2.

008x

Thermoforming
MIT 2.008x

Prof. John Hart

 2.008x

What thermoformed object(s)

have you used already today?
What is thermoforming
(process definition)? 2.008x

à Forming a sheet (typically a

thermoplastic) by applying heat
then pressure against a mold.

Figure 13.37 from Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)" by

Groover. (c) John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010).
Vacuum thermoforming
(vacuum forming, vacuforming) 2.008x

http://formech.com/product/508fs/

Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BqV_jsxD0UA

 2.008x
How is thermoforming
similar to injection molding?
à Both use heat and pressure
to shape thermoplastics.

How are thermoformed parts

different from injection
molded parts?
à Thermoformed parts are
typically thinner, and have less
complex shapes then injection
molded parts.
à The dimensional quality
(corners, edges) and
tolerances of thermoformed
parts are lower than injection
molded parts.
Agenda:
Thermoforming 2.008x

§ Basic equipment and process

configurations
§ Polymer mechanics during
thermoforming
§ Rate-limiting steps of
thermoforming
§ The process window and
design rules
§ Conclusion

Extra: Other polymer forming

processes
 2.008x

Thermoforming:

2. Process and
equipment basics
Lego baseplates
2.008x
Lego baseplates
2.008x
Lego IM vs TF comparison
2.008x
The MIT 150 2.008 YoYo
2.008x
2.008x
Thermoforming in the MIT shop
2.008x
Thermoforming in the MIT shop
2.008x
Thermoforming in the MIT shop
2.008x

Heater (also one above)

Clamps

Sheet

Die (custom)
2.008x
What is different about this part?
(hint: look at the surface features)
2.008x
 2.008x

Pressure
thermoforming Clamps

Mechanical
thermoforming

Figures 13.36, 13.39 from Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition) by Groover. (c)
John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010)
 2.008x

Thermoforming:

3. Polymer mechanics
during thermoforming
How does the polymer stress-strain curve change
with temperature? 2.008x
à Recall from IM: Glass transition and softening

Increasing temperature
Break ≈Tg

Yield

Figure 9.5 from Understanding Thermoforming (Second Edition) by J.L Throne. (c) Hanser, 2008.
Temperature-dependent modulus of
thermoplastic 2.008x
à Recall from IM: Glass transition and softening

Figure 9.1 from Understanding Thermoforming (Second Edition) by J.L Throne. (c) Hanser, 2008.
Implication: thermoforming
temperature range 2.008x

“Not too hot, not too cold.

Increasing temperature Just right.”

Forming range

Figure 9.6 from Understanding Thermoforming by J.L Throne. (c) Hanser, 2008.
Demo: Stretching a thermoplastic
2.008x

Heat

Heat

Pull
Where is the strain greatest?
2.008x

Figure 13.37 Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th

Edition) by Groover. (c) John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010).
Where is the strain greatest?
2.008x
 2.008x
R = 0.310 mm
0.394 mm

0.423 mm
0.290 mm

0.199 mm

0.154 mm

0.164 mm R = 0.201 mm
Generally, areas that touch the mold last
are thinnest 2.008x

THICK AREAS

THIN CORNERS
AND EDGES
The area that stretched
the most to reach the
bottom is the thinnest.
R = 0.310 mm

0.394 mm

0.423 mm
0.290 mm

0.199 mm

0.154 mm

0.164 mm R = 0.201 mm
Simulation of TF (ANSYS): predicts strain and
thickness distribution 2.008x

“For thermoforming a medical device package”

from http://www.ansys.com/Industries/Materials+&+Chemical+Processing/Polymer+Processing/Thermoforming

(left) finite element mesh automatically refined to capture mold curvature details
(right) predicted thickness distribution
 2.008x

Thermoforming:

4. Rate limits and

continuous
processing
What limits the rate of thermoforming?
2.008x

§ Heating (à radiative transfer)

§ Stretching (à viscoelasticity)
§ Cooling (à contact with cold mold; see IM analysis)
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQ-s1BILiag
Radiative heating (infrared)
2.008x

Images from: http://heraeus-thermal-solutions.com/media/en/webmedia_local/media/pdfs/ir_basics_and_technology2014.pdf

 2.008x

0.2 mm thickness

Images from: http://heraeus-thermal-solutions.com/media/en/webmedia_local/media/pdfs/ir_basics_and_technology2014.pdf

Radiative heating of a plastic sheet
2.008x

Lamp

Substrate
(to be formed)
h = thickness [m]
r = density [kg/m3]
cp = specific heat [J/kg-K]
a = total absorption coefficient of substrate [unitless]
plamp = lamp power [W/m2]
DT = temperature rise [K]
Radiative heating of a plastic sheet
DT = 250 K 2.008x
h = 1 mm
r = 1200 kg/m3 Lamp
cp = 1200 J/kg-K

Substrate
(to be formed)

ρ hc p
theat = ΔT
aplamp

h = thickness [m]
r = density [kg/m3]
cp = specific heat [J/kg-K]
a = total absorption coefficient
of substrate [unitless]
plamp = lamp power [W/m2]
DT = temperature rise [K]
 2.008x

Images from: http://heraeus-thermal-solutions.com/media/en/webmedia_local/media/pdfs/ir_basics_and_technology2014.pdf

A continuous TF + packaging system (Ulma)
2.008x

Image from http://www.ulmapackaging.com/packaging-machines/thermoforming-and-blister/tfs-700

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qC5KFpNnR_4
 2.008x

Thermoforming:

5. Process window
and design guidelines
The thermoforming process window (P, T)
2.008x

Figure 9.8 from Understanding Thermoforming by J.L Throne. (c) Hanser, 2008.
Pressure and temperature ranges (for
pressure-controlled forming) 2.008x

Table 9.1 from Understanding Thermoforming (Second Edition) by J.L Throne. (c) Hanser, 2008.
Thermoforming strains
x2 2.008x
Biaxial stretch ratio
L2
L0 L1
x1

Draw ratio
λ1/ λ2 = 1.28
~ 2.03 λ1 = 1.50

5 cm

λ1/ λ2 = 1.87
λ1 = 2.33
10 cm
λ1/ λ2 = 4.01
λ1 = 5.17
8 cm

Note, that DR = 1 for the sheet material λ1/ λ2 = 4.73

prior to forming λ1 = 4.33
Areal draw ratios
2.008x

Figure 9.11 and Table 9.2 from Understanding Thermoforming (2nd Edition) by Throne. (c) Hanser, 2008.
Additional TF design guidelines
§ Avoid sharp corners in mold (R 2.008x
~2*thickness) or greater.
§ Use draft angle if possible.
Poor Design
§ No undercuts (unless multi-part tooling)!
Draft angle: ¼°min for female tooling
1°for male tooling
§ When you want to simplify mold making,
sharp corners are OK but beware of tearing. t
R
§ For thin plastic, areal draw ratios >2:1 R = 2*t or greater
require careful optimization and suffer non- Good Design
uniformity.
Additional TF design guidelines
§ Avoid sharp corners in mold (R 2.008x
~2*thickness) or greater.
§ Use draft angle if possible.
Poor Design
§ No undercuts (unless multi-part tooling)!
Draft angle: ¼°min for female tooling
1°for male tooling
§ When you want to simplify mold making,
sharp corners are OK but beware of tearing. t
R
§ For thin plastic, areal draw ratios >2:1 R = 2*t or greater
require careful optimization and suffer non- Good Design
uniformity.

Higher temperature: still cannot draw Even higher temperature:

deep teeth; non-uniformity results tearing
Positive versus negative mold
2.008x
Comparison of surface profiles
Positive mold 2.008x

Negative mold
Pre-stretching to reduce thickness
variation 2.008x

Figure 13.38 from Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition) by Groover. (c) John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WJlXdb2zA0k
Large TF tooling: car door panels
2.008x
 2.008x

Thermoforming:

6. Conclusion
 What’s new (and coming soon)?
§ Bio-derived and biodegradable plastics 2.008x

§ Formable fiber materials

§ Paper (complex product packaging)
§ Carbon fiber (dream of auto industry)

For examples see:

§ http://vegware.com
§ http://www.billerudkorsnas.com/fibreform
§ http://www.darpa.mil/program/tailorable-feedstock-and-forming
Reflection: the big four
2.008x
Injection Molding Thermoforming

Rate High Greater (parts/time)

Quality Good Less

Cost Low (at high volume) Less ($/part, especially at

lower volume)

Flexibility Low (tooling cost high) Less: fewer shapes

Greater: lower tooling cost
 2.008x

Thermoforming:

7. Other polymer
Processes
How were these parts made?
2.008x

Image © Concept Sales Inc.

Polymer processing overall
2.008x
TP = thermoplastic
TS = thermoset
E = elastomer
Plastic bottles
Plastic bags
à Same physics,
different machine
and product format

Figure 19.1 from Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)
Blow molding of plastic bottles
2.008x

Images: http://designtekplastics.com/tips/injection-molding-vs-blow-molding/, http://dtresource.com/images/what-is-stretch-blow-

molding-300x210.jpg, http://dongkong.en.ec21.com/500ml_water_bottle_blow_mold--4844865_4844892.html
Figure 13.32 from Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)
Blow molding of plastic bottles
2.008x

Images: http://designtekplastics.com/tips/injection-molding-vs-blow-molding/, http://dtresource.com/images/what-is-stretch-blow-

molding-300x210.jpg, http://dongkong.en.ec21.com/500ml_water_bottle_blow_mold--4844865_4844892.html
Figure 13.32 from Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)
Continuous Rotating molds
Melt/Extruder
process! (Like an IM machine) 2.008x

§ 0.08 - 0.5 L containers

(e.g., PP, HDPE)
§ Multimold wheel system
(18-60 cavities)
§ Production rates of 7,500 -
30,000 bottles per hour
(500kg/h)!

Video of the machine: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-eW2lrxrq0

Diagram and data from http://www.wilmingtonmachinery.com/media/pdf/small_bottle_insert.pdf
How are trash bags made?
2.008x
Blown film extrusion
2.008x

Figure 13.16, Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)

 2.008x

Figure 13.16, Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)

Picture: https://www.hosokawa-alpine.com/film-extrusion/blown-film-lines/
 2.008x

Figure 13.16, Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)

https://www.hosokawa-alpine.com/film-extrusion/blown-film-lines/
https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/61uTRra5KkL.jpg
Rotational molding
(‘Rotomolding’) 2.008x

Fig. 19.15, Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Videos: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0_l269cPvQ, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b619f-0QhEs
References
2.008x
1 Introduction

Photo of Lunch Tray © St. Louis County, Minnesota.

Photo of ATV by Vesa Minkkinen on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.

Photo of Fruit Container by Vedat Zorluer on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.

Photo of Refrigerator by US Consumer Product Safety Commission. This work is in the public domain.

Positive Mold Vacuum Thermoforming: Figure 13.37 from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)"
by Groover. © Wiley (2010).

Image of Formech 508FS © Formech International Ltd. 2016. All Rights Reserved.

2 Process Equipment Basics

Positive Pressure Thermoforming: Figure 13.36 from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)" by
Groover. © Wiley (2010).

Mechanical Thermoforming: Figure 13.39 from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)" by
Groover. © Wiley (2010).
References
2.008x
3 Polymer Mechanics

Stress-Strain vs. Temperature: Figure 9.5 from "Understanding Thermoforming (2nd Edition)" by Throne. ©
Hanser, 2008.

Elastic Modulus vs. Temperature: Figure 9.1 from "Understanding Thermoforming (2nd Edition)" by Throne. ©
Hanser, 2008.

Stress-Strain vs. Temperature: Figure 9.6 from "Understanding Thermoforming (2nd Edition)" by Throne. ©
Hanser, 2008.

Book Cover: Denslow's "Three Bears" (1901) on read.gov: Library of Congress. This work is in the public
domain.

Positive Mold Vacuum Thermoforming: Figure 13.37 from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)"
by Groover. © Wiley (2010).

Image of ANSYS Simulation © 2016 ANSYS, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

4 Rate Limits

Videos of Thermoforming and Sealing Packaging © ULMA Packaging, S.Coop.

Images of Infrared Heating Process and Equipment © 2016 Heraeus Holding

Video of TFS 700 Thermoforming Machine © ULMA Packaging, S.Coop.

References
2.008x
5 Process Window

Stress-Strain vs. Temperature: Figure 9.8 from "Understanding Thermoforming (2nd Edition)" by Throne. ©
Hanser, 2008.

Draw Ratio Diagram: Figure 9.11 from "Understanding Thermoforming (2nd Edition)" by Throne. © Hanser,
2008.

Draw Ratios: Table 9.2 from "Understanding Thermoforming (2nd Edition)" by Throne. © Hanser, 2008.

Video of Presuction © 2011-2015 EPW LLC

Thermoforming with Prestretch: Figure 13.38 from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)" by
Groover. © Wiley (2010).

Image of Automotive Doors: © 2011-2015 EPW LLC

6 Conclusion

Image of Carbon Fiber Manufacturing © Hearst Communications, Inc.

Images of Paper Products © BillerudKorsnas AB

References
2.008x
7 Bonus

Photo of Drinking Straws by User: Alexas_Fotos (Alexandra) via Pixabay CC0. This work is in the public
domain.

Photo of Water Bottles by User: PublicDomainPictures via Pixabay CC0. This work is in the public domain.

Photo of Kayaks by User: vonpics via Pixabay CC0. This work is in the public domain.

Photo of Trash Bag by User: cocoparisienne (Anja) via Pixabay CC0. This work is in the public domain.

Photo of American Football by User: Hans (Hans Braxmeier) via Pixabay CC0. This work is in the public
domain.

Photo of Disposable Cup by User: rodrigolourenco (Rodrigo Lourenço) via Pixabay CC0. This work is in the
public domain.

Photo of Sprayer Tanks © Copyright 2016. Den Hartog Industries, Inc.

Polymer Processing Overview: Figure 19.1 from Title: Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition);
Authors: Serope Kalpakjian, Steven Schmid; © Prentice Hall; (2013);
Blow Molding: Figure 13.32 from Title: Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing; Author: Mikell P. Groover;
Publisher: Wiley; 4 edition (2010); ISBN: 978-0470-467002
References
2.008x
Image of Bottle Blow Mold: Copyright ©1997-2016 EC21 Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Photo of Injection Molded Parisons © Steven Daly. All Rights Reserved.

Photo of Blow Molded Bottles ©2015 Design-tek Tool and Plastics Inc.

Image of Blow Molding Machine © Wilmington Machinery.

Image of Blow Molding Machine in Operation © Wilmington Machinery.

Blow Film Extrusion: Figure 13.16 from Title: Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing; Author: Mikell P. Groover;
Publisher: Wiley; 4 edition (2010); ISBN: 978-0470-467002

Photo of Blow Film Extrusion Process © HOSOKAWA ALPINE Aktiengesellschaft. All Rights Reserved.

Images of Hefty Garbage Bags © 1996-2016, Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates

Rotomolding: Figure 19.15 from Title: Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (6th Edition); Authors: Serope
Kalpakjian, Steven Schmid; Publisher: Prentice Hall; 6 edition (January, 2009); ISBN-13: 9780136081685

Video of Rotational Molding Machine © Reinhardt Rotomachines

Video of Unmolding Rotational Molded Tank © Reinhardt Rotomachines