Seismic refraction surveys

Seismic refraction surveys generate seismic waves that are refracted back to Earth’s
surface from velocity and density discontinuities at depth.

Uses :
•  Small-scale: geotechnical (building foundations), environmental (weathering
layer, remediation), archaeological, sedimentary structures.
•  Medium-scale: sedimentary basin architecture, depth to basement.
• Large-scale: structure of the crust and mantle, Moho.
+ depth conversion of seismic reflection data!
Kearey & Brooks – Chapter 5

Snell’s law, critical angle ic and the conditions for reflection

Snell's law Special case of the critical angle

Sin(ic ) Sin(90 o )
       =
Sin(θ1 ) Sin(θ 2 ) V1 V2
= = const = p
V1 V2 V
Sin(ic ) = 1
V2
 e.g. if  V1 = 2 km s −1, 
p is called the ‘ray parameter’, as it
characterizes the entire ray path. V2 = 3 km s −1, ic = 42 o
 Reflection versus refraction seismics: Reflection results.
Line B - CDP Stack (Amazon margin, NE Brazil)

Fan channel-levee
system

OBS 315

Late Miocene - Pleistocene

Late Albian - Mid-Miocene

Oceanic crust

Seafloo
r multi
ple
SW NE

Moho??

Reflection versus refraction seismics: Refraction results.

Line B - CDP Stack (Amazon margin, NE Brazil)

Moho
 Refraction: two horizontal layers

z 1
TSA = TBD = x = AB + 2 tan θ z
Cosθ V1

TSABD = TSA + TAB + TBD

2z 1 x − 2 tan θ z x # 1 tan θ & x 2z # V1Sinθ & x 2z
TSABD =
Cosθ V1
+
V2
=
V2
+ 2z %
$ CosθV1
−  = +
V2 (' V2 CosθV1 %$
1− = +
V2 (' V2 CosθV1
(
1 − Sin 2θ )

x zCosθ x 2z 2 1/2
     TSABD =
V2
+2
V1
= +
V2 V1V2
( 2 1)
V 2
−V

" " %2 %
V
Sinθ = 1 ,        Cosθ =
V2
(1− Sin 2θ ) = $$1− $# VV1 '& ''
# 2 &

The refracted waves propagate in the deeper, faster medium, just below the material
interface. Normally the first phases to arrive at a receiver, these are called head waves.

Two horizontal layers: Time-Distance Plot

Critical distance
traveltime T

xcrit is where
xcros xcros 2z
refracted phase is = + (V22 − V12 )1/2
first observed. V1 V2 V1V2
Cross-over distance T 1/2
" V + V1 %
xcros is where the         xcros = 2z $ 2 '
travel times of the # V2 − V1 &
direct and refracted       ∴ xcros  always > 2z
arrival are equal.
distance x from source
The thickness z of the upper of the two layers can be determined from the cross-over
distance and the velocities or from the intercept time and the velocities.

1/2
1 " V − V1 %
z= $ 2 ' xcros
2 # V2 + V1 &

2z zCosθ
Intercept time = (V22 −V12 )1/2 = 2
V1V2 V1
 Wave propagation of direct, reflected and refracted waves

Geophone number

Elapsed time after shot (s)

Offset (m)
Depth (m)

Refracted arrivals from multiple layers

wav e
Head
ave
dw
Hea

ABCDEF is the refracted ray path through the bottom layer of a three-layer model.
The traveltime curve for the direct and two head waves are shown above.
 intercept time, two-layer case

x zCosθ V
  TSD = +2 ,             V2 = 1    
V2 V1 Sinθ
By analogy:
x z Cosθ1 z Cosθ 2 3-layer case:
    TABCDEF = +2 1 +2 2 two intercept times
V3 V1 V2

The velocities V1, V2 and V3 can be estimated from the slopes of the direct wave
and the two head waves. z1 and z2 can be calculated from the two intercept times.

x n −1 2zi Cosθ i n-layer case:

           Tn = +∑
Vn i =1 Vi n-1 intercept times
where
$V '
                       θ i = sin −1 & i )
% Vn (

This gives the travel time, Tn of a ray critically refracted along the top surface of the
n th horizontal layer

Typical field data from hammer-blow seismics practical

V=
2 1.
89 km
/s

V3 =5.84 k
m/s
 Common shot point gathers from 3 streamers (length 6, 15, & 6 km)

Deviations from simple layering: Dipping layers

Shoot down-dip Shoot up-dip

Same type of T-x

curve as for the
horizontally layered
case, but observation
of two different
apparent velocities
v2d, v2u for the
refracted wave that
propagates at true
velocity v2.
 Down-dip x sin (θ + γ ) 2z cosθ
traveltime: t2 ( x ) = +
v2 v1
x sin (θ − γ ) 2z ' cosθ
Up-dip: '
t ( x) =
2 +
v2 v1
1
θ= (sin −1 (V1 / V2d ) + sin −1 (V1 / V2u ))
2
1
γ = (sin −1 (V1 / V2d ) − sin −1 (V1 / V2u ))
2
               ti = 2z cosθ / V1
z = V1ti / 2 cosθ ,       z ' = V1ti' / 2 cosθ
      h = z / cos γ ,       h ' = z '/ cos γ

θ and γ can be estimated from the velocities V1, V2u and V2d and hence z and z and h
and h can be calculated.

See Kearey & Brooks (Chapter 5)

Interpretation of irregular traveltime curve in terms of

non-planar refractor geometries

Reference (dashed lines)

show the planar case

M (e.g.) is nearer the surface than the reference interface, the actual travel time to M
plots below the reference line. Conversely, that for N is above it. These
observations can be quantified using the concept of delay time.
 The concept of delay time

Delay time: how much longer does it take to run the actual path (obliquely down
! horizontal ! obliquely up) compared to running the entire horizontal distance
SR in the fast medium 2?

We can think of the travel time of a refracted wave being made up of 3 parts:
1.  the time it takes to travel between the source and receiver, SvRv, at velocity V2 ,
2.  the time δS to go from source point S to refraction point C at velocity V1,
3.  an equivalent time δR, to run from point D up to the receiver.
SR
t SR = δ S + + δR
V2

δS and δR are called delay times

Determining lateral variations in layer thickness from forward & reverse shooting
The time tf to go from one end to a receiver (SfCDR), and then on to the other
end, tr, (REFSr), is longer than the total time, ttotal, to go from end to end (SfCDEFSr),
because of the extra times to travel from the interface to the receiver, along DR and ER.

tf hR
tr

 t f + t r = ttotal + 2δ R
1
δR = (t f + t r − ttotal )
2
VV
hR = δ R 2 1 22 1/2
(V2 − V1 )

tf, tr and ttotal can be read off from a traveltime versus distance plot, and the delay time
δR can be calculated. The depth hR to the interface beneath R can then be calculated
from the delay time and the velocities V1, V2 . Many receivers ! many hR obtained.
Offsets in the travel time-distance plot for head waves from opposite sides of a fault

Δt

Thin layers and low-velocity layers are difficult to detect

Default case, A low-velocity layer does not A thin faster layer

unproblematic. generate a refracted wave generates a head wave,
(head wave) at all. but it may not be the
first arrival at any
distance.
Marine refraction seismics using Ocean Bottom Seismometers (OBS)

4-channel: hydrophone + 3 component

seismometer
Data logger + batteries + GPS clock
Ballast weights (for coupling with seabed)
Hydro-acoustic release
Titanium tubes for > 6000 m
Operation: 10-360 days

OBS Data
Reduced-time versus distance plots, plotting t – x/(6 km/s) on the y-axis
(a 6 km/s refractor will appear flat).
 Generalized velocity structure of continental and oceanic crust

Oceanic crust: Velocity profile for different crustal ages

Moho

White et al. (1992)

Velocities increase gradually through the oceanic crust (difficult to fit straight lines
on Time Vs. distance plots). Moho is usually marked by a velocity jump
to > 8.0 km/s
The Continental/Ocean Transition (COT) at conjugate rifted margins.
Example: Baja California Peninsula – western Mexico

Data from OBS

refraction/reflection
surveys

Analysis and interpretation of

shallow seismic field data

ti1

ti2
 164_processed
Trace number
0 5 10 15 20 25
0

50

100
Time (ms)

150

200

250

12−May−2014 14:04:27