Waveforms and Definitions

Which waveforms are DC and which ones are AC?

MKT 308 DC DC

Elektrikle Tahrik

Temel Bilgiler
AC AC

Ders – 2

MA -1 MA -2

Waveforms and Definitions Waveforms and Definitions

Terms:
1. Period,T – time taken to complete one cycle (s)
2. Peak value, Vm or Vp, Im or Ip – Maximum instantaneous value measured
from its zero value (V or A)
3. Peak-to-peak value, Vp-p or Ip-p – Value between maximum an minimum
peaks (V or A)
4. Frequency, f – Number of cycles that occur in 1 second (Hz)
5. Amplitude – distance from its average to its peak 1
T 
f
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Page 1
 Waveforms and Definitions Waveforms and Definitions - Example

• A sinusoidal voltage v(t) is given by V

10V
v(t )  Vo cost    V
5V 5V
where V0 is the amplitude, ω is the angular velocity, or angular frequency, and θ is
the phase angle.
5ms 10ms t
5ms 10ms t
• The angular velocity ω may be expressed in terms of the period T or the
• Period? -5V
frequency f, where f =1/T.
• The frequency is given in hertz, Hz, or cycles/s. • Peak value?
• Since cosωt= cost(ω+2π), ω and T are related by ωT= 2π. And since it takes T • Peak-to-peak value?
seconds for v(t) to return to its original value, it goes through 1/T cycles in one • Frequency?
second. • Amplitude?
• In summary, for sinusoidal functions we have • 10ms • 10ms
• 10V • 5V
2 1 2 • 10V
  2 f  T  • 10V
T f  • 100Hz • 100Hz
• 5V • 5V

MA -5 MA -6

Waveforms and Definitions - Example Periodic Waves

Example: Graph each of the following Properties of Products of Sinusoids
functions and specify period and An important identity
frequency. The identity for cosine of the_sum (or difference) of two angles is
cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Subtracting the second equation from the first yields
cos (A – B) – cos (A + B) = 2 sin A sin B
and solving for Sin A sin B yields the important identity for the product of two
sine waves
sin A sin B = 1/2 cos (A – B) –1/2 cos (A +B)

The corresponding result for cosines is

cos A cos B = 1/2 cos (A – B) +1/2 cos (A +B)

In engineering terms these expressions show that a sine wave of frequency

ωA, sinusoidally amplitude modulated at a frequency ωB gives rise to two
sine waves of frequencies ωA + ωB and ωA – ωB, often called the upper and
lower sideband frequencies.
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Page 2
 Periodic Waves Average and Effective (RMS) Values
Following trigonometric identities are useful for this course The average of a periodic function can be found from the integral
T
1
T 0
FAVR  f ( t )dt where T is the period

The effective (RMS) of a periodic function can be found from

T
1
f ( t )2 dt
T 0
FEff  where T is the period

2
1
2 0
Example1: f(t) = sin t FAVR  sin tdt  0

2 2
1 1  1  cos 2t 
2 0 2 0 
FEff  sin2 t dt    dt
• Average and 2 
effective values of
1   1   cos 2t  
2 2
periodic functions are 1
normally computed FEff    
2  0  2 
dt   
 2
 dt  
 2
over one period. 0 
MA -9 MA -10

Average and Effective (RMS) Values Average and Effective (RMS) Values
Example2: Find the average and effective values of the cosine wave v(t )  Vo cost   

Example3: Compute the average power dissipated from 0 to T in a resistor

connected to a voltage v(t). Replace v(t) then by a constant voltage Vdc. Find Vdc
such that the average power during the period remains the same.
v2
P  vi 
R
1 T 2 1 Vdc
Pavg   v (t )dt  Veff  or Vdc  Veff
RT 0 R R
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Page 3
 Average and Effective (RMS) Values Average and Effective (RMS) Values
Example4: Find the average value of r (t )  cos 2 t    Example5: If f1 and f2 are two different frequencies, what is the rms value of
the following function?
v(t )  V1 cos2f1t  1   V2 cos2f 2t  2 

MA -13 MA -14

Average and Effective (RMS) Value Average and Effective (RMS) Value

Example6: Find the average and effective value of the half-rectified cosine wave Example7: Find the average and effective value of the full-rectified cosine wave

Vm
V1,eff 
2

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Page 4
 Average and Effective (RMS) Value Average and Effective (RMS) Value

• Average value for a full wave rectifier:

• For a complete sinusoidal waveform, average value = 0 since it is
Full wave average
symmetrical.
Ip
I ave 
   0.637 I
2 2I p
• Area for half cycle of sine wave is p
Iave
2
0
 2


Ip
I p sin  d   I p cos  

0  2I p •Furthermore, average value for half wave rectifier:
0
Half- wave average
0

2I p
I ave   0.318I p
Ip
Iave

2
0


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Average and Effective (RMS) Value Average and Effective (RMS) Value

• Also known as effective value P(t) = i2R = (Im sin ωt)2R = Im2R sin2 ω t
• Value to do useful work
2 1
• It is an equivalent dc value – Exa: 240Vac capable of producing the = I m R  1  cos 2t 
same average power as 240 volts of steady dc
2
2 2
i P = I m R  I m R cos 2t
For dc Pdc = P ave 2 2
E R
t To get the average value of P(t), the term cos 2ωt will be zero, thus
Pdc = Pave = I2R 2
Pave = I m R
2
i P
P(t) 2
Paverage dc = Paverage ac
Im R
Pave= 2
For ac E R
2
? I2R = Im R I
t 2 I DC  m  0.707 I m
2
2
I2 = Im
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Page 5
 Average and Effective (RMS) Value Average and Effective (RMS) Value
Application 1 - Average of a sinusoidal product
For h = 1 (same frequency):
Consider two sinusoidal time functions

v1(t) = Vm cos ωt p(t) 

Vm I m
cos   cos 2t   
2
i1(t) = Im cos (hωt + Φ)
After taking the average
Using the identity above

P  Pavrg   p(t ) 
Vm I m
cos   cos 2t   
2
P(t)  v1 (t)i1 (t)  Vm cos t I m cos (ht   )
Vm I m V I
P(t) 
Vm I m V I
cos [(1 – h)t   ]  m m cos [(1  h)t   ] P cos  m m cos
2 2 2 2 2

P(t)  m m cos [(1 – h)t   ]  cos [(1  h)t   ]

V I
which is the well known expression for average power in a sinusoidal AC system.
2 In other words;
a) only sine waves of the same frequency result in a non-zero average, and
Since each of the terms on the right is a pure sinusoid, the time average is zero,
b) for the same frequency the average is one half times the product of the
except for the important case of h = 1 (same frequency). For this case the first
amplitudes times the cosine of the phase angle between the waves.
term on the right is a constant and this constant is the average
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Fourier Series Fourier Series

B) Properties of Products of Sinusoids Usefull illustrations:
3 ) Application 2 - Fourier Series coefficients

A Fourier series is an expansion of a periodic function in terms of an

infinite sum of sines and cosines. The computation and study of Fourier
series is known as harmonic analysis and is extremely useful as a way to break
up an arbitrary periodic function into a set of simple terms that can be plugged in,
solved individually, and then recombined to obtain the solution to the original
problem or an approximation to it to whatever accuracy is desired or practical.
Function s(x) (in red) is a sum of six
sine functions of different amplitudes
and harmonically related frequencies.
Their summation is called a Fourier
series. The Fourier transform, S(f) (in
blue), which depicts amplitude vs
frequency, reveals the 6 frequencies
(at odd harmonics) and their
amplitudes (1/odd number).

https://bl.ocks.org/jinroh/7524988
A visualization of an approximation of a A visualization of an approximation of a
square wave by taking the first 1, 2, 3 sawtooth wave of the same amplitude and
MA -23 and 4 terms of its Fourier series. frequency for comparison MA -24

Page 6
 Fourier Series
Waveform synthesis
• Synthesis is a combination of parts so as to form a whole.
• Fourier synthesis is the recombination of the terms of the trigonometric series,
usually the first four or five, to produce the original wave.
• Often it is only after synthesizing a wave that the student is convinced that the
Fourier series does in fact represent the periodic wave for which it was obtained.
Fourier Series
The expression for the Fourier series of a periodic function is
f(t) = a0+ a1cosθ + a2cos2θ + a3cos3θ + . . . . + b1sinθ + b2sin2θ + b3sin3θ + . . . .
The values of the coefficients a1, a2, . . . b1, b2, etc., can be found from the identity presented in (1).
For example, to find a1, multiply both sides of the expression by cos θ and integrate over one period.
Except for the cos θ and sin θ terms, all of the remaining terms involve products of sine waves of
different frequencies and hence integrate to zero (have zero average). The sine term also has zero
average since the phase angle between a sine wave and a cosine wave is 90˚. The total expression
reduces to

2
1 1 2
 f (  ) cos d  2 a12  a1 yada a1 
 0
 f (  ) cos d
0

General Rule:

1 2 1 2 1 2
an   f (  ) cos n d bn   f (  ) sin n d a0   f (  ) d
 0  0 2 0
The a0 coefficient is simply the average of f(θ)
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Fourier Series Fourier Series

In general, the expression for the Fourier series of a periodic function is Odd and even functions:
• A function of f(x) is called “odd” if f(– x) = – f(x) Example: x3, sin(x), tan(3x)
a0    nx   nx  • A function of f(x) is called “even” if f(– x) = f(x) Example: x4, cos(x), e-x+ex
f( x)    an cos   bn sin 
2 n 1   L   L 
• Geometrically speaking, the graph face of an even function is symmetric with
respect to the y-axis, meaning that its graph remains unchanged after
reflection about the y-axis.
L
1  nx  • Geometrically, the graph of an odd function has rotational symmetry with
L L
an  f ( x ) cos  dx respect to the origin, meaning that its graph remains unchanged
 L 
n = 1, 2, …... ∞ after rotation of 180 degrees about the origin.
L
1  nx 
L L
bn  f ( x ) sin  dx
 L  y y
Odd Even
2L is the period of f(x) and x x
L
1
a0   f ( x ) dx
L L
Keep in mind: an=0 bn=0
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Page 7
 Fourier Series Fourier Series – Example1
Example: f(x)=sin(x) 0 < x < π

Since this is an even periodic function: bn=0 Period=2π

L 
2  nx  2
an   f ( x ) cos  dx   sin x cosnx  dx
L0  L  0
 
1
sin( x  nx )  sinx  nx  dx  1   cos( n  1)x  cos( n  1)x 
 0

 n 1 n  1 0
1   cos( n  1) cos( n  1)   1 1 
         
  n 1 n  1   n  1 n  1 
0
Typical examples of even and odd periodic functions Keep in mind that cos( n   )  cosn .cos   sinn .sin 
0
cos( n   )  cosn .cos   sinn .sin 
MA -29 MA -30

Fourier Series – Example1 Fourier Series – Example1

1   cosn .cos  cosn .cos    1 1  If you repeat the same calculation for bn, will see that bn  0
           0
  n 1 n 1   n  1 n  1  a0    nx   nx 
1 1 1  f( x)  
2 n 1
 an cos   bn sin 
   cosn .cos   1  L   L 
  n  1 n  1

  an cosnx 
2
1 2  f( x) 
   cosn   1  n 1
  n 2  1
2 2   1  cos n 
 2( 1  cos( n )) f( x)    cos( nx )
an  n≠1
  n  2  n 2  1 
( n 2  1)

Let’s calculate a0 now

  cos( 2x ) cos( 4 x )
1
L
1 2 4 n 22 n 30 n42 n 50
a0   f ( x ) dx   sin( x ) dx   sin( x ) dx  22  1 42  1
L   
L  0
f(t) = a0+ a1cosθ + a2cos2θ + a3cos3θ + . . . . + b1sinθ + b2sin2θ + b3sin3θ + . . . .
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Page 8
 Fourier Series – Example1 Fourier Series – Example1
2 4  cos 2x cos 4 x cos 6 x  2 4  cos 2x cos 4 x cos 6 x 
f( x)     2  2  ...  f( x)     2  2  ... 
   22  1 4 1 6 1     22  1 4 1 6 1 
f ( x )  0.6366  0.4244cos 2x  0.08488cos 4x  0.03638cos 6x  ... f ( x )  0.6366  0.4244cos 2x  0.08488cos 4x  0.03638cos 6x  ...

Keep in mind that the magnitude decreases as the frequency goes up When we sum up all the harmonics including the DC component;
ilk terim
n=1
1 1 n=3 ilk uc terim
1 1
ilk bes terim
0.8

0.6
0.8

0.6
2 0.8

0.6 4
0.8

0.6
6 1 n=10

+ + +
0.4 0.4

--> f

--> f
0.4
--> f

0.4

+
--> f

f= 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

0.8
DC 0 0 0
0
-0.2 -0.2 -0.2
-0.2
-0.4 -0.4 -0.4

--> f(x)
-0.4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-6 -4 -2 0
--> x
2 4 6
--> x --> x --> x 0.6

1 1
0.4
0.8

0.6 8
0.8

0.6
10
0.4
+ 0.4
+ ……. 0.2
--> f

--> f

+ 0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4 0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
--> x --> x
--> x

MA -33 MA -34

Fourier Series – Example2 Fourier Series – Example2

0
 
Find the Fourier Series of the following function: a   nx   nx  a0   nx 
f(t) f ( x )  0   an cos   bn sin     bn sin 
2 n 1  L   L  2 n 1  L 
1
1 1
f( x)   1  cos( n )sinnx 
1 2 3
t 2 n 1 n 

an  0
1.2

1
n  1  2 sin( x )
0.8

L 1 1
 nx  
0.6

-->f(x)
1 1
bn   f ( x ) sin  dx   1.sinnx  dx   sinnx  dx
0.4
1.2

L  n 20
0.2

L 1 1

L 1
0

0 -0.2
0 1 2 3 4
0.8

0.65 6

cosnx  1

-->f(x)
1
2 sin( 3x )
-->t

1
cosn  1  1 1  cosn n 3
0.4

bn   |  3
0.2 1.2

n 0 n n 0 1

n  40
-0.2 0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-->t

L 1 0.6

-->f(x)
1 1
a0   f ( x ) dx   1.dx  1
0.4

1
n 5 2 sin( 5x )
0.2

L 1
5
0

L 1 -0.2
0 1 2 3
-->t
4 5 6

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Page 9
 Fourier Series – Example2 Fourier Series – Example3
1.2
Find the Fourier Series of the following function:
1
1.025

1.02
0.8
1.015

0.6 1.01
-->f(x)

Note that

-->f(x)
1.005

0.4 1

0.2
0.995 ao=0
0.99

0
0.985 an=0
0.98
0.975 0.98 0.985 0.99 0.995 1 1.005 1.01 1.015 1.02
-0.2 -->t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-->t

First 50 harmonics are used 1.2

0.8

0.6
-->f(x)

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-->t

First 10000 harmonics are used

MA -37 MA -38

Fourier Series – Example3 Fourier Series

Fourier Series shows how distorted the waveform is.
50 50
phase
40 45 phase
phase-phase
30 40
phase-phase
20 35

Back EMF [V]

30

Back EMF [V]

10

0 25
0 20 40 60 80
-10 20

-20 15

-30 10

-40 5

since sin(−x) = −sin x as an odd function, while cos(−x) = cos x as an even function. -50
Angle [Degrees]
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Harmonic Number [-]
50
phase 50
40 phase
phase-phase 45
30 phase-phase
40
20
35

Back EMF [V]

Back EMF [V]

10 30
0 25
0 20 40 60 80
-10 20
-20 15
-30 10
-40 5
-50 0
Angle [Degrees] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Harmonic Number [-]

MA -39 MA -40

Page 10
 Fourier Series Complex Numbers
imaginary
Where do we use Fourier Series in Drives? • x is the real part
• Motor harmonics analysis
axis
y j  (1) • y is the imaginary part
• Power electronic driven harmonics analysis such as switching
• z is the magnitude
harmonics
• Source driven harmonics
•  is the phase
• You will have to learn this one way or another BECAUSE harmonics  real
are important! x  z cos  y  z sin 
x axis
y
• Rectangular Coordinates z  x2  y2   tan 1
Z = x + jy x
Z  z(cos   jsin 
)
• Polar Coordinates:
Z=z
• Exponential Form:
1 1e j 0 1 0 

Z  Z e j  ze j
j
j  1e 2
190 
MA -41 MA -42

Complex Numbers Complex Numbers

•
e j  e  j
Add and Subtract: it is easiest to do this in rectangular format
cos   – Add/subtract the real and imaginary parts separately
Euler’s Identities 2 • Multiply and Divide: it is easiest to do this in exponential/polar format
e  e  j
j – Multiply (divide) the magnitudes
sin   – Add (subtract) the phases
2j
e j  cos   j sin  Z1  z1e j1  z11  z1 cos 1  jz1 sin 1

e j  cos 2   sin 2   1 Z 2  z2 e j2  z2  2  z2 cos  2  jz2 sin  2

Z1  Z 2  ( z1 cos 1  z2 cos  2 )  j ( z1 sin 1  z2 sin  2 )
Z1  Z 2  ( z1 cos 1  z2 cos  2 )  j ( z1 sin 1  z2 sin  2 )

Exponential Form of a complex number Z1  Z 2  ( z1  z2 )e j (1 2 )  ( z1  z2 )(1   2 )

Z  Z e j  ze j  z Z1 / Z 2  ( z1 / z2 )e j (1 2 )  ( z1 / z2 )(1   2 )

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 Complex Numbers – Addition and Subtraction Complex Numbers – Addition and Subtraction
V1= 60V

The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are represented respectively

by v1=60 cos  (V) and V2= 40 cos ( - /3) (V). Derive an expression for the V1+ V2
V2= 40V
instantaneous value of :
a) the sum; Horizontal component:
b) the difference of these voltage (V1 – V2)
For V1 = + 60V

V1= 60V For V2 = cos 600 x 40 = + 20V

 Total Horizontal component = +80V (Means 80V to the right)
Vertical component:
V1+ V2
V2= 40V For V1 = 0V
For V2 = - 40 sin 600 = - 34.64V
First assume up positive, down negative  Total Vertical component = - 34.64V (Means 34.64V down)
Right positive and left negative θ 80V V1+ V2 = 802  34.642
34.64V
= 87.2V
MA -45 V1+ V 2 θ? MA -46

Complex Numbers – Addition and Subtraction Phasor Representation

θ 80V
34.64V • A phasor diagram is just a graph of several phasors on the complex
plane (using real and imaginary axes).
V1+ V2 = 87.2V
• A phasor diagram helps to visualize the relationships between currents
θ = tan-1 34.64/80 and voltages.
= 23.410 • Capacitor: I leads V by 90o
» V1+ V2 =87.2 cos ( - 23.410) (V) • Inductor: V leads I by 90o

• Phasor – Magnitude & Angle

b) V1 - V2 = V1 + (- V2)
• It is actually a complex number
-V2= 40V V1 + (- V2)
Apply the same steps
as in previous e (t) = Ep cos t  e = Ep  0 (V)
V1= 60V i (t) = Ip cos t  I = Ip  0 (A
600 Try by yourselves…
Phasor diagram for above:

V1+ V2 Ip Ep
V2= 40V
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 Phasor Representation Phasor Representation

i = Im sin(t +  ) = Im  -90

Phasor
diagram

i = Im sin(t -  ) = Im  -
jωt
Representation of Ve : (a) sinor rotating counterclockwise, (b) its
projection on the real axis, as a function of time.

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Phasor Representation – Example Phasor Analysis

In electric circuit, a sin wave
_ can be represented by a phasor. Assume a
Phase different between Voltage and current waveforms are 40 , and voltage sin wave voltage. Here V is the phasor representation of v(t):
lags. Using current as the reference, sketch the phasor diagram and the
corresponding waveform. _
v ( t )  2V cos( t   ) V  Vm
Vm
If V and I are the phasor representation of v(t) and i(t), the phasor equivalence of
 j v(t) = Vm cos (t - 40) Ohm’s law for R, L and C are given below:

Im i(t) = Im cos t

40

Vm

Impedances for L and C are:

1 j
ZL  jL ZC  
jC C
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 Phasors – Complex Exponential Phase Shift and Difference

• We represent a real-valued sinusoid as the real part of a

complex exponential.
• Complex exponentials
– provide the link between time functions and phasors.
– make solving for AC steady state an algebraic problem.
• Phasors allow us to express current-voltage relationships for
inductors and capacitors much like we express the current-
voltage relationship for a resistor.
• A complex exponential is the mathematical tool needed to • Phase shift occur when there are L or/and C exist in the circuit
obtain this relationship. • 3 important situations

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Phase Shift and Difference Phase Shift and Difference

Current in a resistor Current in a inductor

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 Phase Shift and Difference Phase Shift and Difference

Current in a capacitor

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Phase Shift and Difference Impedances

• AC steady-state analysis using phasors allows us to express the
In phase: relationship between current and voltage using a formula that looks likes
V and I are in phase since the angular displacement is zero. Ohm’s law:
V=IZ
• Z is called impedance.
X L  L (Reactance )
1
Lead: XC   (Reactance )
V is leading i for certain amount of angular displacement, . C
Or R  R (Resistance)
Lag:
i is lagging V for certain amount of angular displacement, . • In general impedance is a complex quantity with a resistive component (real)
and a reactive component (imaginary):
X
Lead: Zˆ  R  jX  R 2  X 2  tan 1 
i is leading V for certain amount of angular displacement, . R
Or • Impedance depends on the frequency w.
Lag: • Impedance is (often) a complex number.
V is lagging i for certain amount of angular displacement, . • Impedance allows us to use the same solution techniques for AC
steady state as we use for DC steady state.
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 Summary Circuit Analysis Using Complex Impedances

Summary of voltage-current relationships

VT Series ac circuit

A
a.c.
L R C

VL VR VC
Impedances and admittances of passive elements

• Consider an inductor L, a capacitor C, and a resistor R

all connected in series with an ac source. The
instantaneous current and voltages can be measured
with meters.

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Circuit Analysis Using Complex Impedances Circuit Analysis Using Complex Impedances

The voltage leads current in an inductor and lags current in a At time t = 0, suppose we read VL, VR and VC for an ac series circuit.
capacitor. In phase for resistance R. What is the source voltage VT?

V
V = Vmax sin  Source voltage
Phasor
VL VL Diagram VL - VC
VT
 1800 2700 3600 
VR 450 900 1350 VR VR
VC VC

Rotating phasor diagram generates voltage waves for each element We handle phase differences by finding the vector sum of these
R, L, and C showing phase relations. Current i is always in phase readings. VT = S Vi. The angle q is the phase angle for the ac
with VR. circuit.
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 Circuit Analysis Using Complex Impedances Circuit Analysis Using Complex Impedances

Impedance
Treating as vectors, we find: VT  i R 2  ( X L  X C )2
Source voltage Z
XL - XC
VT  Impedance Z is defined:
VL - VC
 VT  VR2  (VL  VC )2 R
VR
VL  VC Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2
tan  
VR
Ohm’s law for ac current and VT
Now recall that: VR = iR; VL = iXL; and VC = iVC impedance: VT  iZ or i 
Z
Substitution into the above voltage equation gives:
The impedance is the combined opposition to ac current consisting of
both resistance and reactance.
VT  i R  ( X L  X C )
2 2

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Circuit Analysis Using Complex Impedances RC Circuits - Example

Example1: Example2:
R ZR = R
20kW
10cos(wt) + +
C 10V  0 1mF VC
- -
ZC = 1/jwC
For f=60 Hz, find VC.
How do we find VC?
ZR
• First compute impedances for resistor and capacitor
• Generate complex circuit
• Analyze the circuit using phasors
+ ZC
_
ZR = R= 20kW = 20kW  0 10V  0
ZC = 1/j (2f x 1mF) = 2.65kW  -90
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 RC Circuits - Example RLC Circuits - Example
Example 3: Sinusoidal current source in this circuit is 8cos(200.000t) A. Construct
the frequency domain eqv. circuit. Also find the steady state currents.

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RLC Circuits - Example DC Systems

Example 3: C) Average Power Transmitted Between Two Sources
1) DC System

which illustrates that power moves from the larger to the smaller voltage in
a dc system.

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 AC Systems AC Systems
2) AC System

The power entering V1 is

P1  V1I cos 

from the equality illustrated in the phasor diagram

V2 sin 
I cos  
X
V1 V2
Using this result to eliminate I cosθ yields P1  sin 
X
“The power flows from the leading voltage to the lagging voltage, not from the larger to the smaller as in dc.”

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AC Systems AC Systems

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 AC Systems Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

• Any circuit with sources (dependent and/or independent) and resistors can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single voltage source and a
single resistor.
• Thevenin’s theorem implies that we can replace arbitrarily complicated
networks with simple networks for purposes of analysis.
• In other words, a linear circuit containing any number of sources and
elements (viewed from two terminals) can be replaced by an equivalent
voltage source (VT) and in series with an equivalent impedance (ZT). Here, VT
is the open circuit voltage.
ZT

_
_
_ VT

MA -77 MA -78

Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

RTh
• Any Thevenin equivalent circuit is in turn equivalent to a current source
in parallel with a resistor [source transformation]
Voc + • A current source in parallel with a resistor is called a Norton equivalent
– circuit
• Finding a Norton equivalent circuit requires essentially the same
Circuit with independent sources Thevenin equivalent circuit process as finding a Thevenin equivalent circuit
• these source and resistor combinations can be swapped in a circuit
without affecting the voltages and currents in other parts of the circuit

A A A
Isc RTh A Vs Rth
Is Rth Rth Rth Vs
Is Rth R th
B B B B
Circuit with one or more Norton equivalent circuit
independent sources

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 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem
Following steps provide a technique which converts any circuit into its Thévenin equivalent
Example: Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit
1. Remove the load from the circuit.
of the given circuit across the terminals.
2. Label the resulting two terminals. We will label them as a and b, although any notation
may be used.
3. Set all sources in the circuit to zero. Voltage sources are set to zero by replacing them
with short circuits (zero volts). Current sources are set to zero by replacing them with
open circuits (zero amps).
4. Determine the Thévenin equivalent resistance, RTh, by calculating the resistance
“seen” between terminals a and b. It may be necessary to redraw the circuit to simplify
this step. Step 1 and 2 Step 3 Step 4
5. Replace the sources removed in Step 3, and determine the open-circuit voltage
between the terminals. If the circuit has more than one source, it may be necessary to
use the superposition theorem. In that case, it will be necessary to determine the
open-circuit voltage due to each source separately and then determine the combined RTh=24 ohms
effect. The resulting open-circuit voltage will be the value of the Thévenin voltage,
ETh.
6. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit using the resistance determined in Step 4 and
the voltage calculated in Step 5. As part of the resulting circuit, include that portion of
the network removed in Step 1. Voltage source Current source
short-circuited open-circuited
MA -81 MA -82

Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Max Power Transfer

• Maximum power is transferred when the load impedance is equal to the
Step 5 Step 6 Thevenin impedance.
Thévenin equivalent circuit
Open circuit voltage Vab is; Thevenin Eqv circuit; Power absorbed by load resistor:
RTh
Vab= 20 V - 24Ωx2A = -28V
2
+ iL  VTh 
p  i L2RL    RL
 RTh  RL 
+
VTh – vL RL
–

To find the value of RL for which p is maximum, set to 0=

dp
dRL
2 RTh  RL   RL  2RTh  RL 
dp  2 
 VTh  0
Using this Thv eqv circuit, we can easily find the current flowing through the
load resistance
dRL  RTh  RL 4

 28V
IL  
  RTh  RL 2  RL  2RTh  RL   0
  0.7 A A resistive load receives maximum power from a circuit if the load resistance
 24W  16W   RTh  RL equals the Thévenin resistance of the circuit.
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Units Summary
• A sinusoid is a signal in the form of the sine or cosine function. It has the general form
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φ)
where Vm is the amplitude, ω = 2πf is the angular frequency, and φ is the phase.
• A phasor is a complex quantity that represents both the magnitude and the phase of a sinusoid.
Given the sinusoid
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φ), its phasor V is
V = Vm L φ
• In ac circuits, voltage and current phasors always have a fixed relation to one another at any
moment of time. If v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φv) represents the voltage through an element and i(t) = Im
cos(ωt + φi) represents the current through the element, then φi = φv if the element is a resistor,
φi leads φv by 90◦ if the element is a capacitor, and φi lags φv by 90◦ if the element is an inductor.
• The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage across it to the phasor current
through it:
Z = V/ I = R(ω) + jX(ω)
The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance:
Z = 1/Y = G(ω) + jB(ω)
Impedances are combined in series or in parallel the same way as resistances in series or parallel;
that is, impedances in series add while admittances in parallel add.
• For a resistor Z = R, for an inductor Z = jX = jωL, and for a
capacitor Z = −jX = 1/jωC.
• Basic circuit laws (Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s) apply to ac circuits in the
same manner as they do for dc circuits; that is,

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