4 0.4
3 360 000
2 (1, 2) 0.2
1 240 000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 120 000
c y 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
5 Age (years)
x
4 y = 5(1–2 )
7 a i $160 000 ii $128 000 iii $102 400
3 iv $81 920 b
2 (2, 11–4 ) 200 000
1 160 000
Value ($)
0 120 000
1 2 3 4 5 x
80 000
3 a x = 12 b x = 4 --13- c x=5 40 000
0
4 a $13 382.26 b $68 956.60 0 2 4 6 8 10
5 a $13 110 b $63 100 Age (years)
10A
answers 440 Answers
8 B 9 A
9 a 10 C
11 a $5360 b $2640
New (0) 30 000 c $3591 d $1769
1 26 000 12 5 years
2 22 000 10 Quick Questions 1

1 $650 2 $2350/year
3 18 000 3 7 years 4 $21 000
4 14 000 5 S = V0(1 − r)n 6 $7250
7 $11 000 8 $389 000
5 10 000
9 $37 500 10 16 years
b See part d
c Exercise 10D — Depreciation tables
Age (years) Value ($) 1 a $1683.50 b $9537.50 c $34 870
New (0) 30 000 2 a
Declining
1 24 000 Age of car Straight line balance
(years) value ($) value ($)
2 19 200
New (0) 40 000 40 000
3 15 360
1 35 000 32 000
4 12 228
2 30 000 25 600
5 9 830
3 25 000 20 500
d
30 000 Straight line value 4 20 000 16 400
24 000 Declining balance
Value ($)
value 5 15 000 13 100

18 000
12 000 6 10 000 10 500
6 000
7 5 000 8 400
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years) 8 0 6 700
e 6 years b Straight line value c After 6 years

40 000 Declining balance
Exercise 10B — Straight line 32 000 value
Value ($)
depreciation 24 000
1 $20 000 16 000
2 a $1000 b $10 300 c $270 000 8 000
d $145 e $32 000 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
3 a $7 125 000 b $3 750 000 Age (years)
4 $10 600 3 a
5 8 years Age of Straight Declining
6 a 6 years b 5 years equipment line value balance
c 8 years d 7 years (years) ($) value ($)
7 $2500/year
8 a $4000/year b $12 500/year c $14 500/year New (0) 100 000 100 000
9 $900/year 1 90 000 85 000
10 $25 000
11 a $110 000 b $26 500 c $1450 2 80 000 72 250
12 $78 000 3 70 000 61 400
Exercise 10C — Declining balance 4 60 000 52 200
method of depreciation
1 $20 480 5 50 000 44 350
2 a $2220 b i $750 ii $390 6 40 000 37 700
3 7 years
4 $383 000 7 30 000 32 050
5 a $5900 b $68 100 c $1200
d $62 100 e $3900 8 20 000 27 250
6 $6174 9 10 000 23 150
7 $676 000
8 a $14 600 b $20 400 10 0 19 700
441
answers
Answers
b Straight line value 7 a

100 000 Declining balance Age of Straight Declining
80 000 value truck line value balance
Value ($)
60 000 (years) ($) value ($)

40 000
20 000 New (0) 250 000 250 000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years) 1 225 000 200 000
2 200 000 160 000

4
Age of Salvage Salvage
computer value at 20% value at 35% 3 175 000 128 000
(years) ($) ($)
4 150 000 102 400
0 4400.00 4400.00
5 125 000 81 920
1 3520.00 2860.00
6 100 000 65 536
2 2816.00 1859.00
3 2252.80 1208.35 7 75 000 52 429
4 1802.24 785.43 8 50 000 41 943
5 1441.79 510.53 9 25 000 33 554
6 1153.43 331.85 10 0 26 843
5 b
Salvage value Tax deduction 250 000
Years ($) ($) 200 000 Straight line
Value ($)
value
150 000
1 4355 2145 100 000
Declining
50 000 balance
2 2918 1437 0 value
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
3 1955 963
c
4 1310 645 Salvage
Age of value — Tax
5 878 432 truck straight line deduction
(years) ($) ($)
6 0 878
1 225 000 25 000
6
Salvage value Tax deduction 2 200 000 25 000
Years ($) ($)
3 175 000 25 000
1 33 750 11 250
4 150 000 25 000
2 25 313 8 437
5 125 000 25 000
3 18 985 6 328
4 14 239 4 746 6 100 000 25 000
5 10 679 3 560 7 75 000 25 000
6 8 009 2 670 8 50 000 25 000
7 6 007 2 002 9 25 000 25 000
8 4 505 1 502 10 0 25 000 10A

10D
answers 442 Answers
5
Salvage 10 000
Age of value — Tax 8000
Value ($)
truck declining deduction 6000
(years) balance ($) ($) 4000
2000
1 200 000 50 000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
2 160 000 40 000 Age (years)
3 128 000 32 000 6 $6500

7 a $1300 b $15 000 c $235 000
4 102 400 25 600 8 12 years
9 $250/year
5 81 920 20 480 10 After 6 years
6 65 536 16 384 11 $20 880
12 $474 000
7 52 429 13 107 13 a $23 620 b $1000 c $24 290
d $27 210 e $49 380
8 41 943 10 486 14 a $167 100 b $432 900
9 33 554 8 389 15 a
Salvage value Salvage
10 26 844 6 711 Age — straight line value —
(years) ($) 15% p.a. ($)
1
8 a $10 000 b ---
3
c $3333.33 New (0) 100 000 100 000
9 a $3000 b $75 c $1600 d $750
1 90 000 85 000
Chapter review
1 a 2 80 000 72 300
200 000
160 000
3 70 000 61 500
Value ($)
120 000 4 60 000 52 300

80 000
40 000 5 50 000 44 500
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 6 40 000 37 800
Age (years)
b V = 200 000 − 20 000A 7 30 000 32 100
2 a
8 20 000 27 300
Value ($)
3 000
2 000 9 10 000 23 200
1 000
0
10 0 19 700
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years) b
100 000 Salvage
b V = 3500 − 250A c $1250 value — straight line
80 000
Value ($)
3 a
16 000 60 000
Value ($)
12 000 40 000 Salvage

8 000 20 000 value
4 000 — 15% p.a.
0
0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
b $10 500 c 17 years 16
Salvage value Tax deduction
4 a Year ($) ($)
60 000
50 000 1 3015 1485
Value ($)
40 000
30 000 2 2020 995
20 000
3 1353 667
10 000
0 4 907 446
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
b $6500 c 9 years 5 0 907
443
answers
Answers
Practice examination questions 13 C

1 A 2 C 3 A 4 C 14 a x = 64.7, σn = 11.4
5 a $1566 b $1434 c $358.50/year b Highest score z = 2.66, Lowest score z = −1.73
15 English 1, Maths 1.31, Biology 1.5, Computing
d Straight line studies −2, Visual arts 0.67, Music −0.8
3000
Value ($)
value Declining
2000 balance
value Exercise 11B — Comparison of scores
1000
1 a English 1.25, Maths 1.33
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 b Maths mark is better as it has a higher z-score.
Age (years)
2 2nd test, Barbara’s z-score was −0.33 compared to
6 a $24 000 −0.5 in the first test.
b 3 B
Salvage value Tax deduction 4 D
Year ($) ($) 5 Course A, z-score of −0.8 compared to −0.75 on
course B
1 176 000 24 000 6 a Sydney 0.44, Athens 1
b In Sydney because of the lower z-score
2 154 880 21 120
7 C
3 136 300 18 580 8 B
9 a Maths x = 59.5, sn = 17.9
4 119 900 16 400 Chemistry x = 59.6, sn = 16.8
5 105 500 14 400 b Maths 0.25, Chemistry 0.20. Maths is the better
result.
c 11 years 10 Kory is the better candidate with a z-score of 1.5
compared with 0.875 for Ricardo.
CHAPTER 11 The normal 10 Quick Questions 1
distribution 1 2
2 −2
Are you ready? 3 −1.03
1 a 5.75 b 65.7 c 8.1 d 17.032 4 2.95
2 a 2.4 b 17.3 c 1.1 d 1.3 5 One standard deviation above the mean
3 a Sample b Population 6 Two standard deviations below the mean
7 50
Exercise 11A — z-scores 8 8
1 3 9 English 1.25, Maths 1.4
2 −2 10 Maths
3 a 0 b 1 c −2 d 3 e −1
4 a 10.5 b 13.7 c 16.9 d 7.3 e 0.9 Exercise 11C — Distribution of scores
5 −0.27 1 a 68% b 95% c 99.7%
6 1.5 2 a 68% b 95% c 99.7%
7 a −0.48 b 1.44 c 0.08 d −2.24 e 2.8 3 95%
8 a 10.3 s b 10.58 s c 10.37 s 4 16%
d 9.88 s e 10.251 s f 10.524 s 5 a 68% b 16% c 0.15%
9 a x = 19.55, sn = 1.76 b 1.68 6 21.1 and 33.9
7 a 68% of the values have a z-score between −1
10 a Amount Class
and 1.
($) centre Frequency
b 95% of the values have a z-score between −2
0–20 $10 2 and 2.
c 99.7% of the values have a z-score between −3
20–40 $30 8 and 3.
8 B
40–60 $50 19 9 A
10 0.15%
60–80 $70 15
11 a 16% b 16%
80–100 $90 6 12 a 95% b 16% c 34%
d 15.85% e 83.85%
b x = 56, σn = 20.1 13 a 95 g to 105 g b 92.5 g to 107.5 g
c i –0.30 ii 2.2 iii −2.0 14 163 cm − 181 cm
11 B 15 Faulty, as the one chosen has a z-score greater than 3
12 B 16 2.6 kg − 5 kg 10D
11C
answers 444 Answers
Chapter review 5 a
Number of
pies sold
−2
1 80
a 0
2 b 1 c −2 d 3 e −1 0
0 20 40
1.87
3 Temperature (°C)
a 0.17 b 1.83 c −3
4 d −1.75 e −2 b The greater the temperature, the fewer pies are
a x = 20.1, σn = 2.1
5 sold. The points on the scatterplot approximate a
b Highest = 1.91, Lowest = −1.98 straight line and so the relationship can be said to
6 a x = 1130, σn = 334.2 be linear.
b i −0.39 ii 2.05 iii −2.62 iv −1.13 v 3.07 6 a
Hours taken
30
7 a 1.5 b 1 c Physics, higher z-score 20
8 a Geography: −0.8, Business studies: −0.53 10
b Business studies: higher z-score 0
9 Numeracy: lower z-score 0 10 20 30
10 a 68% b 95% c 99.7% Number in work team
11 a 68% b 95% c 99.7% b The more workers on the team reduces the amount
12 a 34% b 47.5% c 2.5% of time taken to unload the ship, and, as the points
d 0.15% e 97.35% on the scatterplot form a straight line, the
13 Faulty, as it is more than three standard deviations relationship is linear.
from the mean. 7 D
Practice examination questions 8 A
1 B 2 B 3 B 9 a The scatterplot shows a relationship between 2
4 D 5 B 6 C quantities. As one increases, the other generally
7 a Physics x = 65.1, sn = 5.9 increases.
Chemistry x = 62.4, sn = 11.8 b The scatterplot shows a relationship between 2
b Physics −0.02, Chemistry 0.39 quantities. As one increases, the other generally
c Chemistry has a higher z-score. decreases.
d 53.3 and 76.9
e 27 and 97.8 Exercise 12B — Fitting a straight line
8 a −2
by eye
b Faulty, more than two standard deviations from the
mean (Note: Best fit lines are indicated as a guide only.)
1 a y b y
CHAPTER 12 Correlation
Are you ready?
1 a 4 b 15
2 a y = 198 b x = 52
3 a 3 b 1--4- x x
c y d y
4 a 6, positive b –1 1--2- , negative
Exercise 12A — Scatterplots

1 2
Geography
Number at
cinema
80 400
40 200
0 x
0
0 40 80 0 20 40
History Temperature (°C) x
3 e y f y
entertainment ($)
Amount spent on
200
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
40
60
80
Wages ($)
4 a x
History
80
x
40
0
g y h y
0 40 80
English
b The greater the English mark, the greater the
History mark generally is. However, as the points
on the scatterplot do not form a straight line, the
relationship is not linear. x x
445
answers
Answers
i y 5 a
70 B
60 A× ××
Lift (kg)
50 C
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40
x
Circum. (cm)
b S = 1.1C + 24
Exercise 12C — Fitting a straight line — 6 a $17.40 b $8.40 c 20 km d 8.5 km
the 3-median method 7 a 159.7 cm b 178 cm
1 B c 31.15 cm d 25.74 cm
80 × 8 a 755 b 295 c 20°C d 38°C
60 A ×C
Maths
× 9 a, b
Cost (× $1000)
40 15 B
C ×
20 10 A ×
5 ×
0 20 40 60 80
English 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance (× 1000 km)
2 a y = 5x + 12 y c C = 0.4d + 2100
70
60 × d i $8100 ii $2500 iii 14 750 km iv 34 750 km
50 10 a, b c N = 135 − 20p
Weekly sales
40 ×
(× 1000)
30 160
20 × 80
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 x 0
00
00
00
0.
2.
4.
b y = 70 − 0.4x y Price ($)
70 d i 73 000 ii 43 000
60
50 × e $2.75 f $1.75
40 ×
30 × 11 a b A = 0.45d + 280
Price ($)
20 1400
10
800
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 x
0
0
00
00
00
c y = 80x + 750 y
10
20
30
Distance (km)
3000
c i $582 ii $1236 iii $740 iv $1762
2500 × 12 a b L = 14A + 22
carapace (mm)
2000 ×
Length of
200
1500 ×
100
1000
0
500 0 4 8 12 16
Age (years)
0 5 10 15 20 25 x c 92 mm d 246 mm
3 a e 3 years f 106 mm
300 Note: Some answers may vary slightly depending on the
C B
A
× × location of the line of best fit.
×
Length (mm)
200
100 1 $115 2 $235 3 $85 4 3 h 30 min
5 6h 6 2 h 45 min 7 80 8 35
9 2h 10 4 h 30 min
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Mass (g) Exercise 12D — Correlation
b L = 0.05M + 220 1 a Negative b Positive c Positive
2 a b Negative
Speeding
offences
4 a 8
6 × 4
Volume (L)
B
5 0
0 20 40 60
4 × Age (years)
3 C 3 a Weak positive correlation
A
× 2 b Moderate positive correlation
1 c Strong negative correlation
d Weak negative correlation
–40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temp. (°C)
e No correlation
f Moderate negative correlation
b V = 0.05T + 3.3 g Strong positive correlation 12A
12D
answers 446 Answers
4 a Chapter review
Number of pies sold
temperature (°C)
600 1
Minimum
400 20
200 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 20 40
Temperature (°C) Maximum
temperature (°C)
b There is a strong negative correlation between
2 a
Number of sick days

temperature and the number of pies sold. As
temperature increases the number of pies sold 12
decreases. 8
4
5 a
Number of
sick days
16 0
0 2 4 6
8 Number of children
0 b There appears to be a positive relationship which
0 20 40 60
Hours is linear.
b There is a moderate positive correlation between 3 a
Number of
televisions
4
the time spent in airconditioned buildings and the 2
number of sick days with colds and flu. As hours 0
spent increases, there is often some increase in 0 2
Number of cars
the number of days sick.
b There is no apparent relationship.
c More aspects would need to be examined.
4 a, b y c y = 99 − 5x
6 a
Population (× 1000)
80
6000 40
4000 0
0 8 16 x
2000
5 a $242 400 b $73 000
0
6 a b F = 107 − 8I
Number of blowflies
20 0
30 0
00
0
0
10
Area (× 1000 km2) 120

b There is no correlation evident. 80
40
7 a
Reaction time (s)
0.12 0
0 4 8 12
0.08 Amount of insecticide (µg)
0.04 c 73 d 13.4 mg
0 7 a Negative
0
4
8
2
0.
0.
1.
Amount of drug (mg) b Positive

b There is a strong positive correlation indicating c Negative
that increasing the amount of the drug given 8 a, b c Positive
Crowd
increases the reaction time. 20 000

10 000
8 C 0
0 8 16
9 B Number of wins
by home team
10 a Perfect positive b Weak positive 9 a No correlation b Perfect positive
c Strong positive d Moderate negative c Moderate negative d Strong negative
e Weak positive f No correlation e Weak positive
g Strong negative h Moderate negative 10 a Strong positive
i Weak negative j Perfect negative b Thicker beams cause greater strengths.
11 There is a moderate positive correlation. 11 a Moderate negative
b There is some evidence that older people own
12 There is a weak negative correlation. older cars.
13 a No correlation Practice examination questions
b There is no evidence to connect money and 1 D
happiness which confirms the statement. 2 D
14 a There is a weak negative correlation between 3 C
obesity and exercise. 4 D
5 A
b There is little evidence that connects the amount
6 a Yes, the median regression line is straight.
of exercise and obesity.
b i 713 ii 2.5 m
15 B c i Positive ii Moderate
447
answers
Answers
7 a, b c P = 80Y + 2200 Exercise 13C — Latitude and longitude

World population
8000
1 a Cairo b Shanghai c Darwin
(millions) 6000
d Montreal e London f Auckland
4000
g Tokyo h Beijing i Rio de Janeiro
2000
j Oslo
0
2 These answers are approximate.
19 0
19 0
90
10
5
7
a (38°S, 145°E) b (40°N, 75°W)
19
20 Year c (18°N, 76°W) d (26°S, 28°E)

d 7 billion e 2050 e (42°N, 12°E) f (35°S, 57°W)
g (33°N, 44°E) h (55°N, 40°E)
i (2°N, 104°E) j (18°S, 178°E)
CHAPTER 13 Spherical geometry
Are you ready? Exercise 13D — Distances on the
1 a 69.1 cm b 88.0 m c 40 212.4 km Earth’s surface
2 a 9.42 m b 25.6 cm c 41.5 m 1 50°
3 a 2 hours 40 min b 210 minutes 2 a 40° b 40° c 71° d 21° e 80°
c 28 days d 1 1--4- years 3 60°
4 a 1800 M b 3334 km
4 a 11.112 km b 43.20 M 5 a 2100 M b 8100 M
c 7778.4 m d 4.07 M c 2340 M d 5760 M
Exercise 13A — Arc lengths 6 a 3600 M b 6667 km
1 a 25.1 cm b 56.5 m c 389.6 mm 7 a 2700 M b 5000 km
d 25.8 km e 87.3 km f 52.2 m 8 6600 km
2 630 km 9 a 4356 km b 4021 km c 3798 km
3 a 44.0 cm b 123 m c 188 km 10 D
d 368 mm e 11.6 km f 688 km 11 B
4 9400 km 12 7 hours 30 minutes
5 31.83 cm 13 a 110° b 6600 M
6 a 25.5 m b 6.73 cm c 796 km c 12 200 km d 13 hours 45 minutes
7 8.73 cm 14 10 800 M
8 a 33.8 mm b 20.4 m c 150.8 cm 15 a 28° b 1680 M c 3111 km
d 27.6 cm e 5.0 km f 20.7 km d 3128 km
9 a 40 200 km b 4470 km e 1 M ⯝ 1.852 km and radius Earth ⯝ 6400 km.
10 a 52 km b 136 km We are therefore working with approximations.
c Check with your teacher.
11 a 251 cm b 62.8 cm 10 Quick Questions 2
12 a 5.2 cm b 4.3 m c 5696.8 km 1 151 cm 2 (52°N, 5°E) 3 (28°S, 153°E)
13 112 km 4 (50°N, 125°W) 5 Rome 6 Colombo
7 36° 8 2160 M 9 4000 km
Exercise 13B — Great circles and 10 4020 km
small circles
1 43.98 cm Exercise 13E — Time zones
2 a 56.5 m b 465 mm c 188 m 1 10 h
3 40 210 km 2 a 14 h b 7h c 11 h d 22 h
4 314 cm 3 11:00 pm Monday
5 a 15 320 km b 38 010 km c 21 350 km 4 a 8:00 pm b 1:00 pm Friday
d 449 200 km e 378 690 km f 160 590 km c 5:00 pm Wednesday d 11:00 pm Tuesday
g 154 250 km e 3:45 pm Monday
6 12.6 m 5 5:00 am Saturday
7 a 55.3 m b 40.2 m c 6911.5 km 6 11:00 pm Tuesday
8 B 9 79 cm 10 20 100 km 7 10:00 am Monday
11 a 377 cm b 94.25 cm 8 a 10:00 pm b GMT +11
12 a 1750 km b 52.4 m c i 3:00 pm Monday ii 8:00 am Friday
10 Quick Questions 1 9 a 18 h b 19 h c 17 h
1 29.5 m 2 180 cm 3 9.4 cm 10 7h
4 A great circle is the circle of greatest possible 11 a 10 h 20 min b 24 min c 2 h 48 min
diameter on the surface of the sphere. 12 C
5 A small circle is any circle drawn on the surface that 13 D
is smaller than a great circle. 14 2:00 pm Tuesday
6 94.25 cm 7 7100 km 8 3140 km 15 a 4:00 pm Wednesday b 8:00 am Sunday
9 14 450 km 10 33 900 km 16 a 1:00 am Wednesday b 3:00 am Wednesday 12D
13E
answers 448 Answers
Chapter review 14 6000 km

1 a 120.6 cm b 54.0 cm c 289.0 mm 15 a 8h b 11 h c 17 h
2 a 6.3 m b 28.1 cm c 21.9 m 16 3:00 am Thursday
3 a 47.1 cm b 7.85 cm 17 3:30 am Tuesday
4 a 207.3 cm b 44.0 cm c 57.8 m 18 a 11:00 am the same day
5 56.5 km b 11:00 am the same day
6 71 cm 19 7:00 pm the same day
7 a 41.5 cm b 17.6 m c 9424.8 km
8 a Manila b Lima c Santiago Practice examination questions
9 a (41°N, 3°W) b (1°N, 104°E) 1 A 2 C 3 C 4 C
c (43°S, 147°E) 5 a 85° b 9500 km c 9 h
10 58° 6 a Small circle. They lie on the same small circle
11 a 16° b 960 M c 1778 km because they lie on the same parallel of latitude.
12 6 days 6 hours b 12:40 pm Saturday
13 a i 3060 M ii 5667 km b 6.375 h c 9:20 am Wednesday
Index 449
Index
addition rule for probability 206 credit cards 22–6
algebraic manipulation 172–3 calculating interest on a daily basis 24–5
algebraic models 289–92 interest-free period 22
angular distance 397–9 cube roots 170
annuities 239–40 cubic expressions 170
future value 240–2 cubic functions 281
future value table 250–1 cylinder
present value 246–8 surface area 57–8
present value table 251–3 volume 63
annuity calculator 244–5
annulus, area 44 data sets
arc lengths 385–6 comparison 152–5
area measures of location and spread 131–6
annulus 44 multiple displays 145–9
circle 43 skewness 140–1
composite shapes 48–9 daylight saving time 403
ellipse 44 declining balance depreciation 301, 303, 310–12
irregular figures, using Simpson’s rule 53–5 depreciation 301
parts of the circle 43–5 declining balance method 301, 310–12
sector 43 modelling 301–3
triangle 102–3 straight line method 301, 307–9
see also surface area tax deductibility 317
area charts 149 depreciation tables 314–18
assets 301 distances on the Earth’s surface 397–9
Australian time zones 402
Earth
bearings 86–9
latitude and longitude 393–6
bivariate data 357
time zones 401–4
box-and-whisker plots 145
Earth’s surface, distances on 397–9
causality 372–3 Eastern Standard Time (EST) 401, 402
Central Standard Time (CST) 402 effective rate of interest formula 16
circle ellipse, area 44
area 43 equation of a median regression line 360–4
circumference 385, 389 equation of a straight line, gradient–intercept
parts of, area 43–5 form 267–8, 361
comparing data sets 152–5 equations
compass bearings 86–7 and formulas 175–8
compass radial surveys 120–1 solution by substitution 180–2
complementary events 207–8 equator 393
composite shapes, area 48–9 error in measurement 69–70
composite solids, volume 62–5 expected outcomes 219–21
compound interest formula 239, 285 exponential decay 283, 303
cone, volume 63 exponential functions 282–3
constant of variation 285
correlation 370–3 factorial function 197
correlation coefficient 371–2 financial expectation 223–4
cosine ratio 81 First Index Law 173
cosine rule flat rate interest 3–6
derivation 106 comparison with reducible rates of interest 16–19
finding angles 111–14 flat rate interest loan calculator 8–9
finding side lengths 106–9 flat rate loan, effective rate of interest 16–19
using equation solver to find angles 112 future value of an annuity 240–2
using equation solver to find side lengths 107 future value of an annuity formula 240
cost of a loan 16–19 future value table 250–1
counting techniques 196–200
and probability 201–3 gradient formula 268
ordered arrangements 196–9 gradient–intercept form, equation of a straight
unordered selection 199–200 line 267–8, 361
450 Index
graphing non-linear relationships (scatterplots) 353

physical phenomena 289–92 normal distribution 140, 329
variations 287–8 and standard deviation 339–41
graphs and z-scores 339–41
cubic functions 281
exponential functions 282–3 offset surveys 118
hyperbolic functions 281 ordered arrangements 196–9
linear functions 268–71 and tree diagrams 198
quadratic functions 274–8 ordered selection 198–9
great circles 389, 393 outliers 134
distance between two points 397–9
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 401, 402 parabola 274–8
Greenwich Meridian 393, 401 parallels of latitude 393, 397
physical phenomena, graphing 289–92
home loan calculator 10 plane table radial surveys 118–20
home loans 9–12 population standard deviation 330
loan repayment function 21 positive correlation 371
hyperbolas 281 positively skewed 141
hyperbolic functions 281, 286–7 present value of an annuity 246–8
present value of an annuity formula 246, 255
index laws 173 present value table 251–3
International Date Line 393 prism, volume 62
interquartile range (IQR) 132 probability
intersection of two graphs 271–2 addition rule 206
inverse variation 286–7 and counting techniques 201–3
irregular figures, area 53–5 complementary events 207–8
expected outcomes 219–21
knot 398 financial expectation 223–4
multiplication rule 205
latitude 393–6 two-way tables 227–9
linear equations, gradient–intercept form 267–8, 361 probability formula 194
linear expressions 169 probability trees 205–8
linear functions 267–72 pyramid, volume 63
finding the intersection of two graphs 271–2
graphing 268–70 quadrant 43
graphing practical functions 270–1 quadratic expressions 170
straight line depreciation 301 quadratic functions 274–8
linear relationships (scatterplots) 353 general form 275
loan repayments graphing 276
calculated using present value formula 255–7 maximum value 276
reducing balance loan 29–31, 33 minimum value 275, 276
longitude 393–6
and time difference 403 radar charts 148
radial surveys 118–21
map coordinates 393, 395 range 132
mean 131, 140, 329 reducible rates of interest
measurement error 69–70 comparison with flat rate interest 16–19
measures of location 131, 133–6 home loans 9–12
measures of spread 132, 133–6 reducing balance loan 9–12
median 131, 140, 329 loan repayments 29–31, 33
median regression lines 359–64 monthly repayment per $1000 borrowed 30
meridians of longitude 393 regression lines 357–64
mode 135, 140, 329 finding equation of 360–4
modelling depreciation 301–3 fitting a straight line by equal-number-of-points
multiple data sets method 358
displaying 145–9 fitting a straight line by eye 357–9
storing 147 fitting a straight line by the 3-median method
multiplication rule of probability 205 359–63
right-angled triangles, review 81–4
nautical mile 398
negative correlation 372 salvage value 307, 311
negatively skewed 141 and tax deductions 317
Index 451
sample standard deviation 330 surface area
scatterplots 351–4 cylinder 57–8
and correlation 371–2 minimising 61
drawing 352–3 sphere 58
linear relationships 353 surveying 118–21
no relationship 354
non-linear relationships 353 table function (graphics calculator) 181
scientific notation 184–5 tangent ratio 81
Second Index Law 173 term of the loan 3
sector, area 43 Third Index Law 173
simple interest formula 3 time difference 403
Simpson’s rule 53–5 time zones 401–4
simulations 222–3 tree diagrams 193–5, 205
sine ratio 81 and ordered arrangements 198
sine rule see also probability trees
derivation 92 triangle, area 102–3
finding angle sizes 97–9 trigonometric ratios 81–4
finding side lengths 91–5
using equation solver to find side lengths 82
using equation solver to find angles 98
using equation solver to find the size of an
using equation solver to find side lengths 93
angle 83–4
skewness 140–1
true bearings 87–9
small circles 389–90, 393
two-way tables 153, 227–9
sphere
great circles 389, 393
small circles 389–90, 393 unordered selection 199–200
surface area 58
volume 63 variations 285–8
square roots 170 graphing 287–8
standard deviation 132, 140 volume
and normal distribution 339–41 composite solids 62–5
and z-scores 329–30 cone 63
standardised scores see z-scores cylinder 63
statistical data, displaying 152 prism 62
stem-and-leaf plots 145 pyramid 63
straight line, equation of 267–8, 361 sphere 63
straight line depreciation 301, 307–9
substitution 169–71 Western Standard Time (WST) 402
solution by 180–2
solving equations arising from 175–7 z-scores 329–32
summary statistics 132 comparison 334–5
comparing 154 distribution 339–41

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MATHS

First edition published 2001

Typeset in 10.5/12.5 pt Times

© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2001, 2007

The moral rights of the author have been asserted.

National Library of Australia

Rowland, Robert, 1963–.

1. Mathematics - Problems, exercises, etc. 2. Mathematics.

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

Reproduction and communication for other purposes

Cover photograph and internal design images: © Digital Vision

Cartography by MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane

Illustrated by the Wiley Art Studio

There are ﬁve new areas of study:

This resource contains:

Clear, concise theory sections contain worked examples, highlighted impor-

Worked examples in a Think/Write format provide a clear explanation of key

Exercises contain many carefully graded skills and application problems,

Investigations, including spreadsheet investigations, provide further learning

Sets of 10 Quick Questions allow students to quickly review the concepts

A glossary of mathematical terms is provided to assist students’ under-

Practice examination questions provide a ready source of problems for stu-

Graphics calculator tips are incorporated throughout the text.

Teacher edition with accompanying

Step 2. Enter your registration code

Step 3. View or download eBookPLUS resources

Key to the icons in the book

the one shown, indicate that digital support

Third party software — registered full version ordering information

Texas Instruments TI Connect™ and TI-GRAPHLINK software

Cabri Geometry™ II PLUS

Microsoft® Excel, Microsoft® Word and Microsoft® PowerPoint

About the author

1.1 Converting a percentage to a decimal

1.2 Finding a percentage of a quantity (money)

1.3 Calculating simple interest

1.4 Finding values of n and r in financial formulas

1.5 Calculating compound interest

1.6 Substitution into a formula

c If s = ut + 1--- at2, find s when u = 0.8, t = 5 and a = 2.3.

1 Convert the interest rate to a decimal. r = 7.5 ÷ 100

Graphics Calculator tip! Calculate simple interest

2. Press F1 to select Simple Interest.

3. The calculator has two modes of calculating interest:

4. Press EXE to return to the previous screen and

a Find 10% of $3000. a Deposit = 10% of $3000

c 1 Write the interest formula. c I = Prn

d Add the interest to the amount d Total repayments = $2700 + $648

e Divide the total repayments by 36 e Monthly repayments = $3348 ÷ 36

1A Flat rate interest

Computer Application 1 Flat rate interest loan calculator

Flat total repayments on a loan and the size of each repayment.

Computer Application 2 Home loan calculator

Graphics Calculator tip! Calculate the interest in

2. Press F1 to select Simple Interest.

3. n = 365 ÷ 12 (as n is in days)

4. Press F1 (SI) to find the interest for one month.

When interest is calculated every year for such a long

the end of the first month.

Month Principal ($) Interest ($) Balance ($)

1 150 000.00 1200.00 149 791.99

Month Principal ($) Interest ($) Balance ($)

b Mr and Mrs Roebuck decide to increase their monthly payment to $2500.

The cost of a loan