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Machine Design Reviewer Complete
Machine Design Reviewer Complete
(LECTURE)
Machine Design, Engineering Materials,
Machine Shop Practice, and Manufacturing Process
Revision 0
2012
Prepared By:
Agerico U. Llovido – PME
CONTENTS
A. PRESSURE VESSELS
B. SHAFTS
C. KEYS
D. COUPLINGS
E. FLYWHEELS
F. SCREW FASTENINGS
G. POWER SCREWS
H. SPRING
I. BELTS
J. CHAINS
K. WIRE ROPES
L. SPUR GEARS
M. HELICAL GEARS
N. BEVEL GEARS
O. WORM GEARS
P. BRAKES
Q. CLUTCHES
R. BEARINGS
S. RIVETED JOINTS
T. WELDED JOINTS
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS
V. MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE
W. MANUFACTURING PROCESS
A. PRESSURE VESSEL - LECTURE
1
1. Thin-wall Pressure Vessel
Thin-wall pressure vessel – is one whose plate thickness is small compared to the
diameter of the vessel.
The ratio t/D
i
is equal to or less than 0.1.
t
pD
i
t
2
= σ
t
pD
i
l
4
= σ
Where
σ
t
= circumferential stress, psi
σ
l
= longitudinal stress, psi
p = internal pressure, psi
D
i
= internal diameter, in.
t = wall thickness, in
A. PRESSURE VESSEL - LECTURE
η
σ
t
pD
i
t
2
=
Longitudinal tensile stress
t
pD
i
l
4
= σ
η
σ
t
pD
i
l
4
=
2. Thick-Wall Cylinder
Thick-wall cylinder – is one whose plate thickness is large compared to the
diameter of the vessel. The ratio
t/D
i
is greater than 0.1.
2.1 Lame’s formula
Tangential stress, σ
t
.
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
i o
o i o i o o i i
t
r r
r p p r r r p r p
−
− + −
= σ
Radial stress, σ
r
,
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
i o
o i o i o o i i
r
r r
r p p r r r p r p
−
− − −
= σ
Where:
r
o
= outer radius of cylinder, in.
r
i
= inner radius of cylinder, in.
p
i
, p
o
= internal and external pressure, respectively, psi
t = wall thickness, r
o
– r
i
σ
t
= tangential stress, psi
σ
r
= radial stress, psi
3
Maximum tangential stress at the outside.
( )
2 2
2 2 2
2
i o
i o o i i
t
r r
r r p r p
−
+ −
= σ
Maximum shear stress at the inside surface.
( )
2 2
2
i o
o i o
r r
p p r
−
−
= τ
Tangential and radial stress with zero value for the external pressure.
+
−
=
2
2
2 2
2
1
r
r
r r
r p
o
i o
i i
t
σ
−
−
=
2
2
2 2
2
1
r
r
r r
r p
o
i o
i i
r
σ
Maximum tangential and radial stress with zero value for the external pressure.
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
i o
i o i
t
r r
r r p
−
−
=
max
σ
( ) i r
p − =
max
σ
Usually,
2
t
s
σ
σ =
2.4 Maximum-strain theory
Birnie’s equation for open-end cylinders
( )
( )
−
+ −
− +
= 1
1
1
i t
i t
i
p
p
r t
µ σ
µ σ
1. Definition
A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one
place to another. The
power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential force and the
resultant torque (or twisting moment)
setup within the shaft permits the power to be transferred to various machines
linked up to the shaft.
2. Types of shafts
2.1 Axle – is a stationary member carrying rotating wheels, pulleys, etc.
2.2 Transmission shafts – transmit power between the source and the absorbing
power.
2.3 Machine shafts – a shaft which is an integral part of the machine itself. The
crank shaft is an example of
machine shaft.
2.4 LIneshaft, or mainshaft is one driven by a primemover.
2.5 Countershafts, jackshafts, or headshafts – are shafts intermediate
between a line shaft and a driven
machine.
2.6 Spindles – are short shafts on machines.
3. Stresses in Shafts
3.1 Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (i.e. due to torsional load).
3.2 Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting
upon machine elements like gears,
pulleys etc. as well as due to the weight of the shaft itself.
3.3 Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.
4. Design of shafts
4.1 Strength
4.1.1 Shafts subjected to twisting moment only.
4.1.2 Shafts subjected to bending moment only.
4.1.3 Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments.
4.1.4 Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and
bending loads.
4.2 Rigidity
4.2.1 Torsional rigidity
4.2.2 Lateral rigidity
r J
T τ
=
2
d
r = ; where d is the diameter of the shaft.
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
Then
3
16
d T × × = τ
π
Then
( ) ( )
(
¸
(
−
× =
o
i o
d
d d
T
4 4
16
τ
π
y I
M
b
σ
=
b
σ = Bending stress, and
y = Distance from neutral axis to the outer-most fibre.
Then
( ) ( )
(
¸
(
−
× =
o
i o
b
d
d d
M
4 4
16
σ
π
7.1 Maximum shear theory or Guest’s theory. It is used for ductile materials such
as mild steel.
7.2 Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory. It is used for brittle
materials such as cast iron.
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
[ ]
2 2
3
2
3
2
3
16 16
4
32
2
1
T M
d d
T
d
M
+ =
|
|
¹
|
\
|
+
|
|
¹
|
\
|
=
π π π
τ
max
2 2 3
16
T M d + = × ×
max
τ
π
The expression
2 2
T M + is known as equivalent twisting moment and is denoted by
e
T .
( )
2
3
2
3 3
16
4
32
2
1 32
2
1
|
|
¹
|
\
|
+
|
|
¹
|
\
|
+ × =
d
T
d
M
d
M
b
π π π
σ
max
( )
( )
(
¸
(
+ + =
2 2
3
2
1 32
T M M
d
b
π
σ
max
( )
( )
2 2 3
2
1
32
T M M d
b
+ + = × ×
max
σ
π
The expression ( )
2 2
2
1
T M M + + is known as equivalent bending moment and is denoted by
e
M .
( ) ( )
2 2
T K M K T
t m e
+ =
( ) ( )
(
¸
(
+ + =
2 2
2
1
T K M K M K M
t m m e
Where
m
K = Combined shock and fatigue factor for bending, and
t
K = Combined shock and fatigue factor for torsion.
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
|
|
¹
|
\
|
+
|
|
¹
|
\
|
=
n
es
n
e
N σ
σ
σ
σ
.
|
|
¹
|
\
|
+
|
|
¹
|
\
|
=
n
es
n
e
N σ
σ
σ
σ
.
9. Shaft Subjected to Axial Load in addition to Combined Torsion and Bending Loads
Resultant Stress
A
F
I
y M
+
⋅
=
1
σ
10. Design of Shafts on the basis of Rigidity
10.1 Torsional rigidity
G J
L T
⋅
⋅
= θ
10.2 Lateral rigidity
From strength of materials
B. SHAFTS - LECTURE
EI
M
dx
y d
=
2
2
IP Units
Torque
N
P
T
000 63,
=
Diameter of solid shaft
3
1 5
s
T
D
σ
.
=
3
000 321
s
N
P
D
σ
,
=
SI Units
Torque
N
P
T
6
10 55 9 ×
=
.
ω
P
T
6
10
=
Diameter of solid shaft
3
1 5
s
T
D
σ
.
=
3
6
10 7 48
s
N
P
D
σ
×
=
.
3
6
10 1 5
s
P
D
ωσ
×
=
.
6
3
10 1738 1 ×
=
.
N D
P in SI units
11.3 For small, short shafts.
38
3
N D
P = in IP units
6
3
10 837 0 ×
=
.
N D
P in SI units
12. Shaft Design by Machinery’s Handbook
12.1 Torsional deflection
According to some authorities, the allowable twist in steel transmission
shafting should not
exceed 0.08 degree per foot length of the shaft. The diameter D(in.) of a shaft
that will permit a
maximum angular deflection of 0.08 degree per foot of length for a given torque T
(in-lb) or for a
given horsepower P can be determined from the formulas:
4
29 0 T D . =
4
6 4
N
P
D . =
Using metric SI units and assuming an allowable twist in steel
transmission shafting of 0.26
degree per meter length,
4
26 2 T D . =
4
7 125
N
P
D . =
Another rule that has been generally used in mill practice limits the deflection to
1 degree in a
length equal to 20 times the shaft diameter. For a given torque or horsepower, the
diameter of
a shaft having this maximum deflection is given by:
3
1 0 T D . =
3
0 4
N
P
D . =
12.2 For steel line shafting, it is considered good practice to limit the linear
deflection to a maximum
of 0.010 inch per foot of length. The maximum distance in feet between
bearings, for average
conditions, in order to avoid excessive linear deflection, is determined by the
formulas:
3 2
95 8 D L . = for shafting subject to no bending action except its own weight
3 2
2 5 D L . = for shafting subject to bending action of pulleys, etc.
in which D = diameter of shaft in inches and L = maximum distance
between bearings in feet.
Pulleys should be placed as close to the bearings as possible.
- end -
C. KEYS - LECTURE
1. Definitions
Key - is a piece of mild steel inserted between the shaft and hub of the pulley to
connect these together in
order to prevent relative motion between them. It is always inserted parallel to
the axis of the shaft.
Keyway - is a slot or recess in a shaft and hub of the pulley to accommodate a key.
2. Types of Keys
Flat key – is rectangular in section with the smaller dimension placed
in a radial direction and they may or
may not be tapered.
Saddle key – is tapered and are either hollow with a radius of curvature slightly
smaller than the shaft radius,
or flat in which case they are assembled on a flat on the shaft. It is used without
keyway on the shaft.
Flat saddle key – is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and is flat on
the shaft.
C. KEYS - LECTURE
Hollow saddle key – is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and the bottom
of the key is shaped to
fit the curved surface of the shaft.
Woodruff key – is a key which fits into a semi-cylindrical seat on the shaft.
Feather key – is a key that allows the hub to move along the shaft but prevents
rotation on the shaft.
C. KEYS - LECTURE
Splines – is a key made integral with the shaft which fits in the keyways broached
in the hub.
C. KEYS - LECTURE
4
4. Proportions of key
The usual proportions of the square key are
4
D
t w = =
Typical hub lengths fall between 1.25D and 2.4D.
For the same material and w = t = D/4, τ σ 2 =
c
, L = 1.1571D.
- End -
D. COUPLINGS - LECTURE
1. Definition
Shaft couplings are used in machinery for several purposes, the most common of
which are the following:
a. To provide for the connection of shafts of units that are manufactured
separately such as a motor and
generator and to provide for disconnection for repairs or alternations.
b. To provide for misalignment of the shafts or to introduce mechanical
flexibility.
c. To reduce the transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another.
d. To introduce protection against overloads.
e. To alter the vibration characteristics of rotating units.
Note : A coupling is termed as a device used to make permanent or semi-permanent
connection where as a
clutch permits rapid connection or disconnection at the will of the operator.
2.1.2 Compression coupling utilizes two split cones which are drawn together by
the bolts in order to
produce a wedging action which tightens the parts of the coupling and the shafts.
2
2.2.2 Universal (or Hooke’s) Coupling
Universal or Hooke’s coupling – is used to connect two shafts whose
axes intersect at a small
angle. The inclination of the two shafts may be constant, but in actual
practice, it varies when
the motion is transmitted from one shaft to another.
D. COUPLINGS - LECTURE
Torque
2 2
FD
n
P
T = =
π
Where
F = total transmitted load on bolts
D = diameter of bolt circle
d = bolt diameter
t = thickness
n
1
= number of bolts
F
b
= Force per bolts
1
n
F
F
b
=
Shear stress in bolts
2
4
d
F
A
F
b
s
b
π
τ = =
Compressive stress
td
F
b
c
= σ
- End -
E. FLYWHEELS - LECTURE
1. Definition of Flywheel
A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir which stores energy
during the period when the
supply of energy is more than the requirement and releases it during the
period when the requirement of
energy is more than supply.
A flywheel is a rotating member that acts as a storage reservoir for
energy when work is not
“consumed” at as fast a rate as the power is supplied.
2. Kinetic Energy, KE
2 2
2 2
s
mv I
KE = =
ω
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1 s s
v v m mk I
KE
−
=
−
=
−
= ∆
ω ω ω ω
Where:
I = mk
2
= moment of inertia
m = mass of flywheel = W/g
r = radius of gyration
ω
1
= maximum angular velocity, rad/sec = 2pn1/60
ω
2
= minimum angular velocity, rad/sec = 2pn2/60
v
s1
= maximum speed = πDn
1
v
s2
= minimum speed = πDn
2
3. Coefficient of fluctuation, C
f
Maximum fluctuation of speed - the difference between the maximum and minimum
speeds during a cycle.
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed - the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed
to the mean speed.
s
s s
f
v
v v
n
n n
C
2 1 2 1 2 1
−
=
−
=
−
=
ω
ω ω
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 2 2
s s
s s
f
v v
v v
n n
n n
C
+
−
=
+
−
=
+
−
=
ω ω
ω ω
E. FLYWHEELS - LECTURE
4. Weight of Flywheel, W
Engineers frequently neglect the effect of the hub and arms.
ρ πDbt W =
Where
D = mean diameter
b = width of flywheel
t = thickness of flywheel
ρ = density of flywheel = 72,00 kg/m
3
for cast-iron = 7,860 kg/m
3
for steel
Also
2
s f
v C
KE g
W
∆
=
5. Stress in flywheel
2
s
v ρ σ =
Rules of thumb from experience specify the conventional limits of operation; 6000
fpm for cast iron and
10,000 fpm for cast steel.
- End -
F. SCREW FASTENINGS - LECTURE
1. Screw Fastenings
Screw fastening – is composed by a bolt and nut.
Screw thread - is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical
surface.
2. Definitions
Square thread.
Acme thread.
Knuckle thread.
Buttress thread.
7. Locking Devices
a. Jam nut or lock nut
b. Castle nut
c. Sawn
d. Penn, ring or grooved nut
e. Locking with pin
f. Locking with plate
g. Spring lock washer
8. Design Stress:
( )
2
1
6
s
y
d
A
σ
σ =
< in D
4
3
y d
σ σ 4 0. =
> in D
4
3
Where
σ
y
= yield strength of material, ksi
σ
d
= design tensile strength, ksi
A
s
= stress area, in
2
Tightening Torque =
i
DF T 2 0. =
10. Elastic considerations
Equivalent area of connected parts
2 2
4 4
D D A
e c
π π
− =
e
D = (Nut or head width across flats) +
2
h
+
= ∆
c b
b
e b
k k
k
F F
L
E A
k
c c
c
=
L
E A
k
b b
b
=
Bolts:
e
c b
b
i t
F
k k
k
F F
+
+ =
s
t
t
A
F
= σ
Tube or connected parts:
e
c b
c
i c
F
k k
k
F F
+
− =
c
c
c
A
F
= σ
For zero stress in the tube
i
c
c b
o
F
k
k k
F
+
=
The following empirical formula was established for the working strength of bolts
used for packed joints or joints
where the elasticity of a gasket is greater than the elasticity of the studs or
bolts.
( )lbs D D W
t
25 0 55 0
2
. . − =σ
where
W = working strength of bolt or permissible load, in pounds, after allowance is
made for initial load due to
tightening;
σ
t
= allowable working stress in tension, pounds per square inch; and
D = nominal outside diameter of stud or bolt, inches.
Where:
P = horsepower transmitted, hp6.
T = torque, in-lb
D = shaft diameter, in
n = speed, rpm
d = set-screw diameter
- end -
1. Definition
Power screws (Translation screws) – are used to move machine parts
against resisting forces, for instance, in a
screw-operated tensile-testing machine, jack, press, or lead screw of a lathe.
From Faires,
p h 5 0. =
2.3 Buttress threads.
From Faires,
p h 663 0. =
Where D
m
is the mean thread diameter
( )
( )
( )
( ) λ φ
λ φ
λ β φ
β λ φ
tan cos 2
tan cos
tan tan cos 2
tan tan cos
f
f WD WD
T
m m
−
+
=
−
+
=
o
angle pressure 5 14. ≈ = φ
effort actual
effort ideal
e =
Efficiency of square thread considering only the screw friction.
( )
( )
f
f
e
+
−
=
+
=
λ
λ λ
λ β
λ
tan
tan 1 tan
tan
tan
Where D
c
= R
o
+ R
i
- End -
H. SPRING - LECTURE
1
1. Definition
2. Application:
2.1 To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in
car springs, railway buffers, air-craft
landing gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers.
2.2 To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring-loaded valves.
2.3 To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams and
followers.
2.4 To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators.
2.5 To store energy, as in watches, toys, etc.
Closely coiled – when the spring is coiled so close that the plane containing each
turn is nearly at right angles to
the axis of the helix and the wire is subjected to torsion. Helix angle is usually
less than 10 degrees.
Open coiled – is coiled in such a way that there is a gap between the two
consecutive turns, as a result of which
the helix angle is large.
3.2 Conical and volute springs – are used in special applications where a
telescoping spring or a spring with a spring
rate that increases with the load is desired. The conical spring is wound with a
uniform pitch whereas the volute
springs are wound in the form of paraboloid with constant pitch and lead angles.
H. SPRING - LECTURE
3.3 Torsional springs – are springs that may be of helical or spiral type.
Helical type – may be used only in applications where the load tends to wing up the
spring and are used in
various electrical mechanisms.
Spiral type – is used where the load tends to increase the number of coils and when
made of flat strip are used
in watches and clocks.
H. SPRING - LECTURE
3.6 Special purpose springs – these springs are air or liquid springs, rubber
springs, ring springs etc.
The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires containing 0.60 to
0.70 per cent carbon and 0.60
to 1.0 per cent manganese. Music wire is used for small springs. Non-
ferrous materials like phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper, monel metal, brass etc., may be used in special cases to increase
fatigue resistance and corrosion
resistance.
The helical springs are either cold formed or hot formed depending upon
the size of the wire. Wires of small sizes
(less than 10 mm diameter) are usually wound cold whereas larger size
wires are wound hot. The strength of the
wires varies with size, smaller size wires have greater strength and less
ductility, due to the greater degree of cold
working.
Severe service – means rapid continuous loading where the rate of minimum to
maximum load (or stress) is one-half
or less, as in automotive valve springs.
5.1 Solid length – is the product of total number of coils and the diameter of the
wire.
5.2 Free length – is the length of the spring in the free or unloaded condition.
It is equal to the solid length plus the
maximum deflection or compression of the spring and the clearance between
the adjacent coils (when fully
compressed).
H. SPRING - LECTURE
5.3 Spring index – is defined as the ratio of the mean diameter of the coil to the
diameter of the wire.
Spring index, d D C =
Where D = Mean diameter of the coil, and
d = Diameter of the wire.
5.4 Spring rate (stiffness or spring constant or spring scale) – is defined as the
load required per unit deflection of
the spring.
Spring rate, δ F k =
Where F = Load,and
δ = Deflection of the spring.
Inactive coils – part of the coil which is in contact with the seat and does not
contribute to spring action.
Active turns – turns which impart spring action.
H. SPRING - LECTURE
H. SPRING - LECTURE
6
8. Stresses in helical springs of circular wire
2 3
8 8
d
C F
K
d
D F
K
π π
τ
⋅
× =
⋅
× =
Where
C C
C
K
615 0
4 4
1 4 .
+
−
−
= = Wahl’s stress factor
C S
K K K =
Where
S
K = Stress factor due to shear, and
C
K = Stress concentration factor due to curvature.
H. SPRING - LECTURE
7
Angular deflection
( )
4
2
4
16
32
2
d G
n D F
G d
n D
D
F
G J
l T
⋅
⋅ ⋅
=
×
⋅
×
=
⋅
⋅
=
π
π
θ
Axial deflection
d G
n C F
d G
n D F D
d G
n D F
⋅
⋅ ⋅
=
⋅
⋅ ⋅
= ×
⋅
⋅ ⋅
=
3
4
3
4
2
8 8
2
16
δ
( ) δ δ F h W
2
1
= +
δ F mv v
g
W
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
= =
12. Energy of a spring
2
2
1
δ k E =
L + + + =
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
k k k k
L + + + =
3 2 1
k k k k
- end -
I. BELTS - LECTURE
1. Definition
The belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed
or at different speeds.
2. Types of Belts
2.1 Flat belt - is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
moderate amount of power is to be
transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more than 8
metres apart.
2.2 V- belt - is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
great amount of power is to be transmitted,
from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are very near to each other.
2.3 Circular belt or rope - is mostly used in the factories and
workshops, where a great amount of power is to be
transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are more than 8
metres apart.
\
| −
− = −
θ
θ
f
f
c
e
e
F F F F
1
1 2 1
o
s
o
s
c
g
wv
g
bv
F
2 2
12
= =
ρ
I. BELTS - LECTURE
bt F σ =
1
|
|
¹
|
\
| −
|
|
¹
|
\
|
− = −
θ
θ
ρ
σ
f
f
s
e
e v
bt F F
1
2 32
12
2
2 1
.
Where:
F
1
= is the maximum tension or the force on the approaching belt, lb.
F
2
= is the force on the receding side, lb.
F
c
= is the load on the belt due to the centrifugal force. Lb
σ = design stress,psi.
ρ = density of belt, lb/cu. in. for design, use ρ = 0.035 for leather and ρ = 0.045
lb for flat tuber belting.
v
s
= speed in fps.
f = coefficient of friction.
θ = angle of contact’
hp
Tn
hp
000 63,
=
Where:
v
m
= speed in fpm.
T = torque in in-lb
n = speed in rpm
6. Coefficient of Friction
For normal design conditions for flat belts use the following:
Leather on iron or steel, f = 0.3
Leather on paper pulley, f = 0.5
8. Belt speed.
Experience suggest that the most economical designs are obtained for a belt speed
of 4000 to 4500 fpm, but of
course, any particular application may require some other speed.
I. BELTS - LECTURE
3
9. Length of Belts
9.1 Open Belt Drive.
( )
( )
C
D D
D D C L
4
57 1 2
2
1 2
1 2
−
+ + + ≈ .
Where;
C is the center distance,
D
2
is the diameter of the larger pulley,
D
1
is the diameter of the smaller pulley
( )
( )
C
D D
D D C L
4
57 1 2
2
1 2
1 2
+
+ + + ≈ .
Where;
C is the center distance,
D
2
is the diameter of the larger pulley,
D
1
is the diameter of the smaller pulley
radians
C
r R +
+ =
−1
2sin π θ
Where:
R = the radius (D
2
= diameter) of the larger pulley,
r = the radius (D
1
= diameter) of the smaller pulley,
C = the distance between pulley centers, and
θ = the angle of contact in radians.
In general, design equation used the minimum value of fθ, which is the
smaller pulley when the pulleys are of the
same materials.
13. Rated Capacity of Leather Belts (ALBA Tables or Table 17.1 and Table 17.2 by
V.M. Faires).
( )( )( ) K K
2 1
4
f f p m
C C C bC Table in hp hp , =
Which is the nominal horsepower that the belt is to transmit (or the
nameplate horsepower for an electric
motor),and
b in. is the belt width
C
m
is the correction factor for the type of drive; except for electric motors,
use C
m
= 1;
C
p
is the correction factor for the size of the smallest pulley; the
smaller the pulleys, the greater is the
flexure
C
f
is the correction factor for the environmental conditions, and more
than one of these factors may be
apply; thus a vertical drive in a dusty atmosphere and subjected to
shock loads would correspond to a
total factor of C
f
= (0.83)(0.74)(0.71).
I. BELTS - LECTURE
15. V-Belts.
V-belt is mostly used in factories and workshops where a great amount of power is
to be transmitted from one
pulley to another when the two pulleys are very near to each other.
16. Standard Multiple V-Belt Dimension
− −
|
|
¹
|
\
|
=
.
Design Hp = N
sf
(transmitted hp)
Adjusted rated hp = K
θ
K
L
(rated hp).
hp rated Adjusted
hp Design
belts of No = .
Use the next larger whole number.
Where,
K
θ
= arc-of-contact factor (Table 17.5, Faires or Table 3.8, PSME Code 2008 pg. 25).
K
L
= length correction factor (Table 17.5, Faires or Table 3.5.7, PSME Code 2008 pg.
24).
- End -
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
1. General
The chains are made up of number of rigid links which are hinged together by pin
joints in order to provide the
necessary flexibility for wrapping round the driving and driven wheels. These
wheels have projecting teeth of special
profile and fit into the corresponding recesses in the links of the chain as shown
in Figure 1. The toothed wheels are
known as sprocket wheels or simply sprockets. The sprockets and the chain are thus
constrained to move together
without slipping and ensures perfect velocity ratio.
These chains are used for transmission of power, when the distance between the
centers of shafts is short.
These chains have provision for efficient lubrication.
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
3
3. Terms and Definition
3.1 Pitch of chain (P)
It is the distance between the hinge centre of a link and the corresponding hinge
centre of the adjacent link.
Chain
no.
25 35 41 40 50 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 240
Pitch ¼ 3/8 ½ ½ 5/8 ¾ 1 1 ¼ 1 ½ 1 ¾ 2 2 ¼ 2 ½ 3
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
6. Types of Lubrication.
Type I – manual lubrication – oil is applied periodically with a brush
or spout can, preferably at least once every 8
hours of operation, (vmax = 300 fpm).
Type II – drip lubrication – oil drops are directed between the link plate edges
from a drip lubricator, (vmax = 1300
fpm).
Type III – bath or disc lubrication – with bath lubrication the lower strand of
chain runs through a sump of oil in the
drive housing. The oil level should reach the pitch line of the chain
at its lowest point while operating. With disc
lubrication, the chain operates above the oil level. The disc picks up oil from the
sump and deposits it onto the chain,
usually by means of trough. (vmax = 2300 fpm).
Type IV – oil stream lubrication – the lubricant is usually supplied by
a circulating pump capable of supplying each
chain drive with a continuous stream of oil.
\
|
=
t
N
D P
180
sin
Where:
D = Diameter of the pitch circle,
P = Pitch, and
N
t
= Number of teeth on the sprocket.
where
D = Pitch circle diameter of the sprocket in inches, and
P = Pitch of the chain in inches.
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
PN
t
= circumference of the sprocket.
− − − − + − − =
2
1 2
2
1 2 1 2
810 0 2 2
8
N N N N L N N L
P
C .
\
|
≤
n
p
Where p is the pitch in inches and n is the speed of the small sprocket.
J. CHAINS - LECTURE
- End -
K. WIRE ROPES - LECTURE
1
1. Definitions.
1.1 Wire Ropes – are made from cold-drawn wires that are first
wrapped into strands; the strands are then
wrapped into helices about a core or central elements, which is usually hemp or
pulp.
1.2 Regular Lay – in which the wires and strands are twisted in opposite
directions.
1.3 Lang Lay – in which the wires and strands are twisted in the same direction.
1.4 Non-preformed – the wires and strands are bent into place, resulting in high
stresses in straight, unloaded rope.
1.5 Preformed – the individual strands having been mechanically shaped ahead of
time into the helical configuration
they have in the rope.
2.1 6 x7 – being made of heavy wire, provides maximum resistance to abrasion and
wear. Used for haulages, rigging,
guard rails.
2.2 6 x 19 – being a compromise of flexibility and wear resistance, is one of the
most popular types. Uses, including
all various cross sections: scraper and shovel cables, draglines, logging ropes,
haulage, hoists.
2.3 6 x 37 – is an extra-flexible rope and therefore useful where
abrasion is not severe and where relatively sharp
bends must be tolerated. Used for winch lines, hawsers, overhead cranes, and
hoists.
D
s
= sheave diameter, in
p = bearing pressure per square inch of projected area of the rope on the sheave.
p/σu = values taken from Figure 17.30 (Faires).
Wire diameter, D
w
≈0.111D
r
Wire diameter, D
w
≈0.067D
r
Wire diameter, D
w
≈0.048D
r
Values of f:
Iron or steel sheave: greasy rope, 0.07; wet rope, 0.085; dry rope, 0.12
Wood-lined sheave: greasy rope, 0.14; wet rope, 0.17; dry rope, 0.235
Rubber- or leather-lined sheave: greasy rope, 0.205; wet rope, 0.4; dry rope,
0.495
1. Gears
Gears – are machine elements that transmit motion by means of
successively engaging teeth. The gear drive is
therefore positive, which gives it an advantage in motion-transmission
performance over friction drives such as
friction wheels and belts.
2. Definitions
Spur gears – are toothed wheels whose tooth elements are straight and parallel to
the shaft axis; they are used to
transmit motion and power between parallel shafts.
Pitch circle - It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give
the same motion as the actual gear.
Pitch circle diameter - It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the
gear is usually specified by the pitch circle
diameter. It is also called as pitch diameter.
Pitch surface – It is the surface of the rolling discs which the meshing gears have
replaced at the pitch circle.
Addendum – It is the radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum
circle.
Dedendum – It is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the root circle, that
is, to the bottom of the tooth space.
Addendum circle – It is the circle that bounds at the outer ends of the teeth. It
is also called outside circle.
Dedendum circle – It is the circle that bounds the bottoms of the teeth. It is also
called root circle.
Whole depth (Total depth) – It is the radial distance between the addendum and
the dedendum circle of a gear. It
is equal to the sum of the addendum and dedendum.
Working depth – It is radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance
circle. It is equal to the sum of the
addendum of the two meshing gears.
Clearance – It is the radial distance between the working-depth circle and the root
circle; it is the dedendum minus
the mating addendum.
Tooth thickness – It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.
Tooth space – It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured
along the pitch circle.
Backlash - It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as
measured on the pitch circle.
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
Face of the tooth – It is surface of the tooth between the pitch cylinder and the
addendum cylinder.
Flank – is the surface of the tooth between the pitch and root cylinders.
Profile – It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth.
Fillet radius – It is the radius that connects the root circle to the profile of
the tooth.
Length of the path of contact – It is the length of the common normal cut-off by
the addendum circles of the wheel
and pinion.
Arc of contact – It is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the
beginning to the end of engagement of a
given pair of teeth.
Arc of approach – It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning of
the engagement to the pitch point.
Arc of recess – It is the portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to
the end of the engagement of a pair of
teeth.
Angle of action – is the angle through which the gear turns from the time a
particular pair of teeth come into contact
until they go out of contact.
Angle of approach – is the angle through which the gear turns from the
time a particular pair of teeth come in to
come into contact until they are in contact at the pitch point.
Angle of recess – is the angle through which the gear turns from the time a given
pair of teeth are in contact at the
pitch point until they pass out of mesh.
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
Velocity ratio, m
w
–is the angular velocity of the driver divided by the angular velocity of the
driven gear.
Gear ratio, m
g
– is the number of teeth in the gear divided by the number of teeth in the pinion.
Contact ratio, m
c
– the ratio of the length of arc of contact to the circular pitch.
Degree of involute – is used to define the base circle for a particular pitch
circle.
Pressure angle or angle of obliquity – It is the angle between the common normal
to two gear teeth at the point of
contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. It is usually denoted by φ. The
standard pressure angles are 14
1/2° and 20°.
3. Pitch
Pitch – is a measure of the spacing, and usually also of the size, of the tooth.
Diametral pitch, Pd – is the ratio of the number of teeth per inch of pitch
diameter.
D
N
P
g
d
=
Module – It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in mm to the number of teeth.
It is usually denoted by m
o
.
g
o
N
D
m =
Base pitch, P
b
– (involute gearing only) – is the distance in inches measured along the base
circle from a point on one
tooth to the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth. It is also the distance
between parallel profiles on adjacent
teeth measured along the generating line.
φ
φ π π
os P
N
D
N
D
P
c
g g
b
b
= = =
cos
Where,
D
b
= the diameter of the base circle.
D = the pitch diameter.
Pitch angle – is the angle subtended by an arc on the pitch circle equal in length
to the circular pitch.
4. Center Distance
( )
g p
D D C + =
2
1
Where,
Dp = diameter of pinion
Dg = diameter of gear
5. Pitch-line speed
12 12
g g p p
m
n D n D
v
π π
= =
Where,
n
p
= speed of pinion, rpm
n
g
= speed of gear, rpm
D
p
= diameter of pinion, in
D
g
= diameter of gear, in
v
m
= pitch-line speed, fpm
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
Speed ratio =
g
p
n
n
Gear ratio =
g
p
N
N
Where,
N
p
= number of teeth in the pinion
N
g
= number of teeth in the gear
Stub-tooth system
Item Formula
Working depth 1.6/P
d
Addendum, a 0.8/P
d
Dedendum, d 1/P
d
= P
c
/π
Clearance (min.) 0.2/P
d
Whole Depth 1.8/P
d
Pressure angle 20
o
8. Transmitted Load
Transmitted load – is the average transmitted load on the teeth.
m
t
v
hp
F
000 33,
= in English units.
Or
speed line Pitch
Power
F
t
−
=
Where
v
m
= is the pitch line speed, fpm
L. SPUR GEARS - LECTURE
F
t
= is the transmitted load, lb
b = is the face width, in
C = is a function of the amount of the effective error and of the elasticity of the
gear materials.
p g
p g
E E
E kE
C
+
=
e k 107 0. = for 14 ½ deg full-depth teeth
e k 111 0. = for 20 deg full-depth teeth
e k 115 0. = for 20 deg stub teetj
e = effective or composite tooth error.
E
g
and E
p
= are the modulii of elasticity of the materials of the gear and pinion
Use the above equation if for horsepower more than 20 hp.
d s
F F ≥
1
2 2 2
+
=
+
=
+
=
g
g
p g
g
p g
g
m
m
N N
N
D D
D
Q
Where;
σ = surface endurance strength, psi
D
p
= diameter of pinion, in
b = face width, in
K
g
= is a material factor
d w
F F ≥
g p w
bQK D F =
+
=
g p
g
E E
K
1 1
4 1
2
.
sinφ σ
1
2 2 2
−
=
−
=
−
=
g
g
p g
g
p g
g
m
m
N N
N
D D
D
Q
1. Definitions
Helical gears – are toothed wheels whose tooth elements are cut in the form of a
helix about an axis of rotation and
are used to connect parallel shafts.
Herringbone gears – are double helical gears consisting of right-hand and left-hand
helices to absorb the axial thrust
within the gear and are used to connect parallel shafts.
Crossed helical gears – helical gears mounted on non-parallel shafts.
Where P
a
is the axial pitch.
3. Pitches
The pitch of a helical gear is the pitch in the diametral (transverse) plane, P
c
for circular pitch, P
d
for diametral pitch.
t
c cn
N
D
P P
ψ π
ψ
cos
cos = = and
ψ ψ cos cos D
N P
P
t d
dn
= =
Where P
dn
Is the normal diametral pitch and N
t
is the number of teeth.
ψ
π
ψ
π
ψ tan tan tan
d t
c
a
P N
D P
P = = =
Where:
φ
n
= pressure angle in the normal plane.
M. HELICAL GEARS - LECTURE
ψ
3
cos
N
N
e
=
7. Limiting wear load
lb
QK bD
F
g p
w
ψ
2
cos
=
Where symbols have the usual meaning.
+ =
g p
n
g
E E
K
1 1
4 1
2
.
sinφ σ
8. Axial load
ψ tan
t a
F F =
9. Crossed helical gears
The shafts can be at any angle Σ, but 90
o
is the most common.
For same hands,
2 1
ψ ψ + = Σ
For opposite hands,
2 1
ψ ψ − = Σ
And
cn
P
D
N
1 1
1
ψ π cos
= ,
cn
P
D
N
2 2
2
ψ π cos
= ,
1 1
2 2
1
2
2
1
2
1
ψ
ψ
ω
ω
cos
cos
D
D
N
N
n
n
m
w
= = = =
For Σ = 90
o
.
( )
1 1 2
90 ψ ψ ψ sin cos cos = − = , ( )
2 2 1
90 ψ ψ ψ sin cos cos = − =
Then
2 1
2
1
1 2
1 1
1 2
2
1
ψ
ψ
ψ
ψ
ω
ω
tan
tan
cos
sin
D
D
D
D
D
D
m
w
= = = =
1. Definition.
Bevel Gears – are used to connect intersecting shafts, usually but not necessarily
at 90
o
.
2. Terms used in Bevel Gears
Cone center – It is the apex of the pitch cone. It may be defined as that point
where the axes of two mating gears
intersect each other.
Pitch angle – It is the angle made by the pitch line with the axis of the shaft.
Cone distance – It is the length of the pitch cone element. It is also called as a
pitch cone radius.
Addendum angle – It is the angle subtended by the addendum of the tooth at the cone
centre.
Dedendum angle – It is the angle subtended by the dedendum of the tooth at the cone
centre.
Face angle – It is the angle subtended by the face of the tooth at the cone center.
The face angle is equal to the pitch
angle plus addendum angle.
Root angle – It is the angle subtended by the root of the tooth at the cone center.
It is equal to the pitch angle minus
dedendum angle.
Back (or normal) cone – It is an imaginary cone, perpendicular to the pitch cone at
the end of the tooth.
N. BEVEL GEARS - LECTURE
Back cone distance – It is the length of the back cone. It is also called back
cone radius.
Backing – It is the distance of the pitch point from the back of the boss, parallel
to the pitch point of the gear.
Crown height – It is the distance of the crown point from the cone centre, parallel
to the axis of the gear.
Mounting height – It is the distance of the back of the boss from the cone centre.
Spiral bevel gears – are those having curved oblique teeth on which contact begins
gradually and continues
smoothly from end to end.
Zerol bevel gears – whose teeth are curved but lie in the same direction as the
teeth of straight bevel gears.
Hypoid gears – resembles spiral bevel gears except that the shaft axes are offset,
not intersecting. Instead of pitch
cone, the pitch surface is a hyperboloid.
Miter gears – are pair of bevel gears of the same size that are on shafts
intersecting at right angles. They are equal in
pitch angle.
Angular gears – are bevel gears mounted on intersecting shafts at angles of other
than 90
o
.
Crown gear s – are bevel gears in which the pitch angle is 90o; that is the pitch
cone has become a plane.
Dedendum, d = 1.2/P
d
Clearance = 0.2/P
d
5. Pitch angle γ.
N. BEVEL GEARS - LECTURE
+ − =
2
2
3
1
L
b
L
b
P
Yb
F
d
s
σ
When 3 L b ≤
( )
L P
b L Yb
F
d
s
−
=
σ
The value of Y is chosen in accordance with the equivalent (also called formative
or virtual) number of teeth N
e
.
Equivalent number of teeth for the pinion.
g
d p
d b ep
r
LP r
P r N
2
2 = =
Equivalent number of teeth for the gear.
p
d g
eg
r
LP r
N
2
=
Where,
g p b
r r L r = , ( )
2 1
2 2
g p
r r L + =
50
50
2 1
m
v
VF
+
=
For bevel,
2 1
2 1
78
78
(
¸
(
¸
+
=
m
v
VF
\
|
=
r t
l
e
cd
p w
C K
C
C
bI D F
σ
Where,
D
p
= pitch diameter of the pinion
b= face width
σ
cd
= design contact stress
C
l
= life factor for wear
C
r
= reliability factor for wear
I = geometry factor for wear
C
e
= elastic coefficient given by
( ) ( )
g g p p
e
E E
C
2 2
2
1 1
5 1
µ µ
π
− + −
=
.
1. Definition.
Worm gears – are widely used for transmitting power at high velocity ratios between
non-intersecting shafts that
are generally, but not necessarily, at right angles.
Lead – It is the linear distance through which a point on a thread moves ahead in
one revolution of the worm. For
single start threads, lead is equal to the axial pitch, but for multiple start
threads, lead is equal to the product of axial
pitch and number of starts.
Lead angle – It is the angle between the tangent to the thread helix
on the pitch cylinder and the plane normal to
the axis of the worm.
Tooth pressure angle – It is measured in a plane containing the axis of the worm
and is equal to one-half the thread
profile angle.
Normal pitch – It is the distance measured along the normal to the threads between
two corresponding points on
two adjacent threads of the worm.
Helix angle – It is the angle between the tangent to the thread helix on the pitch
cylinder and the axis of the worm.
Velocity ratio – It is the ratio of the speed of worm in r.p.m. to the speed of the
worm gear in r.p.m.
c a
P P =
λ λ cos cos
c a cn
P P P = =
w w
D
L
D
Lead
π π
λ = = tan
o
90 = +
w
ψ λ
o
90 = +ψ λ
g
Where
φ = diametral pressure angle
φ
n
= normal pressure angle
\
|
+
=
1200
1200
mg
t
v
hp
F
000 33,
=
Where,
F
t
– is the transmitted load, lb.
hp – is the output power.
v
mg
– is the pitch-line speed of the gear, fpm.
+
−
=
(
¸
(
+
−
=
f
f
f
f
e
n
n
n
n
λ φ
λ φ
λ
λ λ φ
λ λ φ
λ
tan cos
tan cos
tan
cos sin cos
sin cos cos
tan
−
+
= =
λ λ φ
λ λ φ
sin cos cos
cos sin cos
f
f
F W
n
n
t t
P. BRAKES - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Brakes – are friction devices used to regulate the motion of bodies
(slowing them down, holding their speed
constant, holding them at rest, etc.
Single block or shoe brake – consists of a block or shoe which is pressed against
the rim of a revolving brake wheel
drum.
Double Block or Shoe Brake – consists of two brake blocks applied at the opposite
ends of a diameter of the wheel
which eliminate or reduces the unbalanced force on the shaft.
Band brake – consists of a flexible band of leather, one or more ropes, or a steel
lined with friction material, which
embraces a part of the circumference of the drum.
Simple band brake – in which one end of the band is attached to a fixed pin or
fulcrum of the lever while the other
end is attached to the lever at a distance from the fulcrum.
Differential band brake – in which the tension in the band assists in applying the
brake.
2. Types of Brakes
The brakes, according to the means used for transforming the energy by the braking
element, are classified as :
1. Hydraulic brakes e.g. pumps or hydrodynamic brake and fluid agitator,
2. Electric brakes e.g. generators and eddy current brakes, and
3. Mechanical brakes.
The mechanical brakes, according to the direction of acting force, may be divided
into the following two groups :
a. Radial brakes. In these brakes, the force acting on the brake drum is in radial
direction. The radial brakes
may be sub-divided into external brakes and internal brakes. According to the shape
of the friction element,
these brakes may be block or shoe brakes and band brakes.
b. Axial brakes. In these brakes, the force acting on the brake drum is in axial
direction. The axial brakes may
be disc brakes and cone brakes. The analysis of these brakes is similar to
clutches.
P. BRAKES - LECTURE
2
The braking torque for a pivoted block or shoe brake (i.e. when 2θ > 60°) is
given by
+
=
θ θ
θ
2 2
4
2 sin
sin D
fP T
Tangential frictional force,
+
=
θ θ
θ
2 2
4
sin
sin
fP F
From the equilibrium of forces
( ) 0 = − − + Fc Pb b a A
( )
( ) c f b
b a AD f
T
′ +
+ ′
=
2
Where,
P = operating force on block in radial direction.
D = diameter of wheel.
T = torque on wheel.
θ = one-half angle of contact surface of block
b = width of wheel
f = coefficient of friction for materials of block and wheel
f’ = equivalent coefficient of friction
p = pressure between block and wheel
A = applied force to produce a particular braking force F.
( ) ( ) 0 0
2 1
= + − + = Σ b a A a F F M
o
( )( ) 1
2
− +
=
θ f
e b a D
Ta
A
For clockwise rotation, F
2
> F
1
. Exchange location of F
1
and F
2
in the figure.
b a
cF aF
A
+
−
=
1 2
θ f
e
F
F
=
2
1
Then,
−
+
= c
e
a
b a
F
A
fθ
1
Q. CLUTCHES - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Clutch – is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so
that the driven shaft may be
started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft.
Clutch – is a friction devices used to connect shafts (speeding up the driven
bodies to the same angular velocity as
the driving shaft).
2. Types of clutches
2.1 Positive clutches – are used when a positive drive is required.
Jaw clutch – permits one shaft to drive another through a direct contact of
interlocking jaws. It consists of two
halves, one of which is permanently fastened to driving shaft by a sunk
key. The other half of the clutch is
movable and it is free to slide axially on the driven shaft, but it is prevented
from turning relatively to its shaft by
means of feather key.
2.2 Friction clutches – has its principal application in the transmission of power
of shafts and machines which must
be started and stopped frequently.
Q. CLUTCHES - LECTURE
Friction radius
2 2
3 3
3
1
d D
d D
r
f
−
−
=
For worn clutch plates (uniform axial wear).
( )
f p
p
Pr f N d D
P f N
T = + =
4
Friction radius
( ) d D r
f
+ =
4
1
Where,
T = torque transmitted
N
p
= number of pairs of mating friction surfaces = 1 for single disc cluth
f = coefficient of friction
D , d = outer and inner diameter
r
f
= friction radius
6. Cone clutches
Fig. 17-7 B and A
( )
α α sin sin
f
Pr f d D P f
T =
+
=
4
( ) d D r
f
+ =
4
1
R. BEARINGS - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Bearing – a machine element which support another moving machine element. It
permits a relative motion between
the contact surfaces of the members, while carrying the load.
2. Classification of Bearings
2.1 Depending upon the direction of load to be supported
2.1.1 Radial bearings – where the load acts perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the moving element.
2.1.2 Thrust bearings - where the load acts along the axis of rotation.
2.2 Depending upon the nature of contact.
2.2.1 Sliding contact bearings – where the sliding takes place along the
surfaces of contact between the
moving element and the fixed element.
2.2.2 Rolling contact bearings – where the steel balls or rollers are interposed
between the moving and fixed
elements. The balls offer rolling friction at two points for each ball or roller.
4. Properties of Lubricants
4.1 Viscosity - is the measure of degree of fluidity of a liquid. It is a physical
property by virtue of which an oil is able
to form, retain and offer resistance to shearing a buffer film-under heat and
pressure.
The viscosity of the lubricant is measured by Saybolt universal viscometer. It
determines the time required for a
standard volume of oil at a certain temperature to flow under a certain
head through a tube of standard
diameter and length. The time so determined in seconds is the Saybolt
universal viscosity. In order to convert
Saybolt universal viscosity in seconds to absolute viscosity (centipoise), the
following formula may be used:
R. BEARINGS - LECTURE
|
¹
|
\
|
− =
S
S SG Z
180
22 0.
Where
Z = is the absolute viscosity at temperature t, centipoises
S = Saybolt Universal viscosity, sec
SG = specific gravity at temperature t
Viscosity conversion:
6.9 x 10
6
centipoises = 1 reyn = 1 lb-sec/in
2
.
4.2 Specific gravity (SG) – this property has no relation to lubricating
value but is useful in changing the kinematic
viscosity to absolute viscosity. Mathematically
Absolute viscosity in centipoises = SG x kinematic viscosity in centistokes
( ) 60 00035 0
60
− − = t SG SG
t
.
Where:
SG
t
= specific gravity at temperature t
SG
60
= specific gravity at temperature 60 F
t = temperature of oil
4.3 Viscosity index – is used to denote the degree of variation of viscosity with
temperature.
4.4 Flash point – is the lowest temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient
vapor to support a momentary flash
without actually setting fire to the oil when a flame is brought within 6 mm at the
surface of the oil.
4.5 Fire point – is the temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapor to
burn it continuously when ignited.
4.6 Pour point or freezing point – is the temperature at which oil will cease to
flow when cooled.
5.5 Minimum oil film thickness - is the minimum distance between the
bearing and the journal, under complete
lubrication condition. It is denoted by h
o
and occurs at the line of centres as shown in Fig. 26.7. Its value may be
assumed as c
d
/ 4.
R. BEARINGS - LECTURE
d
o
r
o
r
o r
r
c
h
c
h
c
h c
c
e 2
1 1 − = − =
−
= = ε
5.7 Short and long bearing.
If the ratio of the length to the diameter of the journal (i.e. L /
d) is less than 1, then the bearing is said to be
short bearing. On the other hand, if L / d is greater than 1, then the bearing is
known as long bearing.
6. Dimensional Analysis
( ) S
c
r
p
n
c
h
r
s
r
o
φ
µ
φ =
(
(
¸
(
|
|
¹
|
\
|
=
2
Coefficient of friction
( ) S
c
r
p
n
c
r
f
c
D
f
r
s
r d
φ
µ
φ =
(
(
¸
(
|
|
¹
|
\
|
= =
2
Where,
φ = is used to mean a function of
h
o
= minimum fim thickness, in.
c
r
= radial clearance, in.
cd = diametral clearance, in.
µ = absolute viscosity, reyns or lb-sec/in
2
.
n
s
= angular speed of the journal, rps
r = journal radius, in.
D = journal diameter, in.
p = unit load or bearing pressure, psi = W / (LD) = W (2rL).
L = bearing length, in.
W = bearing load, lb.
S = Sommerfield number or bearing characteristic number, dimensionless.
2 2
|
|
¹
|
\
|
=
|
|
¹
|
\
|
=
d
s
r
s
c
D
p
n
c
r
p
n
S
µ µ
7. Petroff’s Equation.
. lb in
c
Ln r
r
c
DLv
r
h
Av
Fr T
r
s
d
ips
f
− = = = =
3 2
4
2
µπ
µπ
µ
R. BEARINGS - LECTURE
The ball and roller bearings consist of an inner race which is mounted
on the shaft or journal and an outer race
which is carried by the housing or casing.
Or
[ ] Q F C F
F C F C F
x r z
z t x r e
>
+ = 56 0.
Where,
F
x
– is the radial load
F
z
– is the thrust load
C
r
– is a rotation factor (Cr = 1 for inner race rotating, Cr = 1.2 for outer race
rotating).
C
t
– is a thrust factor.
Q - is from Table 12.2 of Faires.
1. Definition
A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical
portion of the rivet is called shank or body
and lower portion of shank is known as tail. The rivets are used to make permanent
fastening between the plates
such as in structural work, ship building, bridges, tanks and boiler shells. The
riveted joints are widely used for
joining light metals.
2. Types of Riveted Joints, depending upon the way in which the plates are
connected.
2.1 Lap Joint - is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two plates
are then riveted together.
2.2 Butt joint - is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting
(i.e. touching) each other and a cover
plate (i.e. strap) is placed either on one side or on both sides of the main
plates. The cover plate is then riveted
together with the main plates.
2.2.1 Single strap butt joint - the edges of the main plates butt against each
other and only one cover plate is
placed on one side of the main plates and then riveted together.
2.2.2 Double strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against each
other and two cover plates are
placed on both sides of the main plates and then riveted together.
3. Types of riveted , joints depending upon the number of rows of the rivets.
3.1 Single riveted joint is that in which there is a single row of rivets in a lap
joint and there is a single row of rivets
on each side in a butt joint.
3.2 Double riveted joint is that in which there are two rows of rivets in a lap
joint and there are two rows of rivets on
each side in a butt joint.
Tearing resistance or pull required to tear off the plate per pitch length,
( )
t t t t t
d p A P σ σ − = =
Where,
p = Pitch of the rivets,
d = Diameter of the rivet hole,
t = Thickness of the plate, and
σ
t
= Permissible tensile stress for the plate material.
6.3 Shearing of the rivets.
Shearing resistance or pull required to shear off the rivet per pitch length,
τ
π
× × × =
2
4
d n P
s
in single shear
τ
π
× × × × =
2
4
2 d n P
s
in double shear
Where,
d = Diameter of the rivet hole,
τ = Safe permissible shear stress for the rivet material, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length.
6.4 Crushing of the plate or rivets.
Crushing resistance or pull required to crush the rivet per pitch length,
c c
t d n P σ × × × =
Where,
p = Pitch of the rivets,
t = Thickness of the plate, and
σ
t
= Permissible tensile stress of the plate material.
T. WELDED JOINTS - LECTURE
1. Definition.
Welded joint – is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of
the edges of the two parts to be joined
together, with or without the application of pressure and a filler material.
2. Welding Processes
2.1 Fusion Welding – where the parts to be jointed are held in
position while the molten metal is supplied to the
joint. The molten metal may come from the parts themselves (i.e. parent metal) or
filler metals which normally
have the composition of the parent metal. The joint surface become plastic or even
molten because of the heat
from the molten filler metal or other source. Thus, when the molten metal
solidifies or fuses, the joint is formed.
2.1.1 Thermit Welding – where a mixture of iron oxide and aluminium
called thermit is ignited and the iron
oxide is reduced to molten iron. The molten iron is poured into a mould made around
the joint and fuses
with the parts to be welded.
2.1.2 Gas Welding – is made by applying the flame of an oxy-acetylene or hydrogen
gas from a welding torch
upon the surfaces of the prepared joint. The intense heat at the white
cone of the flame heats up the
local surfaces to fusion point while the operator manipulates a welding rod to
supply the metal for the
weld. A flux is being used to remove the slag.
2.1.3 Electric Arc Welding – where the work is prepared in the same
manner as for gas welding. In this case
the filler metal is supplied by metal welding electrode. The operator, with his
eyes and face protected,
strikes an arc by touching the work of base metal with the electrode. The base
metal in the path of the
arc stream is melted, forming a pool of molten metal, which seems to be forced out
of the pool by the
blast from the arc. A small depression is formed in the base metal and
the molten metal is deposited
around the edge of this depression, which is called the arc crater. The slag is
brushed off after the joint
has cooled.
2.1.3.1 Un-shielded arc welding - When a large electrode or filler rod is used for
welding.
2.1.3.2 Shielded arc welding – the welding rods coated with solid material are
used.
2.2 Forge Welding - the parts to be jointed are first heated to a proper
temperature in a furnace or forge and then
hammered. This method of welding is rarely used now-a-days. An electric-
resistance welding is an example of
forge welding.
Case 1
2 2 2
24 4
45
3 3
bL
Fa
bL
Fa
tL
Fa .
cos
= = =
o
σ
Lb
F
Lb
F
tL
F 707 0
45 2 2
.
cos
= = =
o
τ
2 1
2
2
2
2 1
2
2
2
3
2 2
(
(
¸
(
|
¹
|
\
|
+ |
¹
|
\
|
=
(
(
¸
(
|
¹
|
\
|
+ =
tL
Fa
tL
F σ
τ τ
max
Case 2
ρ
τ
′
=
c
J
Fe
1
or
c
J
Feρ
τ
′
=
1
2
2
12
Ar
AL
J
c
+ =
Where,
J
c
= polar moment of inertia of a long slender area with respect to C.
r = is the distance between the axis O of a weld line and the axis C.
A = is the throat area = tL
A
F
=
2
τ
By cosine law
( )
2 1
2 1
2
2
2
1
2 θ τ τ τ τ τ cos
max
+ + =
( )
2 2 2
1
66 5
45
4 4
bD
M
D b
M
tD
M
π π π
σ
.
cos
= = =
o
Edge joint – is made along the edges of two or more parallel, or nearly parallel,
plates.
Plug weld – is obtained when the holes are filled or partially filled by weld metal
fusing with the second plate.
Spot weld – are resistance welds, usually round, in the same form as the electrodes
that press the sheets together;
used on thin material only.
Tack weld – is an intermittent weld, lightly done to hold members in position for
assembly purposes or for the
principal welding.
9. Other Definitions.
9.1 Arc Welding – is done either with a carbon electrode on steel
(tungsten electrode on non-ferrous) or with a
metal electrode.
9.2 Submerged arc welding – where the arc is covered with a welding
composition, and bare electrode wire is fed
automatically.
9.3 Atomic-hydrogen process – where the energy form the arc is used to break the
hydrogen molecules into atoms
rather than to melt the metal.
9.4 Fusion welds – because the metals are joined by fusion.
9.5 Resistance welding – depends upon the resistance to the flow of electricity at
the points to be joined.
9.6 Spot welding – where two electrodes press the sheets of metal together, and
at the spot where the pressure is
exerted, the resistance to the flow of current causes a heating which,
together with the pressure results in a
weld.
9.7 Seam welding – a resistance welding process where two copper rollers are used
as electrodes and if two sheets
of metal are passed between the rollers, a seam is welded where the rollers press
the sheets together.
T. WELDED JOINTS - LECTURE
5
9.8 Gas welding – where a hot flame and a metal rod are used. The oxyacetylene
process uses acetylene burned in
oxygen.
1. Materials in Manufacturing
1. Metals used in manufacturing are usually alloys, which are composed of two or
more elements, with at least one
being a metallic element.
Two Basic Groups of Metals
1.1.1 Ferrous metals – are based on iron; the group includes steel and cast iron.
1.1.2 Steel – can be defined as an iron-carbon alloy containing 0.02% -
2.11% carbon. Its composition often
includes other alloying elements as well, such as manganese, chromium,
nickel, and molybdenum, to
enhance the properties of the metal.
1.1.3 Cast-iron – is a n alloy of iron and carbon (2% - 4%) used in casting
(primarily sand casting). Silicon is also
present in the alloy (in amounts from 0.5% to 3%), and other elements are often
added also, to obtain
desirable properties in the cast part.
2. Nonferrous metals – include the other metallic elements and their
alloys. The nonferrous metals include the
pure metals and alloys of aluminum, copper, gold, magnesium, nickel,
silver, tin, titanium, zinc, and other
metals.
3. Ceramics - is defined as a compound containing metallic (or
semimetallic) and nonmetallic elements. Typical
nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Examples are clay.
Silica, alumina, silicon carbide,
alumina, tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, titanium nitride, and boron nitride.
4. Polymer – is a compound formed of repeating structural units called mers, whose
atoms share electrons to form
very large molecule. Polymers usually consist of carbon plus one or more
other elements such as hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine.
Three categories of Polymers.
4.1 Thermoplastic polymers – can be subjected to multiple heating and
cooling cycles without substantially
altering the molecular structure of the polymer. Common thermoplastics include
polyethylene, polystyrene,
polyvinylchloride, and nylon.
4.2 Thermosetting polymers – chemically transform (cure) into a rigid
structure upon cooling from a heated
plastic condition. Members of this type include phenollics, amino resins, and
epoxies.
4.3 Elastomers – are polymers that exhibit significant elastic behavior.
They include natural rubber, neoprene,
silicone, and polyurethane.
5. Composites – is a material consisting of two or more phases that
are processed separately and then bonded
together to achieve properties superior to those of its constituents.
2. Definitions.
Age hardening or precipitation hardening – occurs in some metals, notable
certain stainless steel, aluminum, and
copper alloys, at ambient temperature after solution heat treatment, the
process being one of a constituent
precipitating from a solid solution.
Free carbon – is that part of the carbon content of steel or iron that is in the
form of graphite or temper carbon.
Killed steel – is steel that has been deoxidized with a strong deoxidizing agent,
such as silicon or aluminum, in order
to eliminate a reaction between the carbon and oxygen during solidification.
Machinability – is a material’s susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling or
hammering.
Mechanical properties – are those that have to do with stress and strain.
Transverse strength – refers to the results of a transverse bend test, the specimen
being mounted as a simple beam;
also called rupture modulus.
Aging (and age hardening) – is a change in a metal by which its structure recovers
from an unstable or metastable
condition that has been produced by quenching or cold working.
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
Annealing – is a heating and slow cooling of a solid metal, usually done to soften
it.
Hardening – is the heating of certain steels above the transformation range and
then quenching, for the purpose of
increasing the hardness. In general case, hardening is any process of increasing
the hardness of a metal.
4. Hardness
Hardness – is a measure of its resistance to indentation.
Rockwell tester – is faster than the Brinell and widely used commercially, utilized
several different indenters and, in
effect measures the depth of the penetration by the indenter. Rockwell scales –
Rockwell B, Rockwell C, Rockwell A,
Rockwell D, and Rockwell A.
5
Vickers tester – has a square-base, diamond pyramid indenter, and the
VIckets number Is the load in kilograms
divided by the impressed area in square millimeters.
Steel SAE
Plain carbon 10XX
Free cutting 11XX
Manganese 13XX
Boron 14XX
Nickel 2XXX
Nickel-chromium 3XXX
Heat and corrosion resistant 303XX
Molybdenum 4XXX
Molybdenum-chromium 41XX
Molybdenum-chromium-nickel 43XX
Molybdenum-nickel 46XX
Molybdenum-chromium-nickel 47XX
Molybdenum-nickel 48XX
Chromium 5XXX
Heat and corrosion resistant 514XX and 515XX
Chromium-vanadium 6XXX
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum 8XXX
Silicon-manganese 92XX
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum (except 92XX) 9XXX
6
6. Alloy Steel
Wrought alloy steel – is steel that contains significant quantities of
recognized alloying metals, the most common
being aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel,
phosphorus, silicon, titanium,
tungsten, and vanadium.
Classification of alloys.
1. Low-alloy structural steels (not heat treated).
2. Low-carbon alloy steels (0.10 – 0.25% C)
3. Medium-carbon alloy steels (0.25 – 0.50% C)
4. High-carbon alloy steels (0.50 – 0.70% C)
5. High alloy steels, such as stainless steels
7. Hardenability
Hardenability – is the capacity of steel to through-harden when cooled from above
its transformation range.
8. Case Hardening
Case Hardening of iron base alloys – is a process of surface hardening
whereby the surface or case is substantially
harder than the core or inside metal. Case hardening is done by
carburizing, cyaniding, nitriding, carbonitriding,
induction hardening, and flame hardening.
1. Carburizing – is a process of adding carbon to the surface steel by exposing it
to hot carbonaceous solids, liquids,
or gases – above the transformation temperature.
8.1.1 Pack (or box) carburizing – the part is heated in contact with solid
carburizing compounds of various
constituents, including charcoal, burned bone, charred leather, tar, and
barium, sodium, and
calcium carbonates, especially barium carbonate and charcoal.
8.1.2 Gas carburizing – the part is heated in carburizing gases, such as methane,
ethane, propane, and CO.
8.1.3 Liquid carburizing – the part is immersed in a molten salt bath
that imparts a case similar to that
obtained with gas or pack carburizing except that the case is thinner.
2. Cyaniding – is accomplished by immersing the part in a hot (about
1550 F) liquid salt bath, sodium cyanide
(NaCN) being a common medium in both processes.
U. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - LECTURE
9. Work Hardening
Work hardening – is the result of a metal being stresses at some point
into its plastic range, usually ordinary
temperatures (certainly below recrystallization temperature).
19. Plastics
Thermosetting – which undergo chemical change and harden on being heated, usually
under pressure.
Thermoplastic – which soften as the temperature rises and remain soft in the heated
state.
1. Definition.
Machine shop practice – consists of certain mechanical principles that
are a part of all machine shop work
everywhere such as the principle of cutting tools, cutting speeds and
feeds, actions of gears, screws, cams, etc.,
applied in the construction of certain machines and tools and in the various
machine operations; that is the method
of holding and doing work.
Machine shop – is a room or space with sidings and roofs where metal
parts are cut to size required and put
together to form mechanical units or machine.
- End -
6. Destructive Testing
Destructive testing - a process where materials can be randomly tested
by actual destruction of a work piece for
examination.
6.1 Tensile test – a test specimen is cut-out from the work piece and stretched to
failure.
6.2 Bending test – a test specimen is cut-out from the work piece and bended 90
deg to 180 deg.
6.3 Sectioning – the weld joint is cut by hacksaw along the centerline of the weld
to allow visual examination of
the weld.
7. Non-Destructive Testing
Non-Destructive Testing – a process wherein weld examination is done without
destroying the material.
7.1 Dye Penetrant Examination – this determine surface cracks and porosities which
may not be readily seen.
7.2 Hardness Testing – a method of determining the hardness of the weld
more particularly the heat affected
zone.
7.3 Magnetic Particle Testing – uses electrical current to create a magnetic field
in a specimen with the magnetic
particles (iron powders) indicating where the field is broken by discontinuities
such as cracks in the material.
7.4 Radiographic Examination – employs radioactive isotopes such as
Cobalt-60, Iridium-192, Thulium-170, or
Cesium-137 and radiographic films.
7.5 X-ray Examination – essentially the same with radiographic examination
except only on the source of
radiation. This utilized electricity powered X-ray machine that generate ionizing
radiation.
7.6 Ultrasonic Examination – utilizes ultrasounds that penetrate most common
materials. The time of rebound
of ultrasounds from the probe which is pressed on one side of the
material to the other side or any
discontinuity is converted to unit of linear measure.
8. Air Pollution Control Equipment for collecting particulate matter (smoke, dust,
fumes, mists, etc.)
8.1 Inertial separators – used for collecting medium and coarse size particulates.
8.2 Centrifugal separators – where the tangential inflow tube or cyclone
separators are normally suitable for
medium size (15 to 40 microns) and coarse size particulates while the
axial flow inversion type or multiple
cyclone separators are effective in collecting particulates in the 5 to 15 microns
range.
8.3 Rinsing or wet collection device – these devices include spray-type,
cyclone type, orifice-type, mechanical
venture-type, jet-type, and packed tower scrubbers.
8.4 Filtration devices – have a high collection efficiency for sub-micron size
particulates.
8.5 Electrostatic precipitators – suitable for the collection of a wide variety of
dust and fumes.
8.6 Gravitational precipitators – used as pre-cleaners to remove coarse and
abrasive particulates to protect and
augment the main dust collectors.
9. Air Pollution Control Equipment for the collection of a wide gaseous and vapor
emission.
9.1 Adsorption equipment – the absorbent selectively capture or remove gases or
liquids from dirty gas streams
even at very small concentrations.
9.2 Absorption equipment – by using selective liquids solvents, one or more
constituents of a gas stream can be
removed or covered.
9.3 Afterburners – combustion converts the combustible constituents of a gas
stream into carbon and water.
9.4 Vapor condensers – by extracting heat or increasing pressure, vapor
condensation is achieved.
W. MANUFACTURING PROCESS - LECTURE