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74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?tz : 9g| A G J O 7. 1
RC y
vvvvvv G JGQGO , p ? |R y B < D y Q <9 g y :9
vvv vvv +"
vvv vvv vvv G vvv G ( vvv vvv Gh I vvv vvv vvv G J A
vvv G 8. 1
79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y RL vvv Gh
80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y RC vvv G JGQGO 1.8. 1
83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |Ry B<9Dy ," G G 2.8. 1
84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y RL vvv G JGQGO 3.8. 1
87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Y; B G 9. 1
88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hh " CG Q + G JGQGO : 9 A 9 Ay P9DyG {ZqyG

99 ~ Ot @
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 1. 2
101 ? = h < Ay
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + +@ G G ( G 2. 2
103 ay f9gWy { zJAy

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jQ ( G , G + G 1.2. 2
# | { w y a y 9 g W y 9 g 9 } < 9 s; g y
vv vv vv jQ ( vv vv G Y vv vv vv Gh J vv !
vv vv C #+ G vv J vv vv vv G 2.2. 2
108 ^ QJAy ?gTy ?| 9t

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * Gh Gh h C G
112 ? y =t y
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + ( G 3.2. 2
JGOO Q A y Q Q K VQ | ? y9 g y Q A y Q Q K VQ |
vv vv G * E
vv vv vv vv h + vv vv G JGOO vv vv G * E
vv vv vv vv 3. 2
112 ?]qM
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "C G
14
113 9JVQ|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RC J 1.3. 2
115 ? y9gy QAy Q Q}Ay KVQ|

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G JGOO G * RC 2.3. 2
116 9JVQ|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RL J 3.3. 2
116 ? y9gy QAy Q Q}Ay KVQ|

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G JGOO G * RL 4.3. 2
118 ?|R Q Q 9JVQ| ay

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A G * E J h _" G 4. 2
118 ? zTzTAy ay
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G _" G JGQGO 1.4. 2
121 ? fQqAy ay
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G _" G JGQGO 2.4. 2
125 ?|R Qf
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . {|9f A G V h IO (@ G 3.4. 2
JGOO QAy v v9 A 9 Ay
G JGQGOh p ?f9aAS: Hh " C
v v G Q +
v v v G JGQGO , v v v v v G 5. 2
131 ? Qy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *(* OG G
132 aS y ?f9aAS:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) ( G G 1.5. 2
) aS y ? g <QAy ? } ty P F ? y9gqy ? } ty
vvvvv vv (
vv G +
vvvvv vvvvv +
vv vv vv G vvvvv +
vv vv vv G Q vvvvv hC vvvvv vv vv vv G vvvvv vv +vv vv G 2.5. 2
134 ?f9aAS: 9<9TI p

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G J ,
137 ?f9aAS: {|9f

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 3.5. 2
142 ?g 9} ?tp | : J
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! C G G ( h J ( C G 6. 2
143 9D J ?y9 Ty ? a< Q@

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ C G d (
x
C Gh + G + G 1.6. 2
150 9g 9} {
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J ! C G *(; 2.6. 2
152 ?Y;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G 7. 2
153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
163 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O(* v G J Oy +
9t =a@ : G
Ey9Dy {Zqy G
163 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ Ot @ * 1. 3
164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ t Ay *( G 2. 3
164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ }gy Oy 9D OyG O (*

v
Gh [ C G O (*
v
G 1.2. 3
165 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?F rZ t| (C G ! e
x
( 2.2. 3
167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?z|9wy ?F ~ t@ G (C G *( 3.2. 3
15
168 9| t 9JVQ|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J
x
( C G J
x
4.2. 3
170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K VQAy Og< ? t=A 9FQgAy O F

+ G + C G J
w
G % 5.2. 3
173 O rf9]|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . %@ G
p
6.2. 3
173 b}ty [ty

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
r
Gh G JGQGO 3. 3
174 [ty
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 1.3. 3
174 OJ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JGO
x
C G 2.3. 3
176 b}ty
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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178 Q O< O ~ d @
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !
n
p
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n
%@ G + " 4. 3
182 9 p ~wJA 9| t
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . %+
v
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x
( C G 5. 3
182 ~ Ot @
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 1.5. 3
183 p ~wJA t [ 9ZL

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &+
v
C G e
x
( C G F 2.5. 3
188 ?Y;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G 6. 3
189 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
v
193 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "G
?zs9 y rZ ! JGQ(ASR!GQAyGh JGO(*OyG : GG
h< Qy {Zqy G
193 ~ Ot @
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 1. 4
194 . {s y 9Z p 9 QAwy
G (" G a tDy9< 9 Ay {t
! C , J ! h Gh H ( Q + G ! 2. 4
194 ? t y {s y 9Z
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + " G ("
G G a ! C 1.2. 4
197 ?< W {s y 9Z
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( C G ("
G G a ! C 2.2. 4
198 Q 9 QAwy
. . . . . . . . . . I A{s y 9Z
G J ! h G JGP ("
G G a ! C 3.2. 4
199 Q tDy {s y 9Z
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . I A G H ( G JGP ("
G G a !
C 1.3.2. 4
199 ?< W {s y 9Z p ? zs9 y

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( C G G (" G a ! ,
C + " G 4.2. 4
202 Oy ?zY y {s9 y rZ ?zY

. . . . . . . . . . . (*
O
v
Gh ) pn ( G( " G ! h 3. 4
205 |9| 9 J :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , } G R + ! G 1.3. 4
207 Twgy 9 J :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , G R + ! G 2.3. 4
16
208 t ?y 9g|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e
x
( C G O 3.3. 4
211 ASR QAy ? zY y

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q ( ! G Gh pn ( G 4. 4
211 ? =aty ? 9 Dy ?zY y ASR Q@

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G + F " G ( G Q ( ! G 1.4. 4
217 t gq ASR Q@
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ A G d ( C G Q ( ! G 2.4. 4
221 { JAy [ 9ZL

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *( G F 3.4. 4
222 QL t gq ASR Q@
. . . . . . . . . . . i } \ A G G d ( C G Q( ! G YG (! C 4.4. 4
ASR QAy ~M]

x
223 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jQ ( ! G G C G 5. 4
~M] QY9 f
x
224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C G " 1.5. 4
226 ? S9S ? } }Z@ 9=Af

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + C + + JGQ G 2.5. 4
QAW Ef9=y ~M]|

x
n
227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c C G G 3.5. 4
f 9Azqy |? 9}
vvvv vvvv
n
Py 9 J : ~ }Z@
vvvv
n
vvvv G #
vvvv *
vvvv vvvv A
vvvv Gh O G vvvv G R +
vvvv vvvv !
vvvv G +
vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv 4.5. 4
231 Q
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jQG A G
235 B<9C 9 A< 9 J :

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q + R + ! G 5.5. 4
9}M]| t gq ASR Q@ 9}gAS k

x
236 . . . . . . . \ A G d ( C G Q ( ! G d G 6.5. 4
239 ? 9 =y ?t Qay
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +! + G * G 7.5. 4
239 {}gy ?at O OJAy > QtAy ?t Q_

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G ! * * G * 8.5. 4
242 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASR QAy 9 J MOSFET JGQ ( ! G G R + ! G 9.5. 4
242 9 J : ?| 9t| >=T< K<Qy 9qM

. . . . . . . . . . . . R + ! G h G V ! G 10.5. 4
246 ^ Ay 9| 9=Af
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * z Q Gh f } G JGQ G 6. 4
248 ? yR ? 9<Q wy O O}Ay

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + "C G + F % G JG * G 1.6. 4
250 ?Y;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G 7. 4
251 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
x
259 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? z}gy + GJ 9}M] CG JGQGO : BG {ZqyG
U|9
259 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|Ot| 1. 5
9D ~M]
x
261 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ C G C G 2. 5
17
Q jZy 9V 9}M]|
x
265 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I + G JGQ G J 3. 5
265 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zy Q jZy 9V
FET vvv } I + G IQ G LP ( ! 1.3. 5
270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zy Q jZy 9V
BJT vvv } I + G IQ G LP ( ! 2.3. 5
9}M] ? 9t|
x
278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J C G ! Q 3.3. 5
280 {= T Oy9< K<Qy Q Ot@

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + * G * 4. 5
? QAy ~M] ?<9GAS

x
282 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * OO G C
G G 5. 5
283 . . . . . . . . . . . . .?]qM QAy O f K<Qy 9Zt

"C
G JGOO G " G f ! 1.5. 5
287 ? y9gy QAy O f K<Qy 9Zt

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G JGOO G " G f ! 2.5. 5
290 ? zwy ? QAy ?<9GAS:

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G * OO G G 3.5. 5
292 9AAy f ~ M]@

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ G {Y ^ + JGQGO h 4.5. 5
9]= y 9}M]| ? |Ry ?<9GAS:

x
293 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J " G J h +" G G 6. 5
293 p ?zTzS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & +* ( Q 1.6. 5
9]= y 9}M]|
x
295 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J " G J 2.6. 5
296 gZy O|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O ( G I 3.6. 5
O Ay
x
298 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ G 4.6. 5
?g<Q ?F 9}gAS9< ~M] 9=AL

x
299 . . . . . . . . . . . C G (C G d C G Q G 5.6. 5
300 ?f9aAS: 9}M]|

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G J 7. 5
J ?8qy ~M]| x x
300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d ( C G hP A G 1.7. 5
?8qy | P hpOy 9}M]|

x
305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G # H @ Gh G J 2.7. 5
?|9AA ?8qy 9}M]|

x
308 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C B G G J 3.7. 5
312 9a { OgAy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ Qy {=tAT
C G * G hP j (* OG G
p
C
G 8. 5
315 ? Qy QAy ?zIQ|

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *(* OG G JGOO G 1.8. 5
316 9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LR C
G 2.8. 5
321 ? @ Zy QAy ~ M]@

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + ( G JGOO G + 3.8. 5
18
322 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j (* Qy {=tAT ?Y;L
OG G C G 4.8. 5
322 ?Y;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G 9. 5
325 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
x
333 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J+ GJ 9 z}gy 9}M]| : SO G9Ty {Zqy G
333 ?|Ot|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 6
9D ~M] 9 z}gy ~M]|

x x
334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ C G C Gh J + G 2. 6
Uv9gy ~M]
x
335 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G C
G 1.2. 6
Uv9gy Q i ~M]
x
339 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G + C
G 2.2. 6
341 K<Qy OI y { 9 O h< @

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G j G ( G F A Gh %@ G G ( 3. 6
343 . . . . . . . . ? zC9}Ay ? }sQy :O=

+ G + ay h|G J C Gh MQG ( Gh G (@ G 4. 6
\9qAy ~M]
x
346 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ G C G 5. 6
9D 9< }gy \9qAy ~M] ? 9t|

x
348 . . . . . . . . . . . . [ C \ G \ G C G ! Q 1.5. 6
351 {L OAy 9V
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G G JGQ E 2.5. 6
~A 9i zy {|9wAy {\9qAy 9}M]|

x
356 . . . . . . . . . . . * Q ( Gh Gh G J 6. 6
360 ?y9gqy 9JVQ

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
G J C G 7. 6
363 }sQy C9}Ay O= 9t

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , G \ G d
x
C
Gh fQ C G 8. 6
363 9t
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fQ C
G 1.8. 6
364 }sQy C9}Ay O=

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , G \ G d C
G 2.8. 6
366 C9}Ay S9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ G H ( A G 9. 6
370 ?Y;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G 10. 6
373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
379 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? }sQy + G J +!h 9 QAwy G: G

h<9Ty {Zqy G
379 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?|Ot| 1. 7
19
379 }sQy 9gy9< 9}A : ~ y
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? , G D
n
e $ G
n
p
1.1. 7
380 C9}Ay 9gy p ? }sQy 9V

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ G
n
D G , + G J GQ G 2.1. 7
382 ? }sQy 9V { D
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G IQ G + E 2. 7
384 {TzTA ua g }GAy ua

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C G "C Gh , + G "C G 1.2. 7
384 g }GAy ua
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , + G "C
G 3. 7
385 Q ty ?< <

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AND fG G G ( 1.3. 7
386 ?< <

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OR RG (@ G G ( 2.3. 7
387 q y ?< <

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NOT , " G G ( 3.3. 7
Q ty q ?< < NAND fG G , ! G ( 4.3. 7
390 q ?< <

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NOR RG (@ , ! G G ( h
391 9 y =y Q =
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P + ( G @ G 5.3. 7
397 g }GAy ua
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , + G "C G JGQGO 4. 7
397 h|9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . @ G JGQGO 1.4. 7
397 h|9 rZ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . @ G ! 2.4. 7
399 {|9wy h|9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G @ G 3.4. 7
R |QAy 9wwq| R|Q

x
x
401 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G J h JG C G 4.4. 7
404 h_9t ? f9=S 9 c ?I y

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C G + Q % E ( 5.4. 7
405 {TzTA ua
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C G "C G JGQGO 5. 7
406 Qv Py QZ f ;ty
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I G G " :H
v
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408 ?f9Ty 9<;ty

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G JGP J
q
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408 . . . . . ?8 Ay Q qZAy h| ?f9Ty

+% Gh + G 9<;ty G JGP RS J
q
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G % M G J
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4.5. 7
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D + z G H
q
5.5. 7
411 z L O Q L Ay ; s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JK #+ C G hP + z G H
q
6.5. 7
414 ?I ;GS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GR G J 7.5. 7
20
\TzTAy {LOy ?I G G {GS
hP GR G 8.5. 7
415 fQqAy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q , G L B Gh
,fQqAy {LOy ?I G G {GS

hP GR G 9.5. 7
417 TzTAy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q \ G L B Gh
421 QWgy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ogy j G OG G 10.5. 7
423 ? | RA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ogy
" G C
G JGOG G 11.5. 7
426 Qv Py
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I G G 6. 7
428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ( FG Wgy 9q y Qv ? zL
G P " G I GP + 1.6. 7
429 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ( Wgy 9q y Qv
FG G P " G I GP 2.6. 7
431 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R |QAy xp + G 3.6. 7
432 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 C OI R |QAy xp
O + G G + G 4.6. 7
432 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . btp Qty Qv IAG G I GP 5.6. 7
433 ?Y;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G 7. 7
434 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
443 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,}sQyG H(S9AG : #|9DyG {ZqyG

443 ?|Ot|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 8
445 RM H|9 Q=y q| S9 s

. . . . . . . . . . . . . fh C G ! G e (% :H ( A G I ( 2. 8
446 ? =S ~ z f
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A G 1.2. 8
? QjZy > S 9 9g 9}wJA

x
446 . . . . . . * G + G (A Gh J @ C Gh J CG 2.2. 8
449 ? Q=y 9jy S9 h| {Y Ay

. . . . . . . . . . . . H G J :H ( A G G ( G 3.2. 8
452 S9 QY9 f
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H ( A G " 3. 8
453 ? RvQ ? 9g OI
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * C G @ C G I h 1.3. 8
454 ?f9Ty
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 2.3. 8
456 Wgy 9q y Qv
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ( FG G P " G I GP 3.3. 8
459 btp Qty Qv

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IAG G I GP 4.3. 8
21
460 { Y Ay 9 F
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G ( G J % Gh 5.3. 8
463 9g_9t
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J C G 6.3. 8
464 ? C; Dy 9 T
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G jQ C G 7.3. 8
K @9q ?I y >zZy Qty 9 a J

+ C G ( h G U G :J + + C G 8.3. 8
470 ?g<9ay ?V9Wy

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eO (C Gh Gh Gh
479 9 ty R F 9T|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S + G I % C jQ 9.3. 8
482 ? RvQ ? 9g OI
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * C G @ C
G I h 4. 8
487 Qv Py ? f ? QWf ?ATy Of

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I G G !(" h * G OG } G 5. 8
487 ? QWf ?ATy Of

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * G OG } G 1.5. 8
490 Q v Py ? f
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I G G !(" 2.5. 8
499 ? <9 Qv Py
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + B G I G G 3.5. 8
501 { jWAy ~d
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G ! 6. 8
9T 9}wJA
x
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513 { jWAy 9d QtAS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G e ! QG G 2.6. 8
515 ?w=Wy S9I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G H ( 3.6. 8
517 ?Y;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G 7. 8
518 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
523 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +
? }sQy GJ 9| d ( "C G : G
hS9Ay {Zqy G
523 ?|Ot|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 9
523 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H ( S9 ? }sQy :9Z@:

A Gh + G J G 2. 9
525 9| zg
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J ( CG 3. 9
526 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q 9 V ?I y
Qh C G IQ E ( 1.3. 9
527 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Og< | ?g<9ay ?y6

o
# G G 2.3. 9
528 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .? |;wy 9V + G IQ G 3.3. 9
529 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RqzAy 9Vf (* G IQ E 4.3. 9
22
531 9| zg Og|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J ( C G d
v
4. 9
532 Q 9V p 9| zg Og|
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qh C
G IQ E , J ( C G d
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1.4. 9
532 Og< | ?g<9ay p 9| zg Og|

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o
# G , J ( C G d
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533 ? |;wy 9V p 9| zg Og|

. . . . . . . . . . . . . + G IQ G , J ( C G d
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3.4. 9
546 ;wy 9| zg| Og|

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e G J ( d
v
4.4. 9
548 9qzAy 9V p 9| zg Og|

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R G IQ E , J ( C G d
v
5.4. 9
552 ? }sQy :9Z@: 9w=V

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + G J G J 5. 9
553 QAy 9G Qf
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jOO G d C G V 1.5. 9
553 QAy 9V 9 Qf
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jOO G IQ G d H V 2.5. 9
555 ? | d p ? Q Ay ? | R Q f
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( "C , G * OO G A G V 3.5. 9
558 . . . . . . . . .? }sQy 9V y QAy 9G Qf

+ G JGQ 5 jOO G d C G V 4.5. 9
562 9Z@: s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d G JG (" 5.5. 9
I 9 ty ?|RI Qf H G]y 9V ?=T

" G V h + G ] E IQ G ! 6.5. 9
577 ? QAy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * OO G
583 9}wAS: H G\
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e G + 7.5. 9
{ OgAy QAy { OgAy 9a { OgAy

* Gh jOO G * Gh [ C G * G 8.5. 9
587 ]= y R |QAy9<
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , " G +
595 O ] Ay
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + " G 9.5. 9
601 ?z|9wA ? }sQy 9|O 9w=V

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C G + G J B G J 10.5. 9
605 O y9 < O A< :

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JGQG dG G 11.5. 9
?fQTy ? y9gy ?z|9wA 9|O 9w=V

G + G C G J B G J 12.5. 9
606 | RA Q i {t y b}
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # G C G + " G ! h
9S p ~wJAy v @ Q< d Q G ,
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP/IP ! ! G d ( ( h h
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620 v @Q=y9<
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP/IP d ( (
23
623 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , }sQy QAW bL G c C G 15.5. 9
627 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R 9qzAy ;=v 9| |

G J J O ( 16.5. 9
628 B QC ?w=V
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! E 17.5. 9
629 B QA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! ! G 18.5. 9
635 ?Y;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B G 6. 9
638 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T|
F
651 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,q*Qg@ B=C

655 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )j + !E v v N ( J
R zG Qf 9JzaZ CG B=C
665 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )N v v j + !E( J
Qf R zG 9JzaZ CG B=C
675 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S v v v%
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24
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v +" v v v J v v , v $
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9 | z gy ? < Q gy ? j zy9 < g@ Ay 9 Y Ay 9S 9 Ty | %" ( + )" , + ( + #
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q
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vv vv vv vv Gh vv + vv vv vv vv G J vv vv vv vv vv vv vv O vv vv " vv , vv vv E H vv vv vv vv vv vv ,
k
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e 9f Og< OY Os vv 9 } y9 f ~ y O W q y } y ? t A y x z @ p > A w y vv vv Q vv vv &! vv Ch ,

k
vv + vv vv vv vv % vv vv % vv vv * #+ vv vv vv | vv vv h , vv +" vv vv vv vv G vv vv , vv vv vv vv G
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? G z y Q w V 9 } v 9 G ? fQ S z f
vv " vv vv Z Z M A } y } FQ A } z y 9 9 t A
vv G vv vv C vv vv ,R vv vv ! G vv vv ) vv vv h , #+ vv vv vv vv vv vv vv G #+ vv vv vv vv vv vv vv vv % vv F vv vv vv ! G
x yP v ? } d } y p 9 9 G z f Q V 9 < b A y ? f } G } z y ? } z g y
vv vv h , vv vv "
vv vv vv G , vv vv $ R vv !
vv E ) vv vv aG vv G vv % vv +!
vv vv C , vv vv G vv ( vv vv vv vv vv vv + vv vv vv vv G
IQO 9 = | P q @ g <9 A P y ? t A y z g z y R R g y O = f x z } y ? O | p ; |
vv vv vv + " vv vv vv f ( vv vv vv vv * #* vv vv G +"
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{ *( G + $G E # O Ty ~ Q< < O}J| .
26
‫ا اول‬

Circuit Fundamentals
Introduction
1.1

inductance L !

inductor
resistance R

."(

) &' %# $capacitance C "

$

- 2

0 1 - / *# + ,

R %
"

"
2 2 6
.34 #&"5
1
.circuit theory

: *# 78 "
9/ $C L
3# ;

"(

""2 "

+ 9 2 6 0
9

0 % ?- 0>
0 .% %=
<
2 31
passive elements &'
4 active elements &'
%
=
2 amplifier 0@1 2 power supply , *! ) 2

C .B-.. A/D converter 9) /9 2 oscillator (
(

*(2 ) *
( D

+
./ 4 6 "
!

! :9
"

"
1 7"
alternating 6

! $direct current DC "
27

F $semiconductor )

7%D ""D
:
$current AC
D
1
$transistors "(

$junction diodes %

0 1

$operational amplifiers
1
)
5%G H I "8 3 9/ $ )

$* ,%
.

Dimensions and Units 2.1

@ 9
D

0
4

! 6

/ 9= "8
6 $
!
;2 $D
! - .
2

!
C( #
9=&
! (
J ) G1 = .1 ;2 J ) 9= ?D
*&1
2
) 4 # ?#
$ ""D
D
D
+ %1

N *L *

9
) 9&K $3G= .

H&1D
:
(
÷ &
×
: 9/ F
! $ F = ma
:)G J *L

$dW ;" 9

9= * (
?&8
(
÷ &
×
:9/ dW
! $ dW = F dl
*L
#&"5
?&8 . *L ="
9= %!
* (
9/ dl
:)G W 2&

dW
÷ ×
: P p =
dt
.

(unit) . (dimension)
1
.&' ( ) * + , + -/ .
!" #$ %$
. 2
%#$ 2
0) ,"1 " + -/ %$
' )* +,- '(
! "#$%& W
2
.!./ '&0
28
A D LK ;
$9C

/ MF N! ;
1O

L 9
Q C
!
J= L @ ;
$ampere
$e
! 9/ &
9= 2 ! ,%2 - .coulomb C
* ! @ ;
$
7 . −1.6 ⋅10−19 ;" 9/
M 9
!
2 $- 6.28 ⋅1018 '! 9
!
M $3

9/ $ 2 P F"
K # ! 0" . 2 1 ;"
:Q 0"
+ Q

!
?&8 .*#
Q = + ne , n = 0, 1, 2,
2 3 $3! !% 3
# ;" - ;2 $0LK
9/ C
!

$L ;2 $!

"
0# .
! # $3"
.e 3
2 !
0"D
0: ! D $* "
Basic Concepts
3.1
Electric field 1.3.1

Q1 "# " F = kQ1Q 2 r 2 !"
# $ *+ .("
)' r ' & k $ %" Q 2
- , /
# + 0 123
# 3 , ) (

89; electric field E 4( , 5" 6 " 7 .(
:*+
# ,
F
E = (1.1)
Q

!

! .
3
! %"# %

& "#
! "# $
.'(
29

& " # $ % # . E = F Q1 = kQ 2 r 2 ! Q1
. * *+ ,
& ' (!)
Voltage 2.3.1

12 potential difference 0 voltage -
/ (-"
17" ,)6 3 56 - & ' #& .work 3 (
) 4%
6 F = QE 8 9 : * 23" *+ 1 56
volt :) ;-< =# -
/ 9 3" # . dW = QE ⋅ dl 3
:= *- # 3 ,> V
dW
dV = = E dl (2.1)
Q
*+ * 56 C& 0 -
/ 1 56 1 B5" 3 #!
.

,)6 3 D3" " 2.1 +43 3 3 =D " -)
1/B -"
)6 * 3 3 :3E" .V = ∫ E ⋅ dl *+ 14"
:= 3 gradient
dV
E =− , volts meter ( V m ) (3.1)
dl
1 -/ 1/" F/"
" 5
1 "C " "-3 ")6 G 14 1: 12 !-
/ : 6
.1.1

-/ CD ;" 10 cm = ")6 -3 #&
"& GH2< #I . E = 12 V 0.1m = 120 V m =" ,"-

:=" *+ & G2% CD $# 2
−1.6 ⋅10−19 ⋅120 = −1.9 ⋅10−17 N
30
! .

425 $ ! 3
1 $2 !
/ 0 +* , -(3.1 %&') !"# $
6 2 ! " 9 !"# $ 8 :9# +; .3"# &
3 $ 785 6
2 ># +? .1 mV6 2 " 1 m < = ! 0 ! >
# - 1mV m
." + @A >#B -6 $2 ! " >
.

E
:1.1
Current 3.3.1

=$9 Q 98 $9C !9D
' 0 -E 3
$ -
G= 9' =$9 > ! :2 F ) 9' '
:>+? .(' 3 2$
dQ
I = (4.1)
dt
98 >B Benjamin Franklin >#9 >9 J ? 3I9
> :98 <#2 6+ C ( 2 1.1 #8 ! I < + .3"# &
3 $ "
@'9 >9 -LB 9 > . 98 G = >
:98 :9 #? # > @9 %9 2 >B >M
># +? - + F .>2#' :9 #N 0 > # + .2
31
L2 > ' :$P - :98 C
3 O8 > > DK
:$P -:9 #; C
3 O8 ># +? -( Q9) 9
.4L2 9 > '
Power
! 4.3.1
R 09A -' @$
' > K' ! =2C 9+B +?
:=2C 9 dQ dQ
dW dW dQ dW dQ
P= = = =V I (5.1)
dt dt dQ dQ dt
-@ B > 9% ? "A > . " S !0 =2C ->+?
.:9 #N ! :' #B 9
Ohm’s law "#$ 5.3.1

0:" & /" K 1-" ,)6 " J " * ; -
F $ + + : =# " 7& .

" 1
*- F 3: . " $# 1 !/ 9"% (8
$ 9 F * K " ( #I .
:
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* " I # .
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/ 0:" ;" 932
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$" 6 N . & "M G-" 9 F $ :
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Q $ NC/ " 0-" - #& .(, Q (Q "" 7 =)

!
1.1

4
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"( # $% # &
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. * 0,
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32
%- $ NC/ SR : - K "M -5" K "& = F :3< 7
. %J 9 : --3 K # ,&
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> # :9 #N >U $ ># ># . T %9 6B B Q9 !
@= >B ? 3 $ Q9 ! > #N >B S92 ->=2 !
' @ -U= -+9 . 2 ! # Q9 :+ >
# @2 ->+? .! @ !"# $ =2 V2 ? 9

+ .: > # %9 =2 >A > #N
G
= " :9 #N G < ! $ $ +0 > !
.: ' :2 %= W 6+ !=
:+ X > !0 resistivity ρ 9 $
->2 ! %9 !29" #8 +U .> > =2 2
< = >' > TA% "5 ! R $ =', -2.1 #8 ! > 3$
:%&' -3' 3 A 6 2 <'=$ 2 3 l 6 2
l
R =ρ (6.1)
A
,-/ 0) *"+ ρ !" ! #$ % $&' ! ( :2.1

.A 3* ! l 3*
2 D 7 X%9 -TA$ = D 7 $ D ->+?
33
%9 $ T $ 25 .ohm Ω @ E !" $ B .7=$
$ 6 2 .siemens S Q92 !0 " conductance G
ρ = 1012 (Ω-m) 6 2 "9B > ! - ρ = 1.7 ⋅10−8 (Ω-m) Q9 9
>B ># %9 Q9 >B 6 =9 >$ > 728 G +0 .D
$ L 2 $9 C D D >B - > 3# 3$ $9
.' ' # &
3 " '5 > A
.<= G= " @ %9 3$ $
.#B %9 ! + -:9 #Y B %= # $ + "
:6B - " > T29 : !0 $
V =RI (7.1)
" - , " ! ( 9 3E" +4 P#!
0:" : * - 2.1 = < .,: - -" -
/ ;" T/ +

T2 -
/ G 6 $48 U " .7.1 +43

.T2 SR : * 1: V -
/ I
Joule’s Heating Law % "#$ 6.3.1
:9 #? > # : $9 ->' G S9B !
+ .< V ? Z :+ ? %= >' + :+
>? %= ? "# %= 2 $ >#
'8 [W !"# >2 . ! + E > #
89 ( >2O9 2) $ 6 3' 0F "# U
! %= ' > ' ># ." !"# >
:\,9 -5.1 %&' ! 7.1 %&' J ' $
V2
P = V I = I 2R = (8.1)
R
34
2) =2C !0 P - > 9$ P = I 2 R ' [',
9 ' +0 9/ # +? .watt W =
$, (%= O '
:T & $ !
! W %=
W = I 2 RT (9.1)
[', .T # = > >$ $ >B 90 9A
. < W
$, 6+ >2 > 9% "9U 9.1 '
Kirchoff’s Laws &' ##$ 7.3.1

(K) K) K) :H V 6 K46" ! * -
63 6" .(! V K "C " -
/ G) :H 6
- 05 K # : " * - .
K # $4
1 -3" - " (2.1 ) G 6 : +
*- 5 * - W3.1 = < .5 K --3 =""
"6 ( D" :% ") " 0-" " G-" :

. : " " *-+ $# " J '4 .1"
" = 4 63 8 9 : % - " =
9 < Y" , $# & 92< .K+8 G/ %J , : X %
: " %- .K6 G 0 )" :
< Z G 9 3" ! #! .T/
:
X % T
:
" +: "" " K .voltage rise -
/ -36 V B -
/

: -
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: " %- .sink

.voltage drop 5-
/ :

%& '
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.
5
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35
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:7 + 3 4%
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∑V n =0 (10.1)
9 B]3.1 #8 ! 10.1 %&' G=

.V B =V R + V R
1 2
"B > -#B B >9 > =$9 "9U node $' [
',
>$ :+ >9 # = > $ ^ T]3.1 #8 $
: 6 V >B [ 8# > 9% X9 .>$ :+
:R 3A + >
'5 . 6 2 $' !
∑I n =0 (11.1)
: 6 TW3.1 * - 3 *-3 11.1 +43 0:"
I B = I R1 + I R 2
>B T -"? 3' > # >B $ 6B ! : ># C ->+?
::98 "3% " $' :2 -LB :# .%E "9
+0 :2 ."9 ! :98 $ ? ` ! :98 6 2
:2 > # >B T ! # $ > $'
."9 2 "?

()

() :3.1
.

36
Circuit Elements ( )# 4.1
Resistors 1.4.1
D $ D59 [ 2 .=2 ! $ 2.1 #8 65
: $ 79, .4.1 #8 ! > $ -K2# = > >
# 78
> -:= 'A ! =2 3F '2, ! -$ O
> 79, 3 8 #B #B "% ! : $ >B > ! - &2E
> # .G% S8F > =8 B O :9 =2B #8 9 #
@$ ># .!"# ' " $ [ 9' F 0
! :=2C B - (MΩ) @ B O ? >B 9 # : $
.= 1 B 1
2
B 1
4
6 2 0
= >$= >9 # " >B v = Ri @ B > 9% X9
> 72 R $ >B J > .R $ !
AB = G= 0/ 8, . : : "
! > G \9 7 <a2 $ ! " G= > <
.6T]4.1 #8
4.1 . ( )

'* +, -
* / % p = vi = i 2 R (
&) ! " # $ %
48
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4 ! " ; . : 48 9 %5
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6
1 . ( / $ * & " # $ & + , - $ .(' ( )+
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* 9 / 5 ) $ .'( )/ 84.1 $,3 5 . +7
.2.1 1.1 ,3 5 ( $ & $ .'(
37
:6* %T 4! ! " 5 48 5
1 T V p2 RI p2
Pave =
T ∫ 0
i 2 R dt =
2R
=
2
(12.1)

() . v
() :4.1
! P $% &'* ! (#) .R ! ! "
!
* 2 /+ 0 2 35 6 7 ./+
, -
.29 9 WR 8 ! .
? $ :9# <9B I& >M 99# . I p =V p R >E

?
$ =2C :9# -V 6 2 0" = % > 2 " 79
9' +? -+ . P =V I = I 2 R =V 2
R $ 2 R $
%&') 9 =2& =2 $ 2 V 2 R 2 =2C
: 9 -(12.1
Vp
V = = 0.707 V p (13.1)
2
6+ ! " >? 6B .T 9 " b' $ " +0 2
79 "$ ! 6 2 $ ? =2 @K$ V p < + % 6 2
B ' @$ > D L
9 [ 2 .V p 2 6 2 " 2
. ! root mean square rms =2 ' $ +
-< 79 > %= 2 ! 2 $ >B cAN
:"?
$ %= T2 99#
38
t t V p2 t V p2 ⎡ sin 2 t ⎤
wR = ∫ p dt ' = R ∫ i dt ' =
R ∫0
sin t ' dt ' = t− (14.1)
2 2
0 0 2R ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
w >B ' +0 >E SD W 6+ :]4.1 #8 > >

+0 6 2 .V p2 t 2R =2 $ U D ! 2
>D ? 29 <%$8 > -(9.1) >2 > 9% <='5 6+ +
.(12.1 %&') =2 =2C !='5
Capacitors * 2.4.1

" G= > q 98 @4#, #9# # !0 capacitor #
> T29 : ."9 " '? > 98 I -"= v
:6B -capacitance C '2 !0 " d#5 98
q =C v (15.1)
"9 >D >%9 > > :# @I' [U
2 ε W . C = ε A l %&' # '2 =' .O
2 l - 2 A -> > =2 permittivity
>B IC) :# > V 9 +" C
3 1.1 #8 >K5 .> >
-O 3 /', + .O '2 ? 6Z > > #
.( 1 mm > OB !0
:'2 @% 7$ .329 # $ !0 -farad !" '2 B
# ( μ F = 10−6 F ) # > >A :#
. 10 μ F 0.001 > ! 3 7$ "I' ># -( pF = 10−12 F )
D =2 '2 B l X$9? B A D ># -#B :'2
7
!"# D' : 6 2 - 2 .# ε <2 "#

!
" ε 0
. ε r = ε ε 0

7
. ε 0 = 8.85 ⋅10−12 F m #$
$
39
! 9 # '2 6 2 -+ .2 G -6 # dielectric constant
6 -# > D "9 >D > > 9
# -1.1 #8
@I' 795 .@ S& " > ! # Q9 '2 B
! F .9 =2B #8 > @ 9E G% > >=8 > :#
+" 3 >B C? -> > XP$, -# '2 D
> .!"# "9& "9 D' $ <A X$
[ ? 6Z > > 8 D$ - + > ? X$
' >+? .8 ^ ># ! > > /%4 T2 #
6 2 !) D' "9 ? 6Z 6+ !"# $ 8
-(# 6 ⋅106 V cm G 2 ⋅105 V cm -S " 3 ⋅104 V cm
> 2 " C !"# $ !=' ! 3.1 %&' '2
C ! $ 6B) >U <$= ># 6+ " % T2 99# ->
O ' :# 7A + .# (8 ? 6Z
!9' - 2 ."'2 % T9 ? " ! " >A
$ # G= 2 " D @ A 50 VDC O
. 50 V
6B -15.1 %&' '29 -# # '

:\,9 - i = dq dt 7A 7 >D ? 29 "= G89 - q = C v
dv
i =C (16.1)
dt
!"

+*,) .*! C # $% & '( ) )
) $-*0 .( dv dt = 0 ) * - ) / !" 0 1*! '(
-*( - '( 6 7*0 8 .' 8 4) '( $!" )0 5!
16.1 % &' # (

)* & +
,"- (
/ 0 1 2$ 3 45$ 4-
8
= $ + 8 - " 1 &$

-* (12 & 7 1 -5 &6
3 4-- % /
40
'( 4*# : ( $95.1 " * 0#* !"
.>95.1 " * 4) 90 ;* <= '( ) $ 90 ;*
::C $ v =V p sin t " B :16.1 )'#* ?@)
i = C V p cos t = I p cos t = I p sin(t + π 2)
. 90 $ = DN; 3 AB π 2 D 2
:R # ! I =2C =',

2
dv CV p
p = vi = Cv = sin 2t (17.1)
dt 2
() . () . v ( )
() :5.1
.(&''# * ' wC p $ :"#%) ! "# ! $
.]5.1 #8 ! 9 17.1 ' . sin 2t = 2sin t cos t -3'=

-30+ 3 G =2C >B p R 2 >$ 6 =9
=2 =2C >B -79 ? [# > @ -[# ? 79 > C
3 B
# " ! . dv dt .

=
" , # & ' ()* +, -1.1 $ %# &
! 34 5, -# 10 2 " #/# - 0 #
# $ - # # 10 # & ' 6 .& ' # $ ##
9 5! . & ' #
578 !#
0 $ # %# 8.1 ;4# # .57 " # & ' ( :
.& #
41
['A 6 2 ' -3 0+ 3 p =2C # B . 6 2
6B 2 C # >B ->+? .'P=$ @"2E "? 8eB $ -G
= "
- 7 6 2 %= >D - $ 3& + -79 > %=
>E R > 30 C [ + .79 ? 0', > ! 7 !
%= >D -C B . %= ? " "# %= K E
-:'2 > D ' .(> ! d#5 98 !) =$ "#
:# ! >D, ! %=
9 9
1 CV p2 CV p2
wC = ∫ p dt = C v 2 = sin 2 t = (1 − cos 2t ) (18.1)
2 2 4
! . C v 2 2 # ! 9 D %= =', -3
%&' > E %= P, -3 G
= " > # W
C CV p2 4 =2 %= >B ]15.1 #8 ? <A? > > 6+ 18.1
.A9 #8 9 ? X%9 D %= >? 6B .>D 7 D
D %= >B >
-]4.1 #8 ! I9 !99 +0 > % +;
2 ! $ % > 6+ -%= K 9' ! 2
. ? " K 79 > 2 %=
1.1
! 9 8 ># @ 1 μ F "'2 # ! 3 6.1 #8 >K

. +" G # != G
= " @2 K .
.
:6.1
42
:! " \,9 - i = C dv dt ' #
1 t 1 t
v =
C ∫ −∞
i dt =
C ∫
0
i dt + V 0
> . B 98 9 # != > >K # ! E " 0 V 0

R @$2 = P ='5 -9 !W 3>t > 0 B
:\,9 -V 0 = 0 >B ? 3I9 . i = 0.01 − 5t
v = 104 (1 − 250 t ) t
9 -v = 10 V > # t = 2 ms 9 .f# 7=% ' +0
> # -9 !W 3 > t > 0 B > .v = 7.5 V > # t = 3ms
:!='5 +0 - i = −5 mA
1 t
v =
C ∫ 3
i dt +V 0 = −5(t − 3) + 7.5
$ -3 > # - t > 5 ms B > .@$2 = ' +0
.v = −2.5 V $ 9 3 "
:! :# X X >M 99#
+ .# ! 3 W 6+ 0 >D 7 KO " •
.2 ! # ',
-(>D 2 7 !") 39
O >B 7=2 C %= >B ? 3I9 •
R " C =', # ! 9 D %= >B ? 3I9
C?) 39
O >B ># C # != > " >B \929 - ½ Cv 2
X # [ + .(! F +0 -"9C : 9% +?
.:8N g8 ! -" :$= > # " " @'9
!"
•
.# $% &' (
&'
90 )& * + ,-& /0 12 3 & 4 5'
. Pave = 0 % 6' ' 17.1 16 62 # ' &
43
Inductors (* ) + 3.4.1
-# F .'8 9 > 9 0 [

! %= >D ! # F .%= >D 9 <9U [ [
6+ !2=9O <$ ! %= [ >D -" > !"# "$
%= >D 9' ? '29 > -:9 #Y T# +0 >B ? 3I9 .< =
:# ! >$ 9a+d >W >+ " '29 [ 2 -$ !
> P ! :O ! %= >D # >? $ 99# >+? .:
$8 wC = ½ C v 2 " %= %& ? $ ! -# " G=
99# -32=9O &
3 $ W >B ? 3I9 -"8 .18.1 %&' >
-3'= .[ ! 9 D %= W ! w L = ½ L i 2 '
>0 9 IC) [ + J 0 L -[ ! 0 i
.(i ? 29 v L ? 29 C :>'
F -L J >B I& B9 -$2 O 2C

6 =9 9 # >B 7 .[ 9 X > !0 -C '2
"9 -O DK >A 3# 3A !=' 9 >; -J J'
-:$= ! : > # ' [ 7 2 > [U 6+ [
2 = @ " J [' @ $ .= # F
[ @$ 9% +? C? 3$% @ " +0 > # > .flux linkage 2=9O
$ !# -T# +0 ! 9AFB X ># .2 VD C < $'
' T A [ ! !2=9O $ 6 2 Φ 2 = >?
%&' I9 %& +0 ) L = Φ i R J ='5 -+9 .[ :
S 89 ? 6Z 6+ [ ! 0 i -%&' +0 ! .( C = v q
" !='5 6+ -v = d Φ dt 6 > 9% '2 .<9A !2=9O $
:\,9 ->D 7 O !2=9O $ ! [ ! J

44
di
v =L (19.1)
dt
:" .L 9' ' # & 16 786' ' 6 0
.4 ' # ! 3< = :" 4& & L % 9'
C 6< ;
! '2 : [U henry H 69" !" J B

+U - L 9 #2 : > +O : :$=
: ! B .690 10 1 > ! 7$ 3% "A
! "A 7$ - 0 9 > # -' : : ! '2
.mH 690 !W
. "2 J X :O 6, -'2 F

-L <A [ ! i = I p sin t (B]7.1 #8 3$ ) 79 7 +?
-v = L Ip cos t 6 2 [ != > " \d9 -19.1 ' S9
- 90 R [ ! " G2 ->+? .T]7.1 #8 ! >
G
:I =2C 6 2 .$ Q9 v > i U B
2
di L I p
p = vi = Li = sin 2 t (20.1)
dt 2
3 G 9=2C >B p R 2 @$ 6 =9
79 > %= [ $ -# F ->+? .[ 79 > 30+
+ .! 7 & <? 0'5 - 7 S9B !
: %= ! 3
1 L I p2
wL = ∫ p dt = L i =
2
sin 2 t (21.1)
2 2
# #$ . !"

9
. '( !" !) %&
45
() .
() .i
( )
() :7.1
wL p #
:!$'
) . !"# $ !% !"# &
.(** +*

! . Li 2 2 [ ! 9 D %= =', -3

-79 > %= [ $ 9 D %= >B +0 65 -
> .]7.1 #8 ! >
+0 .<? 0'5 9 ? 9 X%9
>D > 9 >W# [ 2 9$ 72 G=9 %= >D B
%9 $ : ! !IE &"2C :% B ! %=
! [ ! $2 # P .!IE %= T= :% B ! "'2C
.' '2& c ! %= > Li 2 2 &
3 W -6OE T= :% B
2.1
6 2 <A [ ! ( i (t = 0) = 1 A ) B 1 <8 ! B

0 -8.1 #8 ! >
+# [ != " ># +; .690 1
h[
.,/ 1 , -

!
:8.1
46
: 9 v = L di dt ' #
1 t 1 t
i =
L ∫
−∞
v dt =
L ∫0
v dt + I 0
! >
3$ v = 0 >E - i = I 0 = 1 A > # - 0 < t < 2s 9
:> # 2s < t < 3s 9 .#8
t
i = ∫ (−1) dt + I 0 = 3 − t
2
> K'5 6+ 2E 9 9 @$2 = %&' +0 !='
>E 3 $ - t > 3s B > - i = 0 > # - t = 3s 9 .
. 6 2 t > 3s 9 "
! >; -9 :D$

O " >B @F <9B +0 65
.329 S!= 9
O [
:! [ X X >#

.

•

.
%& ' ( ! " # $)

) ',

& + *

.(* *
- !+ ! !+
/ $ 0& 1 "
+6 (3 4 5+ 1

"
) & " * 2+ •
$
" 9++ :w L = ½ L I 2 &7 $ 8

< => ? :
/ +
+ " *
/ 1

" * ;
"
' -; .

@
+ A6$ #
5 %
.
.B
F @D+E
:B C

? $
@ ? 3I9 -[ ! %= >

$ >D ># •
.%= > S!8 C -! [ ! %=
47
Batteries 4.4.1
@
$, . W " ! $ >B > 9% X9
:& > %= = > 3F $ ? "# %=
> :> $ =2 >A ->+? ." ^ #
-= D B]9.1 1.1 >&#8 >5 . ? "# ? # %=
:= ', .T = [= D ! = =
.: " ? > # 9 "# %= 0 79
79 B = [K 9 [ 2 -' := S$2 %

-3 3" 3 !='5 6+ 79 "9U = [
', . "
$2 VB = " >? 6B .C @B S 2 <= > -&
3 V B
$ +0 > 6+ 79 b 25 .T]9.1 #8 ! > 3 $ - > 3
% >#B +? $2 <9B 7 79 > $) &
3 $2 3'9
VB " I = >B ? 3I9 .(103= "
-@K$ >B ># 79 +0 >B \929 -113' >= a%d > "=
3 $ > # 9 <9B !9' P = V 2 R ) "9C =2 -I9
> # ! ! !U 90 > .("9C =2C g
@ B > 9% G= . 3 2 T]9.1 #8 ! " 7 !99
6 2 $ >B \,9 " 7 W !$E = R = V I
+0 . 6 2 ! 79 $ >B \929 + .
."= a% > !"9 = K25
!

" # $%

10
.% *+#, &' ( )

3'% ' $%4
' 2%
)
- & ' $ /&0 !
11
/& !
8& $% ./7 !
$', ' 47 # 8 8' .(5
; # ' $%4

# ) & $9: ' $ ,5 !

.8 8% 8
< < # .(5 3'
48
& > I99 9 <9B @'9 -:"9& "2 ! : ' 0;
: O '29 >M 9B) /%4 L9 [ 2 - = !=
% =A > $= 9# +? -LB $= + % 99# B .(
3$ /% ? = :
-3 <' = X V B
.]9.1 #8 ! >

() .

() .

() :9.1
.

- 79 : :== ! " 79 P, >B 78 > <9?
/$ ># +?) 79 4$* :2 ! ># @ +0
79 B .( 6B > K' F gB U= == L -3
-B]10.1 #8 ! >
G -" $ 3 [ -'
-3'= .= :4,% +? "9 C F <% g $ K,
-$$ = S# !0 -= >A ' $ :2 R i
" 25 . D > = != > " X%9 T2
98%9 > \929 .= "# # $ 3 AB V B !
O $ [ # := >B "2 $2
%B " ! O := >B -(3 9 8 = @ B 0.005)
.(C Q$ :+ c = @ B 0.15) #B $ [

) , ) )* +(10.1 ! "# $ % &' .
49
/0 1,23 .- ) *% '% )
56*, 7-
% 8 ) ) 2 , 1.35 "% *
% &'
1.55 -' "8 $ ; * $( 9 - )2
, , $
> ?- .%= % <9-, $ ,
5 $ , 3.7 * "% $A @) )-2- ) 9
$ , 1.25 * 8 $A(- .-% !' &' )
$ F2 < EF .)2! 9 /BCD 2 ,
G2 % , %3 )2! 9 % 5 , $ , 2 * "%
.(E , 12 B % $ , 6 E%% - B GB
' H- , , ) , * <9- @2
) - $+ 8 A I H ) . 0
, 5 ) ) ) J H- , 0 !- 7-
5 K )2! ) ' ) 8 .
. C , E* 5 L % E*

!
%VB
! "
!# $
() :10.1
.&

' ' $* +
() .Ri
P - ? = " :5 B]11.1 #8 >K5
B V+ # $ > # >B RL R ># .%= <+W O -RL $
50
6 2 ."+O = +0 LB "# B D" 6B B D
$ >B ? 3I9 ># . i 2 R L ? = "$ ! =2C
=2C VA ='5 .3 AB " %=
[ 2 -= !
= a% > # + . #8 "I - i 2 R i R !
2 >B ># = ! %= # >E 34=
d '2 #
.2 "9 @ +? = 9 ? 6Z ?
/ - -*
() . , " - "
() :11.1
.2
-*
() ."
@"2 + W5 % ) O R L >B R i >B %Z >M J9
.= D S9B ! W9 -(B]11.1 #8 ! $
:! 9 -(10.1 %&') " [ 8# > 9% '2
V B = iR i + iR L (22.1)
6+ 6B -v L = i R L $ != G= " ='5
:R -> = != > 3AB "I
v L =V B − iR i (23.1)
#8 ! >
0 - −R i 6 2 : < @$2 = ' +0
! "# # d $ 5" 6 2 ->+? .T]11.1
6 2 . = $ =" " <9 3 = -=
:(22.1 %&' 3') 22 +0 ! G 6+
VB
i = (24.1)
Ri + R L
51
>
$ .= D - R L $ X%9 9
!0 -v L c " % ! J9 + G -T]11.1 #8 !
:\,9 24.1 23.1 >%&' > i [+ . " T F F 9
RL
v L =V B (25.1)
Ri + RL
. R L V B v L

%' * +! ,& ! #(% & R L ) ! " #$
/, ,& 012 #( R L ≈ 0 ) % ! ! #v L ≈ V B !-!
! 6 7 , 8 6!5 9-1: ! ! .%4 15 3$ 3*
<- % ;, <*/ = # - 3* #5 8+ ;,
6 =,& ?,& / @4 4 8 ,& @! .12%> ; !, 6 =,&
.13,1* 3$ , 8+! #, /1 2- 3$ A ! #B, *,-
/4 /4 =E *2 !4 4$ ! ,& 012" CD ! !
8 & (<F11.1 7 ) ! V B R i 6- ! @4-
6 8D4 #%/ .<F9.1 7 8+ 8 2 G 3$ <
.1* 3*! 6 ! 5 H5 *2 !4
$ R i $ >B 9A T ]11.1 #8 G$
$ :$ +? L
9 >M 9 . R L $ O 9
"O 6 = + B > . $ :O

" # . !11.1
12
* ,
-
" /-% 0 '()* - 1 " /$
*& $%& '()* +&

% 4 5) 4 . 2 ,
% " /3
%
.$
- : $ 6 6
7 48 /1 8 9

" 7=% 5
"> '; ) /9
3
% <=1 % 61-
&% 13
) /3
% = I 2 R

% = ">
'; .( p = vi ) ?-
.% B 6: ! (

% 6 5

52
#8 !='5 ."%= [D92 2 9 6 c SA;
L ? @"2E 8 ^ -= i " !99 ]11.1
$ S ->8 = >B #8 > gA .i @$
' .v L ≈ V B 3" i ≈V B R L 3 !=' >B ># -( R i ≈ 0 ) O
!= > " -24.1 %&' ! > # g -( R i = ∞ ) i
.3 -25.1 %&' =' - $
X%9 > @9 C ? % X%9 >B !0 $ &
$ >B -V B 2 $ "$ - ? "# # $
! "# # $ >B JC ># + .3 # g
6B .3 # :F $ 7 -E "% $ F =
0 = 98 ' = $ >?
.(!9D)
'9 6B - 9 -= "# # $ Q$
3$ 9 - +0 ! 3 > # >B ? 3I9 - =
! = != "I 6+ " >? .v L = V B 23.1 %&'
"# # $ Q$ "# # $ 0
> #B) 3 # $ 6+ " Q$ '2 ># -3# F =
T= C " - V 9 +0 > 6+ " Q$ T$5 .( 107 Ω
29 # Q$ $ :9# +? .9 S=N 3 &
3 A 3 C?
.= ! # "# $ !0 "=' ! 9 :9# - R i ?

* &' $%) !
"# ( )
. , -
. /01 2 3 40 !+
.(:% .0 ; -08 9 *' 67 !+ *"
53
&< = " 7 &0 *=%7
.# ? - -
!' > .V B I sc
%< .V B
C % v L
B A &' @?A .v L

E* 2% *' .
?
D % E*
H .# ? 31 "%G 1 F
.. -> .# !+
3.1
$ " C "2$ % = $ % K

.@ B 1 0$
.= 1.5 6 2 ' $ $ ! V B >B [ ' >

1 "% ! $ != " Q$ -T]11.1 #8 ? '
. R i = 0.2 6 2 " = 0 !9' +0 -= 1.3 6 2 <9B 9 -@ B
6 2 - i =1.3V 1Ω = 1.3A 6 2 ! >B ? 3I9
. R i = 0.2 V 1.3A = 0.15 Ω $
Voltage and current sources .# 5.4.1
#8 >D 7 O >B ># 3 " 3 " 79
G=9 -> ! .= "# >D 7 3 " B -' B
>? 6B .3 " 79 G2 7=$ ! :,= ! j Q9
! > 3 $ - $ 7 &
3 22 3 3'9 " 79 > V 9 # !
= ', 6+ $2 " 79 D IC .B]12.1 #8
- 12 V 6 2 0" = ! v s = 12 V ># ^ -<9
. 2
54
T]12.1 #8 65 6+ - 79 0 79 > !9 V 9
!9' .]12.1 #8 ! >
3$ -" > &
3 $2 3 !='5 6+ -D
-" 3' < W -( ) :92 6 ' =
! " 79 $ 3& + ) "9C 79 $ >B
9 - ? i s = X$9? > $= 9# +? 6B -( 6 2
># <9E -!$$ @' ! < C ! 79 3'= +0 .
."9C %= @K$ >B
( 6B) "9C $ W - 2

"9C =2 !0 - p = i s2 R L 6 2 =2 ! 79 != >
+ . i s I5 ! 79 >B Q2B
79 7 3 $ 3 !$$ 79 >A
7 > 79 != .]12.1 #8 ! >
3 $ 2
> . R i =2 i s - #+ #8 ! # ( )
+ <8 : I >B ># : 2D9 ' 79
D 9 ># . : $ > 72 ]12.1 #8 ! >

. 9 X%9 -9' % $
R L

R L i s % #$ ."!12.1
!12.1 )
"*+ , R L & '( . R i
3!11.1 "*+ 01 & ) '/ 2 .-/
.6$
R L 7
" 6$
7
"*+ 8 R L
45
/
8 9" % / 7
'
:5 *; " <5 . i L = i sc = i s
.v L = voc = i s R i "*+ 7
= $ 9"
55

() .
() .
() :12.1

iL
vL
() .

() .

.$12.1
!" #
RL
# 0 .# /0 6.4.1

Source equivalence and transformation
."*+ 5 = 5 >* ?
F"
)E B 10 /" B, C2"D8 'E 6@A
>5 "*+ :F"
G' "+ / H B A ? 4( ",5
H K5 'E 4E 42H J A 5 3+ ' .
.* 3+ L R L "*+ ?$ @,
R L = 0 * C + +5 68 J 5 3+
R L = 0 " I sc
?$ H "M 'E <5 C . R L = ∞
. H R L = ∞ " V oc $ 9" "*+ ?$
56
*, H, B % '/ J LH ) N
"*+ 5" 'E A , ) .
' .V oc =V 25.1 8@H 6 I sc =V R 5 *, "+ 5!13.1
0 6 5!13.1 "*+
5" 'E G' & ) .R 4H #O$ ) "+ I =V R
6;
2 3!13.1 ( 4 P "*+ "+E "5
$ 9" "*+ 0R
8 I sc = I
8 BH= R :Q )
.P "*+ 3!13.1 2 . A ; " V oc = I R
.& %

() .& %
() :13.1

V oc

%&

I sc !

"
#$
%& &#
*345 %&
, #-& /-0
, 1 2 * + '() ."

R %&
, $ 13.1 7
* + 4 & . R =V oc I sc 6&

: #$
%& 3 , ; & < .4&8
9
%$ #-
" R % =-=-
%&
#$
> ,8 3 R
1 2
C *=> .(/A9.1 7
;
)
* + &- &
!?
R % <D
&
-
%& > ,8 ( R :
%&
.
"
4
%&
, 4 ,
!

&- *=> .13.1 7

1= &? , 3-& %&&
57
,
&
F ( $ 34) <2

E
(
,
7 *=> E
(
&? , 4 D#$ G *=>
,+ .
%&
. 4
9 H
= E# *=> >-5 % -=- 3-& #$ %&
, J$
E(
/ & "
%&
F
I2
14
* + *;4
/
>3-
K L& #$
4 %
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%
#$

++ 5.1
Series and Parallel Circuits
1) L SH C" 0'/ A5 "8 "
,, 9" C,= " .
$ % *
, L, (3.1
B, 6;5 H, L, 6"
% " ) 5!3.1
5!14.1 := .9"H C" H *,5 85 A5 " *V
9" *5 % :D L, ,, 9" C W@A "*+
+ ?$ 5 1@ G' 3!14.1 9"
:)
"*+ L 8 H, .9"

v s = v 1 +v 2 +v 3 (26.1)
= R1i + R 2i + R 3i
= i (R1 + R 2 + R 3 )
= i R eq
7

v s = i R eq *=> ( .A14.1 7

1 2
N 6

, M- ,
& .JA14.1
. :5.6.1

14
58
:<- =-=-
R eq = R1 + R 2 + + R N (27.1)
#

9
=-=- ,& K 0 %&
O
.#- *& & #$
?> ,8
. () .

() :14.1
,D
% L

*=> L
'8
, G
,
&

*=> &
'8
, , (v s = V sin t )
L
'8
4-
( , 0+ .(V B = 12 V ) 3& #$ &?
'4
.v s = 12 V :6& 3&
#$ ,> &4
,
.&
=
. 9>& #$
, > 3&
D 4-
-
&
#$ ,34) 7+ 2L , 9&
#$
P >
14.1 7
,&
#$
%& D ,Q ,D
% L :

E#- , .%&
&3? # +
J$ : 3 .E
A 6
I$& ( #$ 3&) > & #$ #$
, + 6
I$&
.3
I2 S(

.( #$ 4) #$
%&
4.1
, >$ % =-=- %& A15.1 7

<)
.%&
#T
>3-0
J-

3T-& .9
59
=
#$
9
4 93& %$ #$= '7 ,? 4-&
: $ 3 70 6
<2 %& & U & &
−70 + 10i + 20 + 15i − 40 + 5i = 0

−90 + 30i = 0
i =3 A
9
2

& 3 <- =
,+ <
9
#=#-
>3-0
.JA15.1 7
&
,4
"
#$
%& #T )
#- i 2 R = 32 ⋅ 30 = 270 W <-
:#
+ %&
#34
9>3-0
.( 90 V ⋅ 3A = 270 W )
3&
, S(

, . 70 ⋅ 3 = 210 W, − 20 ⋅ 3= − 60 W, 40 ⋅ 3=120 W
,V
,4&
3-
& ,75 #8
#& 4 3 20 #$
9
2
.3
60 <- 4&
. ()

() :15.1

JA3.1 7
W&
1= 4

3

#$
>
&
I2 .= '7 ,? 7? U 9()>
# =

> &>
9

,
*=> K&3 -
, > *=> < * +
4
- > .=
:*=> =4
4
9

%$& .A16.1 7
&

i = i1 + i 2 + i 3 (28.1)
i 3 = v s R 3 i 2 = v s R 2 i 1 = v s R1 :

60
:
!" #$ %&
' (
$ . i

1 1 1
i =v s ( + + ) (29.1)
R1 R 2 R 3
J= P& 4

I2 ,-? ,&

X$ 'W4)
:M5 E ,? 4-& .>
9=

1
i =v s (30.1)
R eq
:6& *34)

J= ,2+
1 1 1 1
= + + (31.1)
R eq R1 R 2 R 3
.
!" #$ #
% & #
' () :16.1
. ()
47 31.1 ?4

,+ .JA16.1 7
&

.> 4 N *=> 7 #4 #-
, 4-0
:,>
,
?> # O $&
?4
R 1R 2
R eq = R1⏐⏐ R 2 = (32.1)
R1 + R 2
?4
I2 * +
$ ,+ .>

*=> ⏐⏐ D

> , , "
&- *=> .
2
;5 , J$
? ,+ < . 0.91kΩ #? 10 kΩ
? 1kΩ
+ ?
.? L , L > , ,

61
=4-

2+ * + #- , , >
9
= ,
,? & ,Y5 2 . G = 1 R :
J= #P& 'W45
G =?
:28.1 ?4
S& i = Gv L & E
i = v s (G1 + G 2 + G 3 ) (33.1)
:4 %$5 >

9=?
,2+
G eq = G1 + G 2 + G 3 (34.1)
. G eq = 1 R eq ,8 31.1 ?4
" 34.1 ?4

5.1
-=-
>
? 4-& A17.1 7
&
9
&7 3T-&
.X

4 E 10 # ? ,=

,>
,
EZ )( 0

? %
I2 ? %$
E .E 5 #? *=>
20 <- # *=> E 15 <-
#4 =-=-
E 30 #?
# D

* +
I2 ,V
EZ )( .E
? %
I2 ? ,V
%$
.E 12 #? *=>
=

*=> #4 =-=-
E 8 #?
&

.JA17.1 7
W&
E 20 #? <-
3-&
.

() .

() :17.1
62
Voltage and current division
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3 3 *=>
q 1 t
V = Ri +
C
= Ri +
C ∫0
i (σ ) d σ (46.1)
<
&
7 , E
, (

0
=( 9& V 3&
#$ , * +
; . (1 C ) ∫ i d σ = 0
−∞
:# % 3-& 4 *=>

&-
4
di i
i = Ae −t RC
+ =0 (47.1)
dt RC
V

() :25.1
'

() . (&) .
(%) .2 !"
# $1
.'
() .'

(*+) .
80
.,7 & U &
&?
&0

, I J$ #$ 9& A
&?

#$ ,
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, F=4

&

;=
3&
#$ ,Q 1 4(

&
%(
:<
*& , J$ 7&
v C (t = 0− ) = v C (t = 0+ ) = 0 (48.1)
4(

&
%( ;= 7&
&-
,;=
0+ 0−
4(

&
%( 4&
3 ,& #$ $ E > * +
; .1
?4
4-&
2 .V R <-) ;=
1=
, M- 7& 1
:6& *34)
&0

,+
48.1
V
i (t = 0) = Ae −0 ≡ (49.1)
R
:6& t > 0 ; <
,> &4

2 A = V R , 4
2
V −t
i (t ) = e RC
(50.1)
R

, #$
D
7 D
%
O?
:*
&
q 1 t 1 t V −t
vC = = ∫ i dt = ∫ dt = V (1 − e −t (51.1)
RC RC
e )
C C 0 C 0 R

E 4 V 3&
#$ ? * + v C
#$ >
4& => ) t → ∞ >
2 . 7 #+
,> )
<) .(
= D
9&
RC ,+ ] RC ,
& (
#$
, S(

, .17
#$ /A25.1 JA25.1 ,7
.
7 2P v R = Ri <
3 *=>
V = Ri + v C = RC dv C dt + v C
46.1

17
.51.1

81
.2

.,25.1 ) *& +
' % & '(
RC

!"#$
3 4 !48.1
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*0& 1 #2 $ -/ *

7 5 .v C (0− ) = v C (0+ ) =V 5 !V 5 4 0

6 -
0
.v C = (1 C ) ∫ i dt =V :2
8

$)

−∞
*& =& i = −V R 9 *& ;

1 $)
<
<

:9 t > 0 $ *& $) " .$) 3 *& >? @2 A
B @2
i = −(V R ) e −t RC
!" .25.1

: #$%& '()
1 t 1 t
v C (t ) =
C ∫ −∞
i dt =V +
C ∫
0
i dt
1 t V −t
=V − ∫ dt =V e −t (52.1)
RC RC
e
C 0 R
%) ,'() .25.1

5( . i 2 R 0 12) 3$ 4 )) , i () - /
!" #/ 7 -$)8) ($ , % !6 , ($
? <28= () >3) , '() .9 ,;
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<!" ($ $%@) ,A(B .>3)) !)
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.(($ ( / !) %) >3) !"
!" A8 , ) 3 2 %H #C I C

I 3 !($ #/ <" v C (0− ) !" '() 3
82
:52.1 % J6) ,E .
1 t
C ∫
v C (t ) = v C (0− ) +
0
i dt = v C (0− ) e −t RC (53.1)
I 3 ($ ) C 52.1 % $%@) % K
/ ( 53.1 39% ()%@) .(v C (0− ) =V E) 2 %H #C
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.2 %H #C I
Time constant #1 * 2.8.1

3 ) 28? (7 τ time constant D ; ()I
#) ) 1 e #) >3)) 1(7 !3(P)8) ) 1 O Q
(%& , e −t τ
,1(7 %63 ) / , C .E)R !) 3 ( 1 e = 1 2.71 = 0.37
/(8 <" <(% D ; () . t = τ K(I ;3 #HI 3
, 1τ :) HI) % .;( 1(% ;R 6
:! )R I) 1(% 1(7 ) G8 ) , 5τ , 4τ , 3τ , 2τ
, % ;I$) N7% ,E .%0.67 ,%1.8 ,%5 ,%13 ,%37
; Q%H 8 B 8) 1 HI % )) 1(% C I
D ; (% S .%1 @ ! I) / , D
. )R #C 1(% 6 !$) ) 1 -(8 (I) )
1( () " ,50.1 39% #C 0 1%
(3 1 HI % E)R ) 3 %37 #C , 1 e #C H) Q8
<H S . RC 8 RC 1( D ; , C . t = RC
%)8 , 8 #/ .") L #C 6 P !" %)8
(T D9 1 U))8 , !" $%) ) 51.1 39%
8) ,($ !" ( 1 − 1 e = 1 − 1 2.71 = 0.63 ) %63 #) ,
. τ D ;
83
D ; :) ! 8 A( 0 S J6 I
8 τ = RC D RC 1( ; . ! 1( >E6B 1
% % 9B !8 "))8 ,'()
.52.1 '() % 51.1
)79 . ! G" D ; (BV G"
; 8) 1 HI % )) Q8 1(% 1(7 G25.1
L ,E)R 63) % L () >3) τ D
#/ 6 , t = 0 / ") 3 B 50.1 39% H C . )
/ ) C ,NI)8 $B 39% K ) . di dt = − i (0) τ
-4$I $B . τ = RC / D ( - -$I) , i (0) =V R
; 8 : #/ > 69B .G52.1
>3) ( )8 E! ) 3 #C 6 () !3(P)8 ) 1 D
. ) >3) % L
RL circuits RL 8 3.8.1

. t = 0 7 ($ - ;W6& RL 1( 26.1 (&
:#/ t > 0 / 6 ,!" Q( 3 %)8
di
V = v L +v R = L + Ri (54.1)
dt
(d dt )i + (R L )i =V L

:" $ % i ! ""#
V
i = A e −t (L R )
+ (55.1)
R
R / E)R 1( A !" ; )
: , 59TC 3 Q I ( ()
V
i t =0
=0=A + (56.1)
R
84
:U@) 55.1 39% X%) . A 3 2) % K
V
i (t ) = (1 − e −t τ ) (57.1)
R
26.1 (& . τ = L R (I RL 1( D ; 8
($ #/ !" Y26.1 (& . D <%) 6 () G
, t = 0 / Q ($ #/ (!7 ($ !"
) ,Q
1(% 9 H - (6 #C v L B) , t > 0 / ,
.(Z63 1( 6 % Q
.
() () .RL
() :26.1
5[P& / R

< /(8 %6 () A( 0
( )8 () D) O$) N .<"() KD) O$) N ,H() 1(
8) 1 % E! ) 3 #C 6 ,? KD)
% L / D)
. D 1( ;
10.1

.

27.1
# #
$% & ' #( #) *# +
, ' !"
1% . i (0− ) = 10 (20 + 30) = 0.2 A #(
!-
/
# 0
:" #55
'#
7#, / #0 6" 425 . 3
' t = 0 2
i L (0− ) = i L (0) = i L (0+ ) = 0.20 A
85
. t > 0 / Q ( i L 3 G8 G$
.1(% ,($ #C HC ,- #C Q )
#C (7 . 59TC 7 ½ Li 2 (0) 8) 3$ DB@)
1" 1( / X%)8 Q8 , t > 0 / i L G$
!" 2 1( L D F % .! E W 1( Q (8
: , W !" ) ) 1(
40
V oc = V t h = 10 V = 6.7 V
20 + 40
:(Z6I ($ / H%)8R % W I G8@)
20 ⋅ 40
R t h = 30 + = 43.3 Ω
20 + 40
() . t = 0

() :27.1
. % &' ($) !"#

8 . t > 0 / E W 1( G27.1 (&

(I)8 ,1(% 9) % . τ = L R = 4 43.3 = 0.09 s D ;
() 8 , C . i L (∞) = 6.7 43.3 A = 0.15 A I / i L Q ()
/ (I)8 E% <28 () >3) ,( 0.20 59TC / Q
/ 6 % P6 NI K -H .( 0.15 8) E! 3
:#/ t > 0
i L (t ) = i L (∞) + (i L (0+ ) − i L (∞)) e −t τ
= 0.15 + (0.20 − 0.15) e −t 0.09
= 0.15 + e −t 0.09
86
.Y27.1
,G$ G"
Summary
)9: 9.1
.
•
:
!"
!# !$ % $ $
v = Ri i = Gv
1 t dv
v = ∫ i dt i =C
C −∞ dt
di 1 t
v =L i = ∫ v dt
dt L −∞
E(! /$)8R 2)) 3$ ) 1D!") ! #/ R 46 N •

DB )D!") ! #/ L C 46 ,((( /$)8 #C i 2 R
1 1
.(w C = Cv 2 w L = Li 2 ) 3$
2 2
;() G8 ;( ) 4 Q(
M [ 3
3 •
.! !"
,# 7% /$)8R I - "D / ,E W 1( )4 •
#C F A .II - ! #/ )! ; 1( #C (7
#/ NBH #C (7 4 ,; B
H 8( UE)
.II -
NBH G" ,M #C # 7/ /$)8 I 5I) P •
I 8 NBH Y(B I ) G" , I) M
. ! (3 ,
) (? K #C G) ;()\ 8( )8) Q8
.) 6 ( 6) (
$@) Q8
87
Problems
: )39% ; 6 5
] 34 .1
V = − ∫ E dl W = ∫ F dl
6) )D) L

M )[ 6 - $ 5 !" ($ ;W6& .2
) , ) 1(
I ,F 1I G8 .() 1 (I 1" !
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. 9.11⋅10−31 kg

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%
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. 6.9 ⋅10−8 s :
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!" $ (I .( 1.5 ) <() N 4 ) I F8 .6

$ 6 : _/
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ND9 F8 $ . 10−6 Ω m $B K! / I 8)
_N 4 (I I -6
(") D F98? L %)8R 8E( G8? .8

. I HB E(! <98 $%) ) HB / ) I
gauge ) 14 N3( LI L F8 $ 1 I G8
.(No. 14
;8I / 79 . R l = ρ A = 8.17 ⋅10−3 Ω m :
88
() -$I 8 ,() ($I ,
) :F98?
,3.264 ,8) ,(13.30 ,4.116 ,6) ,(21.18 ,5.189 ,4) :(-(
,14) ,(3.309 ,2.053 ,12) ,(5.261 ,2.588 ,10) ,(8.366
,(0.8231 ,1.024 ,18) ,(1.309 ,1.291 ,16) ,(2.081 ,1.628
.(0.3256 ,0.6439 ,22) ,(0.5176 ,0.8118 ,20)
(I .$ 220 K(I 5( / ( 300 $% .9

_! 2I ) /$)8R
.$ 66 :
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. I 1

%)8 I 1
/$)8R G8 10 O8 #C M &/ .11
. P =V 2
R 1(%
G8 . 10 1 ( 4 ) () N 5 !) 3 I ( .12

. I 1
(( 3$
." 800 :
,(horsepower hp) (B 6 1.341 $ c .13
, (British thermal unit Btu) $( (( 1 0.948
,1 hp : E(! c G8 .(cal/s) 1(M(Z 239
.1 cal/s ,1 Btu/s
(W-s) $ ,(N-m) () ) , " c .14
kilowatt-) /8 $ c G8 .(ft-lb) 1(N3 0.738
.1(NI (hour
. 2.66 ⋅106 ft-lb :
.N 15 ,$ 110 % N
6 ,E(! 4B8 I 8) .15
89
;"( 10 N(T 250 1(( "( -( D9 1
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. 1W-s = 0.239 cal , 1cal g o C / 1(( 8)

. #/ ) LO / 1((
B B8 I 3 ; S .(T E(! B8 G&( .16
,/8 $ ;)8 8 8) 3$ ) ; C ,N 10
!" X() _ 30 1 (( )8 B8 P) ) (I
.$ 120 8
.<(R 82.94 :
#/ $! !" G8 ,3.1 !" Q( 3 %)8 .17
.V R = 9 V ,$ 12 ($ !" C R1 I
2
(/ ( () G8 ,3.1 () Q( 3 %)8 .18

. I R = 0.5 A ,( 1 ($ () C R1 I
2
.( 0.5 :
10 !) 3 I ($ $ 120 8 !" ($ 6) () .19
_ 5 9B I 12) 3$ (I .N
.N 10 !) 3 I ($ G) () - 6& (G)

(I .$ 169.7 8) )" 1( 3 <!" $%
_ 5 9B I 1
3$
_U))8) , ) 19 O8 (G) () )(I " C .20
.v (t ) =V p cos10 t !" #$%& ,4.1 1( .21
. R I 1 #$8 7 /$)8R G8 ()
90
K") / 3 -$)8) ,7 /$)8R 1(/ #C 1% (G)
_4.1 1( /$)8R 5)
. Pave =V p2 R , p (t ) =V p2 cos 2 10t R :
)D)
M )6 6 1" X(/ G8 () .22
; C ( ( 0.05 %8 ) 1
. 100 cm 2 6 8
_$ 100 8 !" / %) K! (G)
_K/ %) K! 7/? !" (I (;)
, 3 !) ,( 20 !$ ,%( () H 5
$@) .23
i = 20 mA , t < 0 / i = 0 ) ( ( 5 !)%8 #/
.v !" G8 .( t > 3 ms / i = 0 , 0 ≤ t < 3ms /
. t < 0 / ) N X()
, 0 ≤ t < 3ms / v = 4 ⋅103t , t < 0 / v = 0 :
. t > 3 ms / v = 12 V
X() .5.1 DB@) ) # 7% 3$ G8 .24
. C = 5 μ F 200sin 2π t #$% 5
$ !"
Q #/ 3 !) ,$ 2 !$ %( H 5
$@) .25
/ v = 2 V , t < 0 / v = 0 ) ( 2 8 H()
U) Q () G8 .( t > 3 ms / v = 0 , 0 ≤ t < 3ms
. t < 0 / N% E () <H()
, 0 ≤ t < 3ms / i = 103t , t < 0 / i = 0 :
. t > 3ms / i = 3A
.N 3 ) I - D LI / d6 ($ 6) .26
!" XB ,(() -$I) %)8R ;/8 6 %
91
.$ 0.9 8) ) 1 1(B? I #C $ 1.5
0.9 8 !" / ($ B I G8 ()
.$
.1 ($ 1 1 V !" #$8 I G8 (G)
.1 ($ 1 1 I () #$8 I G8 (;)
:I8 O8 .27
.($ ! 2I) ) #$8 /$)8R G8 ()
.watt-hour /8 $ 1(

I
I 3$ G8 (G)
1(
I ($ ) ,(R 1.20 ($ (%8 C (;)
HI)) ) ) ) K (3 _/8 $ ;8
./8 $ ;)8 8 1/ 8) ) (! ) ;$
;8 41667 (;) ./8 $ 2.88 (G) .$ 0.48 () :
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) 1( !" S . )! 8 56 - 4 & .28
,( 2 <% !6 ! ( () ,$ 6 )!
1( R i v s G8 ,II !" - 8? 56
12.1
) 1( !" S . )! 8 56 - 4 & .29
,( 2 <% !6 ! ( () ,$ 6 )!
1( R i i s G8 ,II () - 8? 56
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92
- <88) N 3 ,N 2 ,N 1 8) ! 3 ; I ^9 6) .30
#/ $! !" G8 .$ 12 8 K!" !" -
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. I #/ $! !" G8 (;)
28.1
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.($ ! 2I) ) /$)8R G8 (;)
,$ 4.7 (G) .( 0.32 ,( 0.63 ,( 1.58 () :
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29.1
1( i 2 i 1 () I

M )[ % ) Q(
M [ 3 %)8 .34
93
:N () G8 .(23.1 (7) 30.1
.!/ $! !" N 10 I ( () G8 ()
.!/ $! !" N 2 I ( () G8 (G)
30.1
,(G) () !" !" ;() G8 ,34 O8 (2( .35
.$I G() 1( K %)8
M
.$ 4 ,( 2 (G) .$ 10 ,( 1 () :
() ()

34

.36
- /, : .
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& '
*+% , #
- /, 0 !" '
& 1 2 '

. 0
'
& 1 10
'

1( b a )! ) 1( E W 1( 2 .37

.31.1

.V t h = 1V R t h = 1.5 Ω :
31.1
,31.1 1( [)! I ;W6& C .38

/$)8R 3 _!C # 7% /$)8R I #C e) ) !) 3
_") # 7%
94
E( 32.1
1( E W 1( 2 .39
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1( b a )$I 6 R L I .40
(I (G) .# 7% /$)8R I 5I) R L 3 2 () .33.1
R L I
I /$)8R (I (;) _/$)8R F)
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33.1
./$)8R I I #% f3 .41
R1 I ( () G8 23.1 I

M (Z ) %)8 .42
./8 G(I/ ( K")R QB i 2 () K") X() %
.24.1
1( i 2 () G8 .43
. −0.532 A :
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< H() 24.1 1( i 1 () G8 I I($ %)8 .45
95
./8 G(I/ ( K")R <B (" i 3 ()
1( R 5 I ( () G8 I ;R% %)8 .46

.24.1
. i R = i 1 − i 3 = 0.19 A :
5
) ;I ;() K")R L X() 1E .47

_I ;R%
J6& #) ( ( 2 !)%8 @) ,25.1 #C 1(C .48
:N 100 !) 3 I ($ 6) N ,$ 12 !"
. E)R 2 ()
.N 100 I (/ ( E)R () 2 (G)
. D ; 2 (;)
. 200 μ s (;) . 0.12 A (G) . 24 ⋅10−6 C () :
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.48
S .$ 100 8 !" ($ - <88) ; ^9 6) .50
( 0.01 ,( ( 0.1 ,( ( 1 :8) !)%8 ;
_ ($ #/ 5( (I ,(
6 ^9 ;%8 E %8 #/ R

< ( :
:8) <88)
1 1 1 1
= + +
C eq C 1 C 2 C 3
:5I& ($ !" !" Q( 3 %)8 N
96
V =V 1 +V 2 +V 3
1 1 1
=
C1 ∫ i dt +
C2 ∫ i dt +
C3 ∫
i dt
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
=⎜ + + ⎟ ∫ i dt
⎝ C1 C 2 C 3 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
=⎜ + + ⎟Q
⎝ C1 C 2 C 3 ⎠
L , C eq E N()) ) Q 3 G8 0

#/ $! !" 8) , C . <H ") )
R
g G" .V 3 = Q C 3 , V 2 = Q C 2 V 1 = Q C 1 :^9 ;
JE6 ; : L " G8 LM 6
+ Q I - < H% !H% ,8%) <% 6 ;
. )($ ) )"(B )6 #/ −Q
.$ 90 ,$ 9 ,$ 0.9 :
!) 3 I - <88) ( ( 2 !)%8 (T 6) .51
:$ 12 !" ($ N 10
.<" $ 1 % !" G8 ()
.< < D <) 8) 1 H % !" 2 (G)

M [ ($ 6) N ,$ 12 #) ( ( 2 !)%8 @) .52
.N 100 !) 3 I
. DB E)R 3$ 2 ()
.

! ()
." ( 2.64 (G) ," ( 144 () :
97
N 1 !) 3 I ,( 1 8 H() Q 6& .53
F) ! 1( .$ 1 $ 12 !" ($ - <88)
h &) 1( 1O" ($ Z%@) .26.1
!
:N 1 !) 3 I
.)8R 7 Q i 0 E)R () 2 ()

. D ) 8) 1 HI % 1( () G8 (G)
3 >3)) I 1
(( 3$ G8 (;)
.(6 #) E)R !) 3 Q ()
( 10 H() Q

1( D ; G8 .54
.N 100 !) 3 I
. ( 100 :
(I)8 ^ $ 1 5T= 3 27.1 X() .55

3 ($ X() . i L = 0.15 A I / Q ( ()
N8( N 30 I #/ $! !" G8 () .1O" ;%=
. D 1( ; (I (G) .
/ () 2 . t = 0 7 27.1 1( 5P& .56

.t > 0
. 0.11 − 0.018 exp (− t 0.09) A :
98
‫ا
ا‬

AC Circuits
Introduction 1.2

!"#! $% .
! . !'( ) * .&!
) )! ) +! , *
.alternating current !

&$ ! % .sinusoidal # !
"
&1# /0 $*- #* +, .# $ '()
# sawtooth / # square wave #( #
.# # / $, ( 1 2 &!, triangular #**
9;), ; :34 %-/ 5 6
78 #3 #*
! #$ . " !

(signal)
1
! )( *+ , %' - %&' %(
#$ " #/ " ' #/ % 0 ' 1 2
! #$ " .&
#$ 2 3 2 0 4 #& 5 67 #$ $ ' ! #$ ( 7 ! "
.8 ! 9& # # %' :$ /7+ 67
99
.$< # - 5 6
- &
#3
% ( 68
%=8< ( 6 ">?8 6 #3 @;! -
1 %8 %8 ;! .steady state ? #8
&%* % .#( #!A # # %8 ! &? #8
60 5 #C- #D #-/
B
I( 8 #D ;! ' .( G( E! 50 ) E!
# , .#-/ "
# %/
-/ I/ + # $ #J3 KL) & 59;
%-/ " ' 5; 8
!
.
/ %-/
phasor 5 N(/ #? %(M ; &%A %-/
#6
.1 %8 (phase-vector)
! ,-( $ )/ 0! )1 )!'( #!

+! 4 1 * " ." $2 3! -(! )# -(
-5 /6! ,)1 -5 ! ,! $ )"7 ) $!'
! ) 1: ,&;! <=..)89
$ @2' $ ! ?* ! ,)1 7
>1 )' !
$A': *! ,)# -B 1 77! ); # ? ; $
2 ,)"' ); ! .! "#*
)G ) )F -%! .@ E 60 D! @!"# C!
D 1! amplitude modulation 1 )1
.)# 4- -( )1 H1: $ $' $IJ *( frequency modulation
# D! 0 3! -( ,); 77 !
1K $ $' , .sinusoidal carrier
LF# H/ $ ?*! ,)1 -% C! & & !
#
G
2 ,@ (@"#) @ )1 -( $ )9 /
0! .)1 )#! )#7 ; 2 ! @1
100
! ); $'
! ! ,3/9 -(
! ,Fourier 4! ) 1 O: $ $'K "B ,- !
* )# #! ,"'- $' " ,) )! -% D C2 )
)1 )# 4! ) )# ! ' *B .)/
-5 "# ! "! )1 ' ,
@ )2 $ ! * .)# 4! ! "# 0!# 1: )7
.3/9 -( &# $ $ 4 )# -5 @/
# 3 +? ;! 8< D - B %B

- %8 # 9 1
.# >; - 8 (
Sinusoidal Driving Functions 2.2

! !"# &# ' ,@# ! "# & $' *%
)1 ! 4 !P $' *% ,* .@G )# 3/9 )/ $'
! )!F! ! 4 # ' $B , $ $' "#
:Q O*R $ S ,2 .!"# "#
v s = V s cos ω t (1.2)
2
D!F U ! ω ! , # & ! V s ! ,& "# ! v s
:)R $' D "# D ! * .angular frequency
v = V cos(ω t + θ ) (2.2)
&
!"#$ %
4.1
2
V p
p $/0 !
.+
, +- ) v ≡ v (t ) ' ( )*
5' % .

!
+ 3! +# +
$ (* !! 4 ω * )1 2
6 )
T ! ! ! &
- 1' )+# +
!
- ! -
! 2π !#
!
- )frequency f !!
+ 507
14 )
! 1 T !# 5' % . ω T = 2π
.Hz 84 )
! f = 1 T = ω 2π
101
$ $ ,$' ?* θ !! V $ ' JK $
&! ,) )'- V1.2 '- DK ,2 .4 ω D!F
U* '- V1.2 '- DK ' . $ $' v "#! ,vs "#
.$!1 " ω ! V s . θ U!! V "# # W ,!"#
) v () .

() :1.2
. t +#,
&
v s * (') . ω t %
&
( ω # $ V !
"
ω

" . t &

' ω t #
$% 1.2 ! "
& 3 v , 12) % θ %- / + , v %* & v s ()
" .
' θ ω %- 2 % θ %- v s 7/ v , - 6 (v s 4
2 )8 6 93 .v )8 v s , - -
>3 >3 θ 1/ % = & *8 ): + ;% 2 <%-

% + 1= <%- 2 )8 6 % , .= -" *8
. "
;?
102
)' , & 0!G! ! ! ,D! 1- C1K!
)G 71 % L!# $! $ );! )!" θ ! V
. F 3! ! !"# C2
Phasor analysis
1.2.2
@IK ,L ! C 2'! R ! D! ,
R "# & & )!! ) ) RLC */ *%! .RLC
,) i (t ) )1 ! ,2.2 '- $ @! ,v (t ) $F &
:) )1 ! ,) "# +!-' $!; J
di (t ) 1
v (t ) = R i (t ) + L + ∫ i (t ) dt (3.2)
dt C
)# !"# ) $
I ' , )1 )" )1 U* 1K
$'% @2' )'- X ,v (t ) = V p cos ω t ; $
: !" D! 1- E .D! 1-
.)/ )Y & 1

1 $ ,7
@ ! .1
H1 )/ )G )1 !# W $ ) )1 .2

.)2
;
' @ 6
=)
> A%
= .3
>
B/? $ C> =D
B/? $
> ?)
B/2
" .B/2 F F ' 9/ 6 .( =D E
9I 31%- %- 6; e ± j x = cos x ± j sin x 2
G @ H 6
. θ r

b a

3
r = (a 2 + b 2 ) " # a + jb = r e j θ :!

a &! . 1 (a + jb ) = (a − jb ) (a 2 + b 2 ) = e − j θ (a 2 + b 2 )½ :!$
% . θ = tan −1 b a
.1 j = − j e j π /2 = j j = −1
% r b
103
.Euler's or DeMoivre's identity

:

! "! # $% & '
.

&( ) *

+ , #

V p cos ω t = Re V p e j ω t

.4
!
"#$ Re .x
Re(x)
.+ "
, $ $ .V p e j ω t )* &' ( !% !
13 "$ Re 0
1
2 1$/ * -/
567 23
" " "
$ )4
!
.)4 8 $7

'
$ "$;7 ;
$ I e j ω t 19
: )* ( 7
23
.5
?
0$ I &' ( ' '7
13 =7>* . I $<
. I &$ AB -'(: @
AB "
$$ . I 1
, '#' '( -
C' =D!E ', 13 $$ .6
e jωt I 8F i (t ) 6!

I &$
:&*
G567 23$
i (t ) = Re I e j ω t (4.2)
I = I p e j θ &$ AB $< " " "
!(
:!

"
i (t ) = Re I p e j θ e j ω t = I p cos(ω t + θ ) (5.2)
1
$ 1
$ 6 < θ $ (
''()
" $< I p
.13 =D!E θ $ I p '#' &* . ';7 $
θ I p
4

!" .

4
1( 2(
(( 3) .
# $ %&' ('
#) *
+
' , -/
' / '
0'
) 0
."
$ 6
7 4)
/ 0 1( 5&
104
I p e j ω t v (t ) ! " V p e j ω t %& %& .$2.2 ! " #
:'( !) ! & * +,- 3.2
" i (t ) ! "
I
V p = R I + jω L I + (6.2)
j ωC
() .RLC v (t )

i (t )

() :2.2
(#) .
!
" I
V =V R +V L +V C

.
$ "

'$' I "$;7
K 2$ .
e j ω t 0 ' +$
:!( ":
4 0
Z
(7.2)
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
V P = ⎢R + j ⎜ ω L − ⎟⎥ I
⎣ ⎝ ω C ⎠⎦
=Z I
E
$ impedance 1
:
'$7$ ' E
1$ $<
567 $ &' ( ' ;3 Z 1 0: . Z 6
ω L F
' $
'($ .reactance 1
)'
!L
2 567$ R
105

; 1 ω C &$ ' $
'($ 17$ 1
)' $
; $<
.1 1
)' $

( "# ) 7.2 #& & $ % (! "# ) 3.2
: ' . I #
Vp
I = (8.2)
R + j (ω L − 1 ω C )
* "#F% 1
' (
' "
. I =V p Z 1 $*
8.2 1' $ 8F . 1
' ' '(4 $
:MN
! &' O
V p [ R − j (ω L − 1 ω C )]
I = (9.2)
R 2 + (ω L − 1 ω C ) 2
:1
1
19
: 1' G< "
$
$
Vp
I = e − j arctan (ω L −1 ω C ) R (10.2)
2 ½
⎡⎣ R + (ω L − 1 ω C ) ⎤⎦
2
= I p e − jθ
.&$ AB 19
: "$;7
E
& " $< <$
567 23$ e j ω t 10.2 8F
6 " !( "$:!$
: i (t ) = Re I p e j (ω t −θ ) &*
17

Vp
i (t ) = cos(ω t − arctan (ω L − 1 ω C ) R ) (11.2)
R 2 + (ω L − 1 ω C ) 2
= I p cos(ω t − θ )
:&$

" * .13 G< " " ', $
+
106
I p =V p R 2 + (ω L − 1 ω C ) 2
. θ = arctan (ω L − 1 ω C ) R

! ! " .
- ,(V =V p e j 0 =V p
'(*! % & !) #$

" 1% , I = I p e − j θ
'(* /! 0
.5 %! RLC 22 3 4$ & . θ !
2 ?7$ "F* !( 51

$ 1B4 P23$ L' QF

AB ';7 "E .8R2.2 "B #

+ "
, (B
' I = I p e − j θ
AB * .$ "B * AB $<$ V =V p

7.2 1' '' $* C 1 ='
6 .1 θ 1
$ 6 SE
17$ θ $ 1
$ 6 =:* F
' * &$ ' T:E
.1
$ ;3 @ RLC 1
!! U ' 0:$$ .';7 O
@
4
.1 G< KR2.2 "B (B 2 &E
2.1
.v (t ) =V p cos(ω t + φ ) T:
*R2.2 "B ';7 )
NV
. i (t ) U '
8
.2.2
:3.2
e j ω t

.

5
." # ω t $" $( " e j ω t ! " # $%& '%

.$ e j ω t '& +'& , t = 0 *% )(
107
1* = F$ +$ &$ AB U ' U ' ")$ W
- $*

O$ -
(B -';7 T:
v (t )
9$ 1% $ 0! $ 1$

: ';7 AB E
C
.3.2 "B
v (t ) =V p cos(ω t + φ ) = Re V p e j (ω t +φ )
= Re V p e j φ e j ω t = Re V e j ω t
:MN

AB '
' 1' " .V =V p e j φ

V p e jφ
I =
R + j (ω L − 1 ω C )
. e j φ &$ ' '$7$ 5 8.2 1'! 1;B 1' G<$

$ ' 2* 11.2 1'
6
" E
:MN
11.2 8.2 1' = $2 .
i (t ) = I p cos(ω t − θ + φ )
13 G< " φ &$ Q

6W ' X2
5$
';7 13 G< *' ' .*R2.2 "B U ' 1:2 +! <$7

?* #
& I (B
$ U ' &9
& V =V p e j φ (B
8R2.2
!B 1
1
(B =2 . I = I p e − j θ e j φ &$

" 1B*
$' ' -F
* 13 G< !( O KR2.2 $
.1( 8 ( $' G7 φ < ' 1
$ 6 ';7 $

2.2.2

Impedance and phasor relationships for R, L, and C
1$ ! v = 1 C ∫ i dt $ v = L di dt $ v = Ri :=,Y *
*
1
$ 1
(B =,Y =$ ', 6 Z$ [
$ 1 $
108
)

.V = I j ω C $ V = j ω L I $ V = RI :'' Z$ ; 1!
:
$ ';7
1
$ 1
(B =,Y $ = 4.2 "B
? O $ ';7 * '7 *
! &$ AB * [ .1Y U '
?( 23
$ 0! 1 17' 90 ?
$ 1$ 1 -
$
.1% 1 17' 90

!
" # $V = I Z .

) * $# .%& ' ( Z
$/0 - +, ' .6 &
'
6 & / 12 1 - 0345 #0
8 $-9: ' $#
$7* ' .
.< => : . 6 & 12 ; *

.C L R

:4.2
.
!" #" $% &' 6
* , -"/, 0 %

- 1 2 !

(% () (
*+
*+ % -
3" $
%4 ! - 3" -
% .-+%0 -

.#" 31&5 & !

109
2.2
';7 *R5.2 "B 1#

U ' ZD9N '( v 2 (t ) ';7 ')'
.v = cos 2t
( 1FW 1
$ 1B* U ' W$* 6 Z$ U ' "#$N
T:E
" "
!( .8R5.2 "B #
O$ = U ' :(
1 T:N$ j ω L = j 2 ? -:( &< 1 [
$ 0!
v = 1cos 2t = Re 1 e j 2t $ . ω = 2 rad s 4 1 j ω C = 1 j = − j
K2 ';7 E
$ .V = 1e j 0 = 1 ';7! &$ AB !( ":

U ' 8R5.2 "B U ' ?B .W
- $* i 2 8 .v 2 = 2i 2
:
! ' 8$ \4 < !( " $ $ *'

. () .

() :5.2
# # +,%- && () .! #$ %& '* ! " !!# ()
.

110
1 = j 1I 1 + j 1I 2
0 = j 1 I 1 + (2 − j 1) I 2
:1$; I 2

$;7 = ' < N
−j 2 − j 3π
I2 = = e 4
2+ j 2 4
I 2 5.2

'$ V 2 ($) . 2 4 $ % &' 135 ! "#
) / .V 2 = 2 2 e − j 3π 4 : , &- 2 ' + I 2 (*
:'# ++) 10 2 e i ω t ! (* 0 $
2 j (2t −3π
v 2 (t ) = Re V 2 e j 2t = Re e 4)
2
2
= cos(2 t − 3 π 4)
2
.6 Z$ K2 $ "2' & ]
^ 'R5.2 "B &E
] ';7
&$
? K2 -';7 "2' $ 1 ?
7 ';7 E
.17' 135 ?( 23

$ $ 0.7
= &* 5 7 $' KR5.2 "B 1

$
1B* =SE
- $ ;%* !( O!9 ) 1Y '$;7 1B* $ I 2 '7
' .Z2*

)
' $
* 87
V L $ I 1
(B * /Y (10.1 1,Y!
23
V 2 1% ';7 * + 0FE
.(17'
G';7 ( 23
0!
$ .V 2 1C, 1
$ 6 I C
.17'
I C <
(
A$7) ;% !( O!9 * 87
U' ( 1
$ 1B4 =
* 1

&E
.=
" ((11.1 1' ) I 1 = I 2 + I C :
! U' &
] ^

V 2 AB "$ *$ $ % $* 2 1$
$ ';7 * KR5.2 "B
. I 2 AB "$ 0F &$
111
Admittance 3.2.2
0#N admittance 1
$ " -V 1 87
1($7 1
$, * 1
$ U'C .Y = 1 Z &* 1 8$! ;3
2* &* .1
' _ ;
$, A$7 &$
(% 1$:$ :

!! ":$! -Y2 +$ -
(% - <!:$$ 1%$ -%!$ 1$
:!( !: 3.2 "B
Y = (1 R ) + (1 j ω L ) + ( j ω C ) (12.2)
= (1 R ) + j (ω C − 1 ω L )
= G + jB
.susceptance
B G .

$ .#
! " ω C > 1 ω L
.!
&' " % ω C < 1 ω L
Y = G + j B 1
$ 1W' Z = R + j X 1 (

:MN
1 1 G−jB
Z = = = 2 (13.2)
Y G + j B G +B2
.,$! - $ 17$ 1
)' O $ 1 1($ * &E
<$

3.2
!
High-Pass and Low-Pass Filters
< E
'' !( ' =% $ =%! 1 * -/
.= '' $ ''! 1 = '
* )$ :
112
:"W 1CB$
:( 1#$ 1
=B @ Z# 0$$
1%
/$ \% &'
*
RC TB * -/$ .RL TB$ RC TB
$ =%! =B 4 -
!( RC =B "F
# %N RL TB ;
'

.U'( 1%!$ 1
S7
^ $ 1!

RC filters RC
1.3.2
14 5
6 ./0 (0 1*2# 3 RC -) $,6.2 () *+
;< .V i = I R + V 0 $ %78 ' # 9# $ :# %)
:7-) # - .V 0 = I Z C = I j ω C $
V 0 I j ω C V i (R + 1 j ω C ) j ω C
= = (14.2)
Vi Vi Vi
1 1− j ω R C
= =
1+ j ω R C 1 + (ω RC ) 2
1 1
= e − j arctan ω RC = e − jθ
1 + (ω RC ) 2
1 + (ω ω0 ) 2
.8
!; $ 3 $ >
5!+ % ω0 = 1 RC
> θ = tan −1 ω RC = tan −1 ω ω0 - ( 1 1 + (ω ω0 ) 2
$ ( ' @! ./,6.2 :,6.2 ) %?

.* 0" $ ' @! %&80 -)
! "# $%

V 0 V i

7
+
, -
/ 0 1& 2 . + :(
)
% *)
&'
. 2 3# 4
V 0 V i
6 # 78 3
5 .5 1 2 4 ω = ωo = 1 RC 8
; ' .75 6 ω 0 6 4 2

2 9
.f 0 = ω 0 2π < <& f 0 ' 6
4 . 6

113
? 0" % 2 A80 /0 # $ 7&$ ( () -&
3 B 7&$ 5!+ *) >
%# 45 B (0
.(9(dB) (!
() .

() :6.2
.$" % & "' *' + $," - " () .#
!"
I

+ .!&
' ( !
) * !
$ % !"#

.V 0 23 V i 10
+0 /% R !
$
,' - +
4 Z C = 1 j ω C !&
!
R ,' V i 10
- +3 !

.! !* V 0 78 .'
5# 6$ (%
+3 !':" V 0 18 !$-
V 0 ≈V i !$-
98 f 0 2$
< 23 f 0 .9-$ !-* ;

4
4
< ,
*= 9
!$-

!$-
$-

7>'$ !&
!- 4"
.low pass filter !"#
!

23 (

*
!
,' ?3 2$ @ V 0 23 !* + %
!%
*
!% 23 / 1:A
4
< .% V i
.)
+ 1$ + 1
Pi P0 10 log10 P0 Pi

9
. 20 log10 V 0 V i
!"# $% & ' ! .

114

RC
2.3.2
High-pass RC filter
4
,' ' D2.7 23
' /$3 C R 2
B C 8

23 (
+ 9
.!"#
E
# !

:F@ V 0 = I R , /0 .V i = I j ω C +V 0 ,' !$'
V0 1 1−1 j ω R C
= =
V i 1 + 1 j ω R C 1 + 1 (ω RC ) 2
1
= e j arctan (1 ω RC )
1 + 1 (ω RC ) 2
1
= e jθ (15.2)
1 + (ω0 ω ) 2
J= . θ = tan −1 ω0 ω !-* ; < ω0 = 1 RC

.'
+ K- 5# + -
5D7.2 )D7.2 A

θ = 0 V 0 V i = 1 ω0
/& ,' 2< 2 !
V0 Vi ≈ ω ω0 1 3 ω0
/& % 2< 2
2< 2
f 0 = ω0 2π $ 2
#@ . θ ≈ 90
.- 1$ ! !

4
4
< ,
*= .?
,'
E
+3 1#
> "

- ' ( 4
<
*=
M .
*
+ !

9
L# , !'

)

)N
N
*
+
9
@ )
( 1O#"@
.9P ?3 1>#"
5# + ; +
+3
() .

() :7.2
. !" # $% # & ' * + $,-, () .
115
RL filters RL
3.3.2
+ 9
.!"#

;'
4
D8.2 J=
+ < V 0 = R I .V i = j ω L I +V 0 ,' !$'
"
:+ 4 J* .5#
V0 1 1
= = e − jθ (16.2)
V i 1 + j ωL R 1 + (ω ω0 ) 2
ω0
.14.2

. θ = tan −1 ω L R = tan −1 ω ω0 $ ω0 = R L ! "# 16.2
%&'& %( ) *+ ,- /( 0 /,
$ 1 7 8 "6 4 5 .6.2 12(
-32 /(
.;96.2 :96.2 )2( 1 2 1
() .

() :8.2
.
High-Pass RL Filter

RL 4.3.2

!
4
,' L R 2
B C 8
!

.V i = R I + V 0 ,' !$' + 9
.)D8.2 23
:+ 4 J* .V 0 = j ω LI 5# +
V0 1 1
= = e jθ (17.2)
V i 1+ 1 1 + (ω0 ω ) 2
j ωL R
ω0 = R L F* 15.2 !
!
K< !$

116
!$E *
! '
( 4
< . θ = tan −1 ω0 ω
.5D7.2 )D7.2 ' 23 !
M' - -
7:# -'
3.2
1#" < 1>#"

* !*: ;<
,' 1#"
(
1>#"
; 4 R$ .)

!'
5# (
/
1#"

.2
.?
)
% )
+ 9
(
*
+ !
(
"

*
+ !
! !'
# , (/
!S '
5#

, ! !
& .+'
- = < !'
M' 9E @
L# , !'

*
+ !
$ 9

!
.1#"

, 9"# 2
)
+ >
4
*
+ /

1:A
9.2 23
!
!&
4

9
U< 20 ,' 2 E
= / >
1E
.T%
. 0.1 MΩ 1#"
# !
$
J* .
*

!% !
. ω0 = 1 RC V 4
9-8 ,-=
. C = 1 2π f 0 R = 1 ( 6.28 ⋅ 20 ⋅105 ) = 0.08 μ F F@ !* !
8 ,'
V 8 ;* U< 20 + 4 )D7.2 !

*
! 1#" !'
,
2 ! ?
8
* 3
4"
.coupling !$ ( /" 4>
< ,
*= .!8
C (3 :/W !
&
T# 4
* ;* C !
8
+' !&
1 ( 2

.

:9.2
.R
!
"#
117
"

# 4.2
Resonance and Band-Pass Filters
L !8-' # 9
R /
$
/ R * 9-$
23 "
.! !"#
E
(RC RL)
,' ' C
RLC ( !8- # J A6 1$
, "
.

!
9
C ( ,'
!

( ,' '

*@ 2< band pass filters !

K< ,
*
.$

!' ! (8 !-
X$ ; 23
very high / ! 62 ' 8 9$ &
* ,'
U< %
88 , 54
! !

" frequency VHF

*= !
(8 $* .U< %
6 +" ! !
(8

9

($ M' 4
* ! !

4
!- 2< !

-* .L# $
.2'
3 +$* ;* 2 resonant circuits
Series resonance $$ #

1.4.2
;= .!'*'* - ( D2.2 23 !
(

.- $3
+ +3 2 ! ?Y resonance -
J / 1$

2'P# X 4 =
< 8.2 !

: - 2- < . j (ω L − 1 ω C ) = 0 4

1
ω0 = (18.2)
LC
' !*
θ - ! ! U ,'

.(- $3
+ θ = 0
) 10.2 !
23
!*
!'*'* ( 23 !" !E ω0 J -
118
.D10.2 23
< !* !E' - !*
-

!
$
,$ - T
+" E X3 , /0
:J R V !*
- !% ( !
4 .-$3
Z = R + j (ω0 L − 1 ω0 C ) = R (19.2)
&
/ (% - !'*'* ( !
$
2< ($
.L#
$
( 23 ( ? -$3 ;'
!
$
R !
$

X C X L

() :10.2
"" (!) .
-" +/3 * + , (') . # $ %&
. 45

I .

('10.2 & %# . I =V p R %# 8.2 $ !"##
/0 1## . *#+ , - )
(V L + V C = 0 %
) # &$# 2&# 3 )
7 ) 8# +9# .V p 6 /0 !& &
#&
/ & &#
#
('2.2 & ) =+ * <'10.2 & ) : %# ;$
/0 !? : +@# . !2 ) θ # #> <
#/ 1
&
V L
= jω 0 L I = jω 0 L Vp R A $ %+ 3
119
& +@ .10 +9# ω0 L R 1 #& V L V p
D#+ G V L +7F :/0 BC78 /

D @
.V C /0 *2 ) # . ω0 ) HG# ω0
4.2
!"# . 90

.% & %
'( $
3 ' 44 )* &(+ , ((- /0%
12%
90 % 64) *% 44 &(+ 7 / 90 % 64) *%5
9% '( : (% &- /; %% .8, )*
:? :%
8> : 6+,= .7<11.2 -% &%
V 0 I j (ω L − 1 ω C ) j (ω L − 1 ω C )
= =
Vi Vi R + j (ω L − 1 ω C )
: :%
+ &7 &A 8(
V0 (ω L − 1 ω C )
=
Vi R + (ω L − 1 ω C ) 2
2
*
8 *# . +9 ('11.2 & I
(" D @ %
J" /@ %
!2 LC D $ ω0 = 1 LC
3 N & #& 10 /$ 2& L$M +K .
9# . L = 1 (2π f 0 ) 2C = 3 ⋅10−7 H= 0.3 μH +9 > 6 B>?
5

!" Q ω 0 L R
10
V C V p ,V C = I j ω 0C = V p j ω 0 RC #$ % & '

()* "+ .
0 Q 0
*
% &%-
"/ . 1 ω 0 RC 1

Q = ω 0 L R ω 0 = 1 LC
% * 2
* 345) Q 0 = ω 0 L R = 1 ω 0 RC
#$ % &
'

*
% .( Q 0 = 1 ω 0 RC %-

. Q 1 "+ 7 '
$
120
!

*$ +, R
! .)"# $! %& % '
(
$ # ! R # # 4! Q 0 = ω0 L R 3 )2, ' /01 Q -
.56! 7
8
. () .

() :11.2
Parallel resonance
#
2.4.2
- !=12.2 *# %, < 5, )$9
":" 6; 0
*@ .tank
8? ' ! tuned
9> ' )!
$9 ( '
?A C B AA 81- %, )2 )
$9 ( '

$9 ' %,
' ),:? .1, D

8
1, ) D 1 - 0& ω0 $ E$! &1- 1 # 4!
7 0 C> FG?6 H@ FG?6 1+6 .
%,
$9 ( ' * # .(2, 1, D F>?6@ 0
*( # 0J, . C # *
1 7 I>0 %
I p K
# I p 4 ' 0
!=12.2 *# %, %-
V 1- H@ . I p = I R + I L + I C '2 %,
L 7- %(; )6!
Y Z *G" . I p = V Z = V Y
: 5G2; '81 ' %,(
$ M # ) 7-@
$9 2 ! )E .
8? '

:%
121
& # $ () . !" # $ % () :12.2
# $ ! 3$ -/ $$0 (,) .('* + ) # $ #
.+ &3
Y = G + j (ω C − 1 ω L ) (20.2)
:

. G = 1 R
Y = (1 R ) 2 + (ω C − 1 ω L ) 2 (21.2)
R
Z = (22.2)
1 + (ω RC − R ω L ) 2

% $ . ω0C − 1 ω0 L = 0 :#

20.2 !
"
:
1
ω0 = (23.2)
LC
122
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&%
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%0 &%
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/ -
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.
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.
124
: '> Y = 1 Z = I V &%
/ T Q
1 R − j ωL
Y = j ωC + = j ωC + 2
R + j ωL R + ω 2 L2
R ⎛ L ⎞
= + j ω ⎜C − 2 2 2 ⎟
R +ω L
2 2 2
⎝ R +ω L ⎠

%
4 V I

'3

:
AG
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C = LR 2 + ω0 2 L2
: U

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L R 2 C AG - M &
50 4
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K
. ω0 = 1 LC 6
% VQ

:
% , '3
1 20210−9
ω0 = 1− −3
≅ 106 rad s
10−310−9 10
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!"
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Q 0 = ω0 L R = 106 ⋅10−3 20 = 50 & Q # $%
:,! *#
+ 34.2 ) '
. ( $ $

B = ω0 Q 0 = 106 50 = 2 ⋅104 rad s
.X%+
3.18
Q-factor and bandwidth

3.4.2
( $ 0
1+ ( / # / % -
( $ 1+
0 34
5 2+ +
+ +
125
$ # + ! 6 .5 2+ +
+ + #1
!
.11 2978 #1 ( $ #
278 (
$ Q 0 = ω0 L R = 1 ω0 RC 3
3 $
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78
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>" .( Q s = 1 Q p 3 #1 $ $
'# <
-

2-
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.<C12.2
<C10.2 +% 6B
:
.

Q

‫ا ا و
ا‬
Q = 2π × (24.2)
‫ا ادة اور‬

.12.2

I p = I R I L + I C = 0
( ω = ω0 )
"# $ % !& ' . P = ½ I p2 R !
:+ T * *
1 2 2π
W = PT = Ip R (25.2)
2 ω0
."
, -% /0 1
2# % /3 .T = 1 f = 2π ω0 ,
5
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2# !- 73- 1* . ½ C v 2
!"# .

11
*#+& *0# .$ %& ' ( ) *+&# ,*& $ -/ %
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2 2
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2 2 2
2 2 ⎝L
:12 73
2# - %
1 1
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2# % !- 9 /* /* $3

! 7 1 % !3 2 5 4- 21

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3 <
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2# - % !9 73
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3
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Ws ½ I p2 R (2π ω0 )
C0 #D ω0 = 1 LC

* /3 E ?*= F . Q 0 = R ω0 L
100 10 - ; Qs >% G9 . --
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4
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127
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=
.( 40
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:1 9 12.2

Y = G + j (ω C − 1 ω L ) (30.2)
⎡ ⎛ ω ω ⎞⎤
= G ⎢1 + jQ 0 ⎜ − 0 ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ ω0 ω ⎠ ⎦⎥
:+ 1
!& 2.2
--

Z = R + j (ω L − 1 ω C ) (31.2)
⎡ ⎛ ω ω ⎞⎤
= R ⎢1 + jQ 0 ⎜ − 0 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ω0 ω ⎠ ⎥⎦
!- M
83= *
N ' 1 J@
>9 /@ 30.2
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7
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V V 0

13
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128
Q

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' ! !57 !& ω2 ω1 ! ) . 1 2 2 $ $&"
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⎛ω ω ⎞ ⎛ω ω ⎞
Q 0 = ⎜ 1 − 0 ⎟ = −1 Q 0 = ⎜ 2 − 0 ⎟ = +1 (33.2)
⎝ ω0 ω1 ⎠ ⎝ ω0 ω 2 ⎠
:
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2 ⎤
⎢ 1 ⎥
ω 1 = ω0 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
⎢ ⎝ 2Q 0 ⎠ 2Q 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2 ⎤
1 ⎥
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⎢ ⎝ 2Q 0 ⎠ 2Q 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
: B
ω2 ω1

ω
B = ω2 − ω1 = 0 (34.2)
Q0

.
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: 8
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% $& 5.2
Power in AC and RF Circuits

7WC$ "I!"
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131
Average power '$ $& 1.5.2
"

F<
F- v (t ) =V p cos ω t H H " K 8<
:+ 0- "41 *XY 7 i (t ) = I p cos(ω t + θ ) &4
p (t ) = v (t ) i (t ) =V p I p cos ω t cos(ω t + θ ) (35.2)

Vp Ip
= [cos θ + cos(2ω t + θ )]
2
J8 7 p (t ) 4" < $ 7P F4 "41 F- #D-
0! ) H "
; T = 2π ω
" 7 P = ( ∫ p dt ) T I4
="!"4 35.2 ' ! 4 $ 7(@ 12.1
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:F4 "41 $" 8 .
D
Vp Ip
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2
7 @
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$ 7@-$ 6
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:14" GD F- #D-
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2
! " # $ % & '# ()
14
.* + #, -. +/ 01&
132
. I = I p e j θ ; i Q% 7 V = V p ; v Q% 735.2 - @6
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2
% "" " "41 *4 5%
; 28;
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" @ !!$ 7! ; Z = R + j X < ] 7 V = I Z
:+ 38.2
1 2 1 2 1 2
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2 2 2
66 TH K4 "41 J'"4 #> 1 7"- @ 6
:F- !-D 7 V Z + 38.2 I !"4 8< #6 .!
1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2
p= Re V V * Z* = Re V Z* = Re V Z Z = V R (R 2 + X 2 )
2 2 2 2
." 6 Z *!$ 8< ½ V R F< 28; #\">S"
2
7.2
#$% M # 5

$ #6! > 4 H ! #D
.# F< M6 "41 I4 .15.2
:# > F< ! "
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. Z L = R L + jX L

:15.2
133
100 100
I = = = 3.44 − j 2.13 = 4.04 e − j 31.8
Z 21 + j 13
:# H &4 8
VL = I Z L = (3.44 − j 2.13)(20 + j 10)
= 90.1 − j 8.2 = 90.5e − j 5.2
:# M "41 &4" 738.2 #"4

1 1
PL = Re VL I* = Re 90.5 e − j 5.2 ⋅ 4.04 e + j 31.8
2 2
1
= 365.5cos 26.6 = 163.5 W
2
:&4" #6! > M "41
1 2 1 2
Pline = I R line = 4.04 ⋅1 = 8.2 W
2 2
:! ?6 " -$ "41 &4"
1 1
Ps = Re Vs I* = Re100 ⋅ 4.04 e + j 31.8
2 2
1
= 404 cos 31.8 = 171.7 W
2
.# > M "41 ! ;R " "41 &4" 78<

2.5.2

Effective or root mean square (RMS) values in power
calculations
? R 6 "

I /"% &8
"4
" !M 6
H
" ,?6 7I!"
" . I 2 R &4" F4 "4
134
!M
8^ . I p2 R 2 ;
6 F4 "4
I p /"
8 &4" &8
!!$ 7 I eff = I p 2 + I!"
"- effective value 6
"41 $" .I!"
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"4
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.U
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C4 " F4 "41
6 .R 6 L-L
H
#"4 .H
"- ,6 !H 712.1 _6 ;?"
:+ F4 "41 C?
S! 7/% #-"
P = I eff
2
R (39.2)
" ./"H #$% $ @ &

" &
U P
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F< F4 "41 B! ,?6 &8
"4
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#$ F- &

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:`S"! (12.1
0! )
1 T
P=
T ∫
0
i 2 R dt (40.2)
:`S"! @ "

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1 T
I eff =
T ∫0
i 2 dt (41.2)
6 I4! ,L 7
"
1
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root F4
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8H ?! J8 .
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. I eff
F4 "41
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:&
H
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P =V rms
2
R = I rms
2
R (42.2)
135

" $ # $ % !& . ! "
- /0 ( +, $ −V p ( +, $ V p *() '
* ' 2 3 () 2) V rms = V p
38 3,4 $ 7 ( .(V p () 34- 5* 34 3
15
" V p ' " $ ()! 9
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8.2
J
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L-L H #"4

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8H I4 .
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8 F<
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] 7v (t ) = (2V p T ) t
+T 2 −T 2 "0- H
.,6"4 > # 46 H #RL
: H &4" 741.2 #"4

2
1 +T 2 ⎛2V p ⎞
V eff =
T ∫ −T 2
⎜
⎝ T ⎠
t ⎟ dt
+T 2
4 V p2 Vp
= 3
t 3
=
3T −T 2
3
B! 6 F< V p 3 &4 &8

"4 H 78<
.L-L H 8 H " >4" "4
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15
! ! #% & .V p = 120 2 = 170 V ! "# $ #%
.
'
136
.

:16.2
Power factor $& 3.5.2

# M F4 "41 36.2 !M
'L" I V B4 F- 7 P =V I cos θ &4"
6"4 I!"
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" H- F4
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[ 8H
7apparent power
;0 "41 V I !M4 8^ .F4 "41
"41 4! /! F- power factor pf "41 # C
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:
;0 "41 F< F4
P
pf = = cos θ (43.2)
VI

b 7I
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D
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137

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Z L = 4 + j 5
:17.2
&' C ! " #$%
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. (
120 &4 #U 2H f ! F< Z L = 4 + j 5 /"! #

e Z #XD
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R>c D "41 # ?D" " C I4
138
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.
R>c ; 7 pf = cos (tan −1 5 4) = 0.6247 "41 # &4 ()
:# D" " F4 "41 &4"
V R2 1202
P= = I 2 R = 2 2 ⋅ 4 = 1405 W
R 4 +5
7 Z L # @
" L$ "41 # D"
6 #"4 #4P /! F< @
0! . Z L' /"! @H '
@
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1 1
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Z L' ZL
= 4 41 − j 5 41 + j 120π C
D "41 # ?DS" H # F- $ 8^
H H
&4" IH 70.9 /" D" @
R>c
+ H
>E"
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IH 7 tan(−25.84 ) = −0.4843 &4 28; #0 ^ 8 . 25.84
H # 66 TH F< -g>" TH 4! @ &4
:& .Y L'
− 5 41 + 120π C
−0.4843 =
4 41
.

$ 198 &4" IH L$ 4 `S"! !
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1< .64 Y L' B! Z L @
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" P H a 25.84

66 TH F< -g>" TH 4! &4" @ IH 6 28;
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139
− 5 41 + 120π C
0.4843 =
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.

$ 448.8 a $" IH L$ 4 `S"! !
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:H"! C *!$ 7 tan 0 = 0 $ 7
6 "
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− 5 41 + 120π C
0=
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*' .

$ 324 &4" C + " 28;
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!

$ 198 "4 L$ IO-" @
R>c 0.9 D 0.625 &4
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$ 448.8 "4 L$ @6?4 0.9 @ 4
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10.2

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"41 # #H @
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. &4

; θ 7 pf = cosθ # "4 # &4
& 7 Z L = R L + jX L # ! ) # 2H #
"
:( θ = tan −1 X L R L
XL 10
pf = cosθ = cos tan −1 = cos tan −1 = cos 26.6 = 0.89
RL 20
140

8 &4" 7 163.5 # ? 76.2 #L IX4 @6
.
4.04 I!"
"
@
" L$ 1 D "41 # D" a $
"4 J-"4 H # 01 .
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$" #

`S"!" 7M $ L$ . J-"4" 1 L$ P <
"41 # &4 $ .13.2 #$% !M J-" %
" !!
&4" L$- 5 #L *4 " ! S" 71
.#
" 6 ; a L R < ] 7 C = L (R 2 + ω0 2 L 2 )
L$ ?
K4 I4 "4! 1 !!^ 7M
A
" F< @
0!
:F- #D! ω + C
I
! 8 . X C = 1 ω C
R L2 + X L2 202 + 102
XC= = = 50 Ω
XL 10
# #H" # @

" , 50 &4" "?
L$ #D 78<
.L$ 4 I4 $ 7
" C
8< . &4 "41
:# #6! > ! a

" %
8 DS"
( )
I = 100 ⎡1 + j 3 + (20 + j 10) ⏐⏐ (− j 50) ⎤ = 3.82 A
⎣ ⎦
:&4" # a #6! > D" 8 .

" #D ! ⏐⏐

2
⎛ 3.82 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⋅1 = 7.3 W
⎝ 2⎠
D # J8 F< C . 8.2 @ 64 *!$ !

:"41 @ D" J-"4
1 2 1 2 R L2 + X L2 1 2 20 + 10
2 2
PL = I R eq = I = ⋅ 3.82 = 182.5 W
2 2 RL 2 20
/$'"4$ D H /$'"4 -6" $ 7@$

# $ 8^
141
+ #6! >) 0!
?4 8; 7 163.5 &4 4
.(#

6.2
Transformers and Impedance Matching
7I!" H "4 #6! transformers *1? #"4S"

* H" # 7> F- , F< !" *
" H
G"
* H" ; *1 .(
"4
" > ) #6! >
@ L $
#% 7B"
; 60)
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.%100 + I
6
* 8 ('
! ; F< #? *- H!
% 4!G #6 O-6S"
4!G #6
D" ferromagnetic "?
K! #"4
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7(,D" H *1 $E" O6" 8;) @
GD (
"
&4" /!
M &8
] 5!L"4 *1 H"! *!$
! # R> .W out ≅ W in @
6" #> "4 =
> "4
8; 7K!-
$ 6 I-" /!$ 7 ! >! *
"
"-L 7 @?6 '
@ $ " *1 .#? ,H
0! ) B"
; 800 400 #H *
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H 7
5
.(#? ,D" > 12.2 #L
7"D *
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#" 7#
=
> #>
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# 1
@
Z $ 7 *1? ,D" /% D" .! 6
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"
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$" @A *1 F< @
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; -$ 20 F" B"
; 20
*
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GD" F" 7@ ,H
$
142

% #D *1 4 *
#
#D "41 F-
.#L #4 F- 7,R> =
> -
F" 7$ L
7 *
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4 #H F- *1 28; #" IH .! #? "-L
-$% F- 0 *! *

*H #6!" 7*
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"
1 *!
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%< # "-L .$ -DP
R 7B"
; -$ 15.75 &4
" # &8 -" flyback
,D ,' H ; 7(
L$ -$ 10) @ @
"4 @H ,6"
.cathode ray tube %P
( ) $ 1.6.2

Flux linkages and the ideal transformer
! F- - &!L C- 5 " C- #? CE"

5 "1 C- #XD 8< 718.2 #$% M ; @6 .16
C
"
M 7@" &!L C- J
S" 7v s = V p cos ω t H !
H
" F< &c" ! 4!G 4 M
5 "1 C-
:M
H &4 7Faraday &
! F- T! .&!L C-
dψ
v 1 = −N 1 (44.2)
dt
4!G 4 ; ψ 5 "1 C- * ; N 1

8; F4 .5 "1 C-

" 4 #? ! ?
"
! "#$ %& '

16
+ $ ,- ',& 60 ( )*

1 4 2 ../ 0#12 )* (
.5 ) $ 672 82 ! # ! #$ %&
143
H 4$

; 74$ 5
$ $
6 H
#? C- 6) 5 "1 C- @H %
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M ;1 7
.(
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L$
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ψ A
:18.2
, N 2 *& + % ) . ! " #%$ & ' (
. N 1 ! *& + % )
@ "
D 7@ !
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0!
?
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" 7"?
!
:+ 7&
!6 @6 7F / @H
dψ
v 2 = −N 2 (45.2)
dt
:&4" #> F< =
> H 4! 4 a K
! !!$
V2 N 2
= (46.2)
V1 N 1
744.2 F- 45.2 4 H"! 746.2 - @6
C- * 4! 5 "1 C- H F< &!L C- H 4! &4"
F- !" !^ 74! ! F< @
0! 75 "1 C- * F< &!L
3" &!L C- F< @
0! .V rms " F- v 0- H
144
"4 & #6! 1 5 "1 C-
" < & ./ "4 & M"" 1 7

'
@ 5 @
" 1< .H
90 + 5 "1 C- H @
R>E" $ 8
) ! 4!G 4
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7!G
" F4 7 @
R>E"
-5 - *1? 2 P !G
" #;< !!$ *1 ,0
.( @ @ H8! , L #? #H 8; 7(5 d )
*6" . cos θ = 0 :
D 5 "1 C- "4 # &4 8
C- $ 7H
F< ="" " ! #? # "
.,5' =8! ;
3" &!L
# F< ! "41 #6! #D" K

> - L
" " 718.2 #$% &!L C- # a -\G .#?

" #'"> F< J8 &c 7! "E" "4 R L 6 ""
a ?
&!L C-
I 2
" .5 "1 C-
H
#"> 75 "1 C- H H
" F< &c" ! H 4
F< @
0! .v s = v 1 R6 $ &8 5 "1 C- ! &H "
H
" " F< 5 "1 C- " #-> &c 7@"L ! H T6
J 8 @4$ 7# @4) @H @H ?
8; 75 "1 C-
5 "1 C-
" ,H!" .5 "1 C- F< " ( I 2 ,H!
17
! H
" 8 7# F< ,M6S" I 22 R L "4 I 1 H
7K
> *-$ .( a "41 # &4 75 "1 C-
)
! "

#$ .

17
!
#$ & ' '() !* + (, - % .V S v s =V p cos θ
(, ! 6 .3 4 5 4) /(, %01 ! - 2 2
" 78 9 ! 4:(6 # (, ; "
#$ .0
< =8 " !$ 9# 0 ( > .' #
)
!$ ( $ , (A 4 78 :@ ! .?:@ ! 3 @ "
"
#$ ") 440 (, < :, 5 - 5 =6 B( C " :(6
.4 B / ) 120
(, % 8 (
145
# $-"4 J-" V s I 1 = W 1 ! M6 "41 &4"
:`S"! 7V L = V 2 7V s = V 1 F< @
0! .V L I 2 = I 22 R L =W 2
V1 I1 =V 2 I 2 (47.2)
*1? D 7W 1 =W 2 & 728; "41 <
*1- @ @
6" !$ ] @ ; . L
D a .D" X4Y 8< %100 F< ;
#D $ " -
46.2 " #"4 J8 718
" #" 4! F- #D #4
:47.2
I2 N1
= (48.2)
I1 N 2
&!L * 4! &c" :H #" B$ #" 8;
D6! F< 7#> H F< =
> H 4! F< 5 "1 * F<
.#>
" F< =
>
" 4!

, #? ; L #? ; D'>
4
D!1 H"! 8; #D 7@L @
&!L 5 "1 -
K! * 8 - *1?- $ .#? ! @-$ 4!G
.D" 4Y 8< L *1? @H
$"
11.2
#$%
0! ) 10 kVA 3600 120 V :+ CMD L #?
7 N 2 N 1 *- 4! I4 . 60 &!L C- CE" .(18.2
!" .

18
& , !
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.+ )* I # $ % & '(
9 .2
3 % & 4, 5

67 8 % & %, 9: ;(< != +
5 -A . I 2 , %, >? @ &2
3 + & , - $,
. I 1 N 1 = I 2 N 2 4,
146
. I 2 I 1
" 75 "1 * 7
" #" 4!
F- T! 7(V 1 > V 2 ) H- > #? 8; F< @

0!
. N 2 N 1 =V 2 V 1 = 120 3600 = 1 30 = 0.0333 :$ 746.2
. I 2 = 30 I 1 $ 8 7 I 2 I 1 = N 1 N 2 = 30 748.2 - @ 6

.
30 >! H 7
30
" < &
`S"! 7
- @ 6 N 2 = 60 F< 7 N 1 = 30 N 2 F< @
0!
.V 1 I 1 =V 2 I 2 = 10 000 1
@ 0'! 7 I 1 I4 . 1800 &4" N 1
.I 1
= V2 I 2 V1 = 10 000 3600 = 2.78 A `S"! 7@
V 1 = 3600 V $
. I 2 = I 1 (N 1 N 2 ) = 2.78(30) = 83.33 A `S"! 748.2 #"4
12.2
@ ? 19.2 #$% &

6
#) ! 8 1
7&!L 5 "1 -
" ,$ ! &8 #? F- L'L
! "4 #6! #? 8; #"4 .(L # /"H8! $X S" 8
" "41 #$ ^ 7* , L #? F< @
0! .# F<
#D .&!L C-
F< #6"!" C4 5 "1 C- F< ! ?6
*Y 8^ .# &!L C- #D 7 ! 5 "1 C-
7 R s = 10 Ω ! 6 *!$ 7 Z L = 500 − j 400 Ω + # !
" F4 "41
6 7 N 2 = 1000 N 1 = 100 *- $
_V s = 120 e j 0 (I) I 1 = 5 e j π 4 () $ ! # F< #D"
:F- 48.2 #D! 7 I 1 = 5A F< @

0! ()
I 2 = I 1 N 1 N 2 = 5 (100 1000) = 0.5 A
:# F< M6 "41 &4" 8
. PL = I 2 R L = (0.5) 2 500 = 125 W

2
147
P V 2 I 2 I4 1
@ IH 7# M "41 I4 (I)
: PL = I 2 R L
2
2 2 2 2
PL = V R RL = V 2 RL Z L RL = V 2 Z L RL = I 2 RL
:`S"! *- 4! 7,L 7V 1 1

@ I4! 7V 2 I4
&4 5 "1 C-
H ; V 1 H .V 2 =V 1 N 2 N 1
F< R s 4! V s T H V 1 &4 7K
> *-$ .V s ! H @TH

F< !L
Z L # ! B$! ; Z L' ! . Z L'
:+ @6 50.2 4 $ 5 "1
Z L' = Z L (N 1 N 2 ) = (500 − j 400)(100 1000) 2 = 5 − j 4 Ω

2
:5 "1 C- H &4 785!
V 1 =V s Z L' (R s + Z L' ) = 120 (5 − j 4) (15 − j 4)
:# F< M6 "41 &4" 78<
PL = V 2 Z L R L = (V 1 N 2 N 1) Z L R L
2 2
2
5− j 4 1
= 120 ⋅10 ⋅ 500
15 − j 4 500 − j 400
2
12 144
= 500 = 500 = 298.7 W
15 − j 4 241

*4 T
H< $ F< 4 K
> 6

L #?- !L
$-"4 "41
i$8" 5 "1
B\$! ; 7 Z L' I4 7 8 .5 "1
$-"4 J-" &4"
:+ # $-"4 "41 FS" 75 "1
# !
2 2
PL = I 1 R L' = 120 (15 − j 4) 5 = 298.7 W
148
.V s Z L

:19.2
13.2
H * 8 $% #D

[ " 8G" /"41 1
@ ? ,?D
&4S" .
10 5 H
> S" 7B"
; 60
" 120
1 ! F0 4 L$ &4" . 1cm 2 !- !
6 4
* () I4 .(

"- weber
1 j$ '4"X 1) tesla '4X"
.5 "1
#$ #
" (I) 7#? O-
7@H M H $ 8< .4
" H ' =
b
b >"4 ()
# ; ψ p 7ψ (t ) = ψ p sin ω t & .@ H 4 *!$
?
" H &4 744.2 - @6 .4!G 4
8
:4$ 5
$ $
6 7C-
v = −N ψ p ω cos ω t
C- F- M H- @

6" @ 4 H 8; $ IH
:`S"! 6 1 H J8
" .,D" H #
k ? 5 "1
(
V rms = N 2 π f ψ p )
2 = 4.44 N f ψ p = 4.44 N f A B p (49.2)
!- !
6 4 ; A 7( f = ω 2π )
" ; f
@
M 6 H ; V 7'4"
M6 4 L$ ; B 7

"
M6
,D" #"41 5% 28; < .

M6 ψ *!$ 8<
.*1?
149
: - ?
" H &4
V N = 4.44 ⋅ 60 Hz ⋅10−4 m 2 ⋅1T=0.0267
:5 "1 C- *- $ !
N 1 =V (volts turn) = 120 0.0267 = 4505 turns
01 . N 2 = 5 0.0267 = 187 turns &!L C- * &4
.*- D6!
"" !
6 4
:`S"! 748.2 #"4 (I)
I 1 = N 2 I 2 N 1 = 187 ⋅10 4505 = 0.42 A

0.42

.
$

%& #

! " 50
Impedance transformation
2.6.2

:'&
$ (&) *
+ 48.2 46.2 "#
$
%& .!
2
Z 1 V1 I1 V1 I 2 ⎛ N 1 ⎞
= = =⎜ ⎟ (50.2)
Z 2 V 2 I 2 V 2 I1 ⎝ N 2 ⎠
'( )* +

, #" ,
, -/
$

. N 1 N 2 > 1 0 12 , #" Z 1 = Z 2 (N 1 N 2 ) , $

2
2 , +
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50.2 $
$

" .+ 12 #" %5( 9( ! 678
12 , #" R1 " 6/

:$ + , #" R 2 " /
?- '
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<0= ." 6/

A - )
!
$
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$
B
C
'
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/7
.$
3#D "
150
14.2
-> 6 &8 "D ,R> F0 "4 #6! A

L
6
;H CD"" .
GD -> 6 &8
H F<
$
J
&8 7
H
> F- *ML C- P (, 16 8 4)
GD
$" C> $ IH (G = ") @ ;8 @ 5H
>
=
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"- @H H"41
>
4! ; 7, 5 &4"
H 6 *!$ 7, 5000 &4" ,R>
.
H F< F0 "41 #6! 6" "D *
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%
H #D H! " , N20.2 #$% &

F< " "41
GD TH #6"! C4 7 28; .,R>
J-" F<
H M "41 4! I4 J8 3< $ .
H
! 8; . P5Ω P5000 Ω = I 2 5 I 2 5000 = 0.001 :,R> M
. @H -5
H F< #D" " "41
!

() :20.2

6) '* $ + ,* #-/ 13# '4-5 6$ 6* '7 (&) ."#$%
."#$ 6* ('#
151
6 $" "6 F0 "41 #6! 6.1 6 C
!
*
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H ,R> ! &8 "D
6" ,' *- 4! I4 !!$ 750.2 #"4
: "
2
Z 1 5000 ⎛N ⎞
= = 1000 = ⎜ 1 ⎟
Z2 5 ⎝N 2 ⎠
&4 &8 #? R6 78< . N 1 = 33 N 2 M" 28;

" " &!L C- *
33 5 "1 /- *
! ! " 7, 5000 &4" !E$ !- # ! "
., 5 &4" !E$ #-
Summary *+ 7.2

*
#-"

*
* #D 8; !

*
LE" ,- ; *!
"$9 ,- 7 /< !
% 6 .!
"$9
%
X !
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D! "
:;
A *- *> *
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" #
6
76
6 #'> 7
%P #-" !
O 6 •
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#-" 4$ 7
" 7*
#-" -4
Z = R + jX ! # 6
6 #"4 .
"4
H
" *H"4 F- #D !"4 7Y = G + jB 6
.@H @" ?
$ !
$ & ?
"

" 6
" 1
" *%
H"4 CD" K
H •
C?
.!
" ( ωC = R L ωC = 1 RC ) "41 CD!
F- &"" " *
7 ω0 = 1 LC !
" 7!
152
6"
" H $ " /!E 7C 4 L
"

6 "
#> ! $" 7!
" ! .

*
Q ≥ 5 K
H 7Q H # C?
.66
.-
*
"
7 Q = ω0 L R s = 1 ω0 R s C *LY 7-4-4" !

•
F- H 7
-4-4" 6 ; R s
"
$ ! 7
4$" # 4" L$ C-

.V L = V C = QV s V s & 7V s ! H @
L$
$ !$
7 Q = ω0 R pC = R p ω0 L *LY 7
" !
•
&
" 7L$ C-
" 6 ; R p
"
!$ $ 7
4$" # 4" L$ C-
! 8; . I L = I C = QI s I s & 7!
" @
L$
$
.(
"-) H- @ R> #" (
" ) -4-4" !

B = ω2 − ω1
!! *
-
" 56"!1 *? •
CD!
" ω2 ω1 . B = ω0 Q F &8
. ω1 = ω0 − ω0 2Q 7 ω2 = ω0 + ω0 2Q :& 7"41
*"4
G" #
k
* 8 $" *1?- $ /! *LY •
V 2 V 1 = N 2 N 1 :+ @6 *! !" H *
"
* ; N 2 N 1 . Z 2 Z 1 = (N 2 N 1) I 2 I 1 = N 1 N 2
2
.#? &!L 5 "1 -
Problems ,$
>E" v = 10 cos (ω t − 10 ) [ H

" 4 " ? .1
:$ 8< /!
153
i = 5cos (ω t − 20 ) ()
i = 5cos (ω t − 5 ) ()
i = −5cos (ω t − 30 ) ()

() :
&' . cos(x − 20 ) = cos(x + 340 ) !" #$ % 350
.% 180 * + , -/
$ 0 1
2
5/ ., / 42 v (t ) = V p cos(ω t + θ ) 5 *,2 34 .2

. θ 4! ., /
028 34 7"892 ; t = 0 %6!
3 − j 5 2 + j 3 :%, %<" % %

%; => .3
. −7 + j 9
. 11.4 exp( j 127.9 ) 5.8exp( j 26.2 ) 3.6 exp( j 56.5 ) :
v (t ) = 5cos ω t :%, %
% %! ? .4
.v (t ) = 120 cos(ω t + θ ) v (t ) =V p cos(ω t + θ ) v (t ) = 5sin ω t
:% %, %
@,
2 %! 2+ A42 5/ ?! .5
$ B/ . 10 − j 10 10 + j 10 j 10
. f = ω 2π
14.1cos(ω t − 45 ) 14.1cos(ω t + 45 ) i (t ) = −10sin ω t :
j 10 :% %, %
@,
2 %6! 4! .6
9 t = 1 ms %6! 5/ 10 − j 10 10 + j 10
. ω = 377 rad s
: *CD2 .7
v 2 = 7 cos(ω t + 30 ) v 1 = 5cos(ω t − 20 )

.v 1 + v 2 4! ,

154
. 10 cos(ω t + 9.4 ) :
10

.8
5

4 cos ω t

!"#$ .9
'
( ) . %& 20
10

, %-/ 0, 1 %- *+ / *+
.
3 %-
377 1 2
.v (t ) = 50.1cos(377 t + 37.6 ) 4 50.1exp( j 37.6 ) :
1 kΩ

,5

.10
1kHz
, 100 mH
L
# R

.11
. ω 8
6 1 6 7-
6 ,5 # C 53
. Z = R + j ω L (1 − ω 2 LC ) :
!( %- %- *+ -

/ (9 //; .12
C = 50 μ F L = 1H ω = 100 rad s 7- .<2.2
8> ! .v = 200 cos ω t = 0/ *+ 4 R = 100 Ω
75 ,
1 %- v R (t ) *+ )

/ ( ! ! .13
. ω = 1000 rad s 7- .21.2 !( %-
%-/
.v R = 196.1cos(1000t + 11.3 ) :
21.2
155

/ '
(
+ ? / '
( / @
! ! .14
%- @> A> 41 B %- C #
.21.2 !(

/ '
( + 3 <5.2 !( %- 53 %D2 !
E "
.15
.

. I R = 0.5 + j 0.5 :
J 4( Ω ) 9
G

F 0, .16
,
/ 2
) .(S) K
,
/ 2

10
* 53
6 # 100

.
3 %-
1000
1 ,
-
7-
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()) 4 C = 0.5 μ F @
>M R ) () 4K 400
/
.K 600 , *+ L )
.0.55 ()) . 795.8 () :

@ L( (K*
) ,
/N # ) .18
. R = 10 kΩ C = 1 μ F 7-
<7.2 !( %-
/ 7-
.
, @ L( <7.2 !( $ .19
8> ! ()) . R = 1Ω @
>M C ) () 4K 400

!
,
/N L
(@) / P ;O
200 Hz ,
. −6.99 dB () ()
0.398 () :
@ 1 %- ! ,>M / / !J .20
4K 870 Q / !

>R- .%
/ !

- 4 20
@
3 7

A> 1S C 53
156
> C !

6 ,5 !D# / G# .21
@U- >M 1S 7 G .K
C 52
T (
.
- 10
* 53 A
. 0.94 μ H :
%- A *
( / 0, P/ *+
.22
:/- 1 <2.2 !(
. / ,
53 !
V %-/ 0, *+ G ()
4 C = 0.01 μ F 4 L = 0.1mH 4 R = 0.1Ω :
!
. / N )
./- 1
V C V L = W( ())
.V R = 1V 4V C = − j 1000 V 4V L = j 1000 V :
Y >
. 10 L# R 2 C 22 O ! X ,
" .23
+

.22 O %- / *+ &
* /$ % ,
/N ) .24
. 10 cos 2 ω 0t W :
:%
13.2 !( %- ,5 / #
,
.25
. C = 100 pF 4 L = 1mH 4 R = 5 Ω
.
*1 7,
* - + !
, / ) ()
*
;M )+ @ C %
- 41 7, 5,

>M ())
A> P %-
! > 4K
C 108 0 88 P
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- .26
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/
4!; [ .K
C 0.20 @
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*, 1 @
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157

C 100
!
, K 70
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N %- + !
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.1429 :
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N ,5 / @ !J .27
/
) . / , X D \
* 2

.25 O %-
/
%- ,5 / %- @ + , V o V i ) .28
. j ω L ⎡⎣R (1 − ω 2 LC ) + j ω L ⎤⎦ : .22.2 !(
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Introduction
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110 $
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27 C# J)U# \
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+
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V min − V z
R s, optimum =
IL
. R s,opt = (110 V − 100 V 10 mA = 1kΩ :) - /' %& C'Q
)) )a !c
J65
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)- 7 &E
: HI) - ' ( $
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0
5
V max − V z
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. R s, min = (120 − 100) (30 + 10) = 0.5 kΩ PQ )

I z , max = 30 mA N -#
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3 /
0 ' ( 2- D6
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+ , 5.3

Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRS)
Introduction
1.5.3

- HL5 4O+ /7) - /'( 4+
#C 4& 4!
$
:
( Hh 5 6 ' (Q - .silicon-controlled rectifier SCR $
6(#
/ 4)
5 $-F 25 - 2b 2 - 45 -
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)7 2# (HO+)
, - 9- # #

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/## D67
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E 4"
i HO+ $
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) /## D67 /"6 4#) V= 9
#C )7 SCR R# /7C (B
SCR R
$O
#
11.3 - .(v =V P sin ω t /
#
/
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I) $= &
U $#
/## 4#) 111.3
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:# /
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+ /##
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L U
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4
(( >6 .5 DE /6
/7C ( H,+Q &

.SCR $
6(# J
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182
( α = ωτ X+ /
! O5 ) τ R# X+
U 2 DE )! &E
:R# DC( (
/
0 $7
#' ))
1 T 2 Ip
I ave =
T ∫τ Ip sin ω t dt =
2π
(1 + cos ωτ ) (10.3)
:) α X+ /
! D67 ' DC(
2 $ *
G

/' 4C7 α = 0 4) &E $&E ./+#( /' - ω t $ - α
T 0 / *) HO+ - DC(
/
0 I ave = Ip π
R HO+
B

B α = 180 )7 .1.3 /' - +#( (
.5 DE /7C ( SCR
# .

! " :11.3
. $% & &' ( ) *& + ,-$" / 010
SCR characteristics -+ , $/0 2.5.3

' $56C Vc 0 SCR R ! 12.3
Z
& $ DL6 ) b H $ cathode C# anode
183

./60) *) $ Y) SCR R / /# /
F
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a 5 / $ I5B .J
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breakover V b0 C v ac ! &E /## /#) ' ( $

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5 .(4C" 4 27 (
&) voltage
/
6' /+
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,
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D67 +#k (27
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9L+5
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+ 4#) $ : (
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3 + $+5#
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4) 4 C$6 # @: $ . 18 7)
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I !!B 1' & ( )< ) ;!% 020 H(* &G
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10 =! !M & !7) & "

3' +! O6 & ') NJ12.3 I 47 ' C

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+ / 180 DE H / 90 D 5 /
R# V= 4B5 %& 9- '"
DC'
.< 1 11.3 F
:(1.3 - /' I))
1 T 2 1 π
I rms =
T ∫τ (Ip sin ω t ) 2 dt =
2π ∫α (I p sin ω t ) 2 d ω t
Ip α sin 2α
= 1− +
2 π 2π
;Z
/ *) HO+ V
5 $ J
- HL5 HO+ '#C)
$! $
5 /+#( 2#' - )6' ( + .(/
) τ +#

P /7C (B ( . ω T = 2π ω t = α :# ω t C /
! DE t
P = I rms
2
R R# H 10 ( J + 5# L >O5 DE $] /,+
186
))

B $] DC' $ DE I) . P =V rms R R#
:R# /7C (B $7
#' Ip =V p R H $)0 ' (
(V p 2) 2 ⎛ α sin 2α ⎞
P =I 2
R= ⎜1 − + ⎟
⎝ π 2π ⎠
rms
R
11.3 /5 - >5 DE /,+ /7C (B ( $&E

:( α = 0 $ )7)
( )
2
P = ⎡ 117 2 V 2⎤ 10 Ω = 684.45 W
⎣ ⎦
$ )7) 111.3 /5 - >O5 DE /,+ /7C (B (

:( α = π 2
( )
2
P = ⎡ 117 2 V 2⎤ 10 Ω (1 − α π ) = 6844.5 V 2 10 Ω (1 2) = 342.23 W
⎣ ⎦
( α ≈ π )7) <11.3 /5 - /,+ /7C (B (

)'- . & - Y=0b /7C ( m0)) )) I5B .#
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H $)0 - $, /+#( 4#(5 - N " %
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187
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Problems 2/4
- $,
# / *) HO+ J
C'
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1(5 .1
( #) C- 120 '" (
.-2.3
. R L = 150 Ω 5 /+
H
+ /5 - H 20 ( /
6 J +
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1 J + 5 /
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.
C ()
. ( 5

(1)
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(4)
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6 /7C ( (V)
(V) 76.2 mA (4) 48.5 mA (1) 152.5 mA () :

. 5.92 W
- $,
# /6 / HO+ J
C'
& ( <
1(5 .3
189
#) C- 120 '" (
.3.3
. R L = 150 Ω
. 0.72 A :
- H 20 ) =
/+ 4
/'# =
' ( /+#( /U( O .4
./6 / HO+
R# R L = 2 kΩ 5
! G
/" : / *) HO+ HO .5
(
/' /## HO+ $ N - . ( C- 40
.O5 /C(# _ 60 (
C- 120 '"
4\ '
!
B V
5# /" /'( 5 4" 7 /#() 1(5
. ( $ %1 D67
. C = 833mF N 1 N 2 = 4.24 :
./6 / HO+ 14.3 H( M7 2.3 DE 2'# .6
$5
& i d
,
(5 ) v 0 < H(
. $ 0F D67 $
T D67 /"
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+
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( R L = 1.5 kΩ
1(5 (/5 " 2 G#) 9 5 0 4
, 5 $ N -# .%2
.J \' 5 DE H,+
*( &
(
190
J + 5 : 5.3 - /),
# *7 2 46M .9
( 1) /'" /
+ $ N -# . R L = 1kΩ
$
# N") $ _ 60 (
% $ C- 120
( < /
0 $ %10 $ 0 $
$ 1
$5 #)
./!= /" /'( /
0 3 O5
. 41.7 mF :
- /),
# + 2 v 0 <
5 H( .10
V 1 = 3V $ v = 10 sin ω t $ N - .6.3
.V 2 = 0
H( 19.3 - /)

# C+ 2 - V = 5 V $ N -# .11
.v = 2sin ω t $
)7 v 0 <
. −5 V )7 $

) /C+) C+Q *( :
. 4 V )7 1) 2& C+ 2 HO .12
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> L- R s

- .v = 30 V (
.C- 20
.1(5# /#b ;67 n \
U- .H 1000 100 :$
0
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191
2 J) I-5 & R L 5 /+ /
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$ )7 C- 100 (
5 D67 9,#C D67
. R s = 1.5 kΩ
- /),
# SCR R /C(# >5 - Hh5 2

- .16

/
! R L = 20 Ω V p = 100 V )
<12.3
.DC( J 7C ( C( 5
1(5 . χ = π − α = 120
.C 100.6
# 1.19 :
R - 2,# /7C (B O5 16 /U( - 2C' H

+ ' (# .17
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-C D67 $
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192
‫ا اا‬

Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors
Introduction 1.4

$ % #, ") * #+

$ % & # '( .! "#
3'
34) 0
1
! - " / .

064 <) & 8;
1 * 4 :(5 6 67 8
" 4 *1 :, 0.7>0.6 3 3' (contact potential = /
0 6# ?'( :pn junctionA B @4 =4 <! ?

A B
hole *#5 /C /8 04

G 1' / 4 F' <E B6D .semiconductor
- , H+ :A B @4 <!
G
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I 5 :*1 I (
8E :A B

.

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# #.' & * +

* ,- III #$ % !& ' (!
IV #$ )
' 3 .*1 0 (p / ! 0 # % )
.%!5 (n #4 % ) # #.' & * +
* ,- V #$ % !&
193

2.4
Hole and Electron Conduction in Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors

1.2.4
IV

!" #

$ .valence

4

% &'' ()*+ ,# ! -
&)+

6 .2 3 4
+ # & 5 ,(8 )
/
95
/ .)

) &)8 4 2 +71.4
2 : .(
<
) covalent bond
") ) : ; # )
* ' >* +
+ !='6 ,
) #(

!@ .-@% # ( 2?& 5 , '
A , B !- ( ) ) B B5 ,# (
# ( .2
( C4 ,
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,4 ) .32

,2)3 2?'
)
,E
E # ( *
#(
/ B

B
5 .(2-+ F34 G
!) n i = 1.5 ⋅1016 electron m3
.F&
# 5 ⋅1028
4
) 3 2 -

C( ,
/ B C( ,# ( !@
* B > A @ 5 *% 95 .-+ '
# B) ) 3") ( H@ >I' ' >* +
6% !& "/ / " # 0-" 6 * .W #! !. # *!- T ! !. #! !-" 2
#+- 63/ 8
. / /9 6#! #' 8 3- #.
. k = 1.38 ⋅10−23 joules kelvin %1 k .W = kT

/- #
#
# .
# % 3
6 σ = 5.7 ⋅107 S m :. # 6 σ = 4 ⋅10−4 S m # )
.( σ = 2 ⋅10−13 S m +!

/$ #
194
A , I 2 R ( - & B # ( H@ !
.(# ( H@; B

() :1.4
&* (/) . + , - n ' &* (&) . #$ % !"
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n i
/ B

3 .

Q ,) ( PB
+ ,E # ( Q R p i F34 B
Q)3 ,3) #3@
.# &)" F34 B
5 p i , n i = p i
195

) " # ( .' ($ !% & " # ! 7.1
- E *+ (% ( ,- (
/0 !% %
'! R = ρ (l A ) %
23 .I V +0 1
J
'#4 .V = R I = ρ (l A ) I " # 6.1
V l = ρ (I A ) " # ( 52 /
'8% - J !7 E ' . E = ρ J ) /6
:(
1 *; !% '# < 52 !6 .9 :
J =σ E (1.4)
. σ = 1 ρ & # % / % σ # (@- +

B % 1 ( # # A
; &
) ( ; n ( - (
:D6 μ ( mobility ( e = 1.6 ⋅10−19 C C
J = e (n i μn + p i μ p ) E (2.4)
μn = 0.135 m 2 V ⋅ s

% ,C &

/%- EF . μ p = 0.0.048 m 2 V ⋅ s /%- &

/%- "3 H2
,C G - &

.C *
1.4
300) ) ' 0 # Si

# I
.(7
:D6

n i = p i = 1.5 ⋅1016 "3 J
σ = e n i ( μn + μ p ) = 1.6 ⋅10−19 ⋅1.5 ⋅1016 (0.135 + 0.048) = 4.4 ⋅10−4 S m
196
.
:2.4

! (8$ .
/%- (% 2.4 (; &K
*+ (% 8 2 .V &
! +0 ; 7
8 3 M .
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0 .O3..
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.7 V " # P%Q
Extrinsic semiconductors !

2.2.4

,-# . +

*
$ %
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() # !"

& ' 12 34 12 1

+ /0
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+ 1$7 78 12 1
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?0
!
) ( = 10 :1 "") "0! &
9 7:" 02 +
B
C
D04 8 # @
A .7
"
"
# (dopents
197
H+ I 9 ?! 3G"
F FE ?0
!

@
") @

) .7

"
"
304 C 9
1

.?
C"

DJ C
?KL!
- 8 C 8 M%
#$ "

3.2.4
n-type semiconductors
S 6 .J1 # ' ; (; " #

,2 R!
N) ' NN 13 + E
1 '; T - 9F +
,2 M # A F
24 .+N 9F ( (' 0 N
ON 7
) & (0 V #0 ,2 '8%

donor impurities !K /*; F 6
! (C U ,3 T
(
K L4 5 &
U
F V$ C .'0
,2 9 ; *
/W1.4 (; &K .*+ (% E '2 !1
&0 # & (% P- .n-type ' ,C ,2 /*;
N7% . ; /0 7@ $
$ ! '2 M*7 C H
' J1) 0 5 : H2 "3 '0 *; '2 3

+ T ,+J 1
X 3 !% ' /0 (
( ;) ( "
F*7 ,Q
N7% (@- .(+@!
,2 ; (
* (% Y majority carriers :
.' ,C
/%- ) # n Z ( F 0

.minority carriers : ( ;) ( "
(p Z) '
++
3 .& NN1 ; ,2 ! 8
# R
. : ( ,+
4 % (*F + [
198
#$ "
1.3.2.4
p-type semiconductors
III #0 ,2

,2 M # F
1
/*; F "
3 ) & (0
8 * ,3 -<- + 0 (acceptor impurities
(C * ,3 "3 0 "3 J .p-type ' /%- ,2
.\ ! /%- B; '0 ,C ]N ! 90
EK . ; # 0 ; 0 ; /%- #
(% P; "3 U ( " # 0$ +0 8!K # 2
' @ 8 2 ./%- H " # ( ' F *+
. : ( "
(: % 4 0 ,; ' /%- ,2
.(p Z) ' /%- ,2 /*; ]W1.4 (; &K
/%- ,2 ( ' ,C ) # 0

. : # ( 52 +
3 . : ( "
'
!

4.2.4
Conduction in doped semiconductors
17 & ) N " 8 'C 9 1022 N ?0

!
+)
& ) N p i n i C"'
+)
@
() 8 +)
92 ?C)

# @
A .( n i = p i = 1.5 ⋅1016 carrires m3 ) 7

- ?(

! " # ً ‫و‬ 4
$ % & '(% &)

$ * &+, - .
4 +% . $ 2 ', , % 3 .! /0 1
'6 "5 74 *+ 86 ! 9 0 :
0 56
.4 ! '6 ', 9; # "#
199

17 -

- 1)
C
:7 -
- O7 "0!
&
9
8
+) 2 N d # P- n = N d + n i ≈ N d 'C

9 ?!
P- p = N a + p i ≈ N a "

17 & ) N 'C
&
9

8 17 $
=C
8 .& ) N "
&
9
+) 2 N a #
17 ?(
C" & ) Q
? - # 8 . np = n i2 1$7 "!
' .1

)
17 (?(
8) & ) Q
" )
& " &0-# $R $4 1

) =C
H92 3
DJ ?0
!
, +" "5R

-
+ 8 2 (25 1F7
?K! , - 17 9# .+
I ?
" R

-
@
() 8
92 (1.5 ⋅1016 ) 2 1022 = 2.25 ⋅1010 # R
+) S%4 1022
?!
)
17
8 T I 9 . n i 1C"'

-
,

9 .R

17 ?0
!

- # C
:n U
9
σ = e (n μn + p μ p ) ≈ eN d μn (3.4)
:p

σ = e (n μn + p μ p ) ≈ eN a μ p (4.4)
2.4
! "#

$
%& ()
* " +# $ , %& () . 1022 atoms m3 '
.1 mm -+
/ 0 *#
$ + 3
4 $ 2
n " * ! 0+1 ()
:3.4
σ = eN d μn = (1.6 ⋅10−19 )(1022 )(0.135) = 216 S m
200
$ + 3
4 $ 2
p " * 0+
:3.4
σ = eN a μ p = (1.6 ⋅10−19 )(1022 )(0.048) = 76.8 S m
" * "

& # "#
$
" " 5/
9 8 ; < 7,8 6 σ i = 4.4 ⋅10−4 ) , "#
$

.(1.4
$ , @ ρ "> ?& 6 R = ρ (l A ) = $ , " 0+1 ()

< * 0 @ l 6($ $

,) $
.; < /+ A0, $& @ A 6- 7
:n " * $ , 6">
6 R = (1 (216 S m))( 0.001m (0.001m) 2 ) = 4.6 Ω

* " " 5%/ . R = 12.9 Ω :p " * $ ,
* $< ;@ 6p B
" /8 @ n B
.,9 $#& CD B # $#&
H +1) E " F !# 3& " C G1
"#
B $8 9# $ , 7< 7F 1022 atoms m3 '
$#& +< .$
E @ * ! $
! " "# ( 1028 atoms m3
* 0.135 0.048 = 2.8 = ,9 $#& " # @ 6B #
B B B ,0 8 $
I/D n 6$
$# "/
+D ! $ "& D " ! 2 $ +
.npn $0, $E 9 $
B! n * ,
,&
201
(pn )
3.4
pn-Junction and the Diode-Junction and the Diode
6p " -D 6 "#

" 7 / J3.4 # 1
/, 8 pn $
"L "# .n " KL -D
. 2 , B & H! I&
# 3
&
$
M $ 9 B $# J3.4 # 1
& "#> ,9 C8 2 # 6(J + " B E) B
,9) , .$& $ & 3
O D&
(E " " J +)
P9 *& $& & @ E Q K *< (B #
8 "I C8 6$& H! "# 6$
" , . 2#H& "& E 2#
.$
A 4 9 8 7< * * RK , M 6J3.4 #
H! 9 B & H! $0+ 78 5& $
80 3
*& B & 8
3
qv (C m3 ) $& $8 9# & > .J3.4 # 8 "I
6$
$ B $
" $, p $,0 8 $9 " < 6/, 0
" 4!< @ B S ;@ .$0+ $ .$#& A0 T $ $#
0 3
$< B & "L p $,0 8 ,9 "S 6*& B &
D M 3
.n $,0 ; < & T "&" " KL
" KL 0 8 *< $ B & " n $,0 8 B #
.-+ + 4 < V # 8 B & H! @ @ .$

! "#

5
%!& ' ( )* +$ , & - %! " "/ & " .$
0 0- % 1/ )* &$ "
23 " 4# / / / !2/
%! '5 46
.&$ 781 9 :
202
() .

() :3.4
' * '+
.! "#$ %
& pn
.,#

- / 0 '

,& J3.4 # 8 $& $8 9# & B& * W
203
6Gauss XM " , $
/ D $F " -
& E E 2#
6/, & 7,8 x 3> $ C ,T & ?& 6 dE dx = qv ε "
A * $& $8 9# BHF 6"> "#
$& ) B 9 @ ε
$& $8 9# 1 # A E 2# ,& 6E 2# ,& &
; <T 8 -< E " E 2# ,& + .( E ∝ ∫ qv dx )
B S 3> n $,0 8 $ " ") x =
,& Y# + 6$, *,D 8 < # 6"> .(p $,0 8 $
T> 2 < T $
S $#& !%!+ $
MS $#& $
8 E 2#
BM 6 3
.(n $,0 8 ,9 p $,0 8 B #>)
,
$
MS @ $
8 B $+ "L 5 ,8 :*,+ S
$
S 6B #> ,9 " "I# ( T 7/ 3Z )
A 0 "& " .B #> ,9 " "I# (< 7/ 3 )
- M 6-[/ < @> $
+ BT & O+ 8 # -
. $
28 3
79#
2< ,& "# BHF & E 2# ,& & B& W
3
X E = − dV dx :3.1 $ + " .$
80 3
V
) 6$8 A V 2< HF I+ E 2# ,& "
" ,T "& ! 2< ,& " & " "I .(V = − ∫ E dx
$,0 " ,T " ,9 D #W T
\ > @ .n $,0 3> p $,0
B # H ] 6 M 3
.3
< "# B $,0 3> p
@ " @ @ "# .p $,0 8 $
9#S "# $0
8 08 0.7 6$
'
V V0 !D, "# 3
"L
&
" C D 8 # ^# . < 8 08 0.2 ) "#

0.7 $&!> 2< Y "# S ! &T $ & 8 I
.R
7 I 5 # ;! < < K S ! &T 2< 3
< 08
204
E 2# ,& " < 2< @ " "L 7&/ 5 "# " <
.depletion zone 6$I/_ $,0 8
K

! " # $ %&
.

)* (+ , (
-/0 1 2 3 4 ' .n p '
(
#( 1 ! / + . '!
/ 8/
(5 6+ 7 (*

8@

<=> ( 0 ! ? / 0 :; / 8/
9

0 / %
A / 8/
+ #: '" ! ? /" 1 #

:/! 63/ 2 "/ .B8'
C A ,1 #
: //! 8@

.

Forward bias !!% $& 1.3.4

- pn E(+
+ V D*/ D D A
#( B )
p 4

D
(+ 8 *
: + #(
' B
')
n 4

'

.1H4.4

! " # pn :
6
3 4 : ./ " 01 &2& 1 () +&! , ) #$ %& ' ( )
1 ) .) $( ! +/ 5/ 6 .) 7( ! +/ 84
$( ! +/ 5/ <= 7( ! +/ 84 6 , 7 ! .(9/4
/) ' 5/ ( >?( % @ ( ./ . 6( / +&! / .<=
<'8 ' 84 ( ' 1 B' %&C $3 <'8 (A0 )' !
F D7 G? ' @8 ) 1 ! D . ! E
' >& 4 ! '8 D/' D/ 1 &/ 4 .(&' DH' 1 0I '
+ . ! 1/ B' %&C $3 ' D ' $ < 73
. 1 ! #$ I ' V0 J ' 2!
,( , )
1 J M' N' &$ .I) ( K1 L$ 4
B & : ' ! 3 2?
&0/ J 6 V0 01 J &0/ %&&/ pn 2 &$ , . /? n p )
. &/ 4 )' ' ! &/ 4 .3
205
.
!

() :4.4
.+,- I0
*

#$ "%&' (")
! ? * %' .7n

(+ I
A p
(+ : J
I
#
<K=L
1 (*
.pn
forward biasing ( 0
p n
7
.! " #$ % &'
206
, ' ,
)
N %
A '
J
I
M >&+
(+ ( ) , $1 C

, .8: & / (V 0 −V 2
+ %"
I/

/

C +
8@

O $A A .
* %" 5
#1H4.4
B
O!
(+ C
1 / # &

/ .( J

) K / (%
0
) : 1 !
/ 8/
PJ -
.pn
" &
( −⎪− ) / 8/
! B
(+ &'
+
Q / & ,
#/ 8/
(
' '0
2 (* )*
# "'

? / 8/
.

(+ 1 #
/ , : " J ? 0 1 ?A . J
/K/> ; ,1
B : /P
(
0
&+ #
%" <8> V (
.
" 4 (V D
: & R 1 //! ,
) (/

Reverse bias ' $& 2.3.4

n

&' % #$ "4.4 ! p

% ./) , &' #$ ( *) + ,* - '.
% 78 + V 0 +V 6 $ 5
4 +
1 ' & % 23
% + , >' 8
' .;< 2 ( = %
2 9 :'
? , @$ A% & 8
B . 8+ ' 3 n p
F* G2 "4.4 )',D E7 #$ = .C2 2 2
.2': C 4+ % 2
('&
( 0 ! ? (
(+ S
0 4 / ?
#A ./
T+ 6P + / ,1 #: :
J :/ K/ pn
I
&+ &' - ( ,(% V * &+ ,(% solid state physics ( ) " 8
.V0 &' + V 1 * & , (' V0 –V ( * , #) V0
207
%' ,
#S
4
A # / : '" !
/ 8/
U

VJ ,
#reverse saturation current I0 ('&
B
/ "
I EA #/ / / 8/
& ,
* #('&
! ?
(+ /

10−12 , ' #:/ S * 4
.(I 0 ; )
I& (
(* */
)* .6
(+ 1 10−6 '
(+ 1
.I '!
I/ 8/
(+ T
&'? 6
%" :;8 '

Rectifier equation *! '! 3.3.4

C #pn
(+
W W;" X'? !* 2 1 /

" , #('&
! ?
(+ ./ 8/
;& + &
;&

('&
! ? / B #I0 ('&
BY
* S 4
:D ('&
BY
%&> # '

: + .
$0
I 0 = K exp(−eV 0 kT )
' - * 8 k #+ '& - * 8 K $

' < % 23 2 = . k = 1.38 ⋅10−23 J K
:H ' , 4, #&D C C I0
#$ 4
'3
I d = K exp(−e (V 0 −V ) kT )
: ' 7 &' J

' '3 '
I = I d − I 0 = Ke −eV 0 kT
(e eV kT
− 1) = I 0 (e eV kT
− 1) (5.4)
- '. ' Ih ,* ' 9

I '
#+ .5.4 & 1: Ie Ih ' & = . I = I h + I e = Ie
=
' ,* ' ' !: ,* ' *
. I e = I e ,d − I e ,0 - '. ' #+ @: M ! I h = I h ,d − I h ,0
' P C2
+ O , & M ,' N
208
'' e kT = 40 V −1 7Q2 .(T = 68 F = 20C = 293K ) '
:R' 5.4 &
I = I 0 (e 40V − 1) (6.4)
+ = #+

?
!' * #+
+ = & % 23 2 . S' 8 78 I = 0 =
V = 0
4* P= U< 2 0
& - 2 5.4 D .( e 4 = 55 1 N V = 0.1V * CP
.(U,

%
' + 2 7 , 5.4 V T (

78 . 2 W+< &
& % 23
400 100 :1N007 1N004 1N002 C -
X 2 #+ 955 . 1000
."1.3 W 3 , /'
8
@ 4S2' 4 * 1 7$
.?O 6
'3 6U' 7 ' 4* = 6
' 4 ' U' C%
'
< % 23 M *= @' , 1 8 & ,

!' , 1,) * ' ( ,) (= 1 , &' .&
Y' ' U2D ' , 1 ; C%
' #+ P

B )
Z Z ( , Y' ' #$ !
F*T' ( *)
=, Z '&/ 1& (* , =, 1 ,
(1N4004) P '%' , ' 5
4 * .[?= C ,
.- < 5 & @' , ' - = &/ <
209
.(
) pn

:5.4
3.4

I0

%0.1 :

# $
" () ! 10−12 A
$* +
' (") .& 0.5 !& 0.1 !&
.
# -* ,
$
" !
/ 30 ,
: ' −0.1V
+ 6.4 & &T' (=)
I = I 0 (e −4 − 1) ≈ −I 0 = −10−12 A
: ' 0.1V
+ &'
I = I 0 (e 4 − 1) ≈ 55I 0 = 55 pA
: ' 0.5 V
+ &'
I = I 0 (e 20 − 1) = I 0 ⋅ 0.485 ⋅109 = 0.49 mA
34
e kT , '
!
/ 30 0 $* 12 (")
I0
+ 34 1 . (e kT )(293 (293 + 30)) = 40(293 323) = 36.3
: I 0 = K exp(−eV 0 kT ) 5 6 !

210
I 0 = 10−12 exp (V 0 (40 − 36.3)) = 10−12 exp(2.59) = 13.3 ⋅10−12 A
91; < .- #*4 V 0 = 0.7 V

, $7 8

A *
13 ,
=>?
+@
" +@ 91; < 52 B 9 "
C .
/ 30 ,
G, <, +@ F .<D =E $>
= I0 $>

< = I E
I0 5 H !
F

$
5

=>?
+ FJ
, K 1 .$ 10
30 0
J ! I 0 = 10−12 ⋅ 8 = 8 pA 0 5&L

.$ 8 ,

2 !$ 3
I EL

/
& 0.1
# M J
N1 5 6
! I = I 0 (e 3.63 − 1) = 8 ⋅ (37.7 − 1) = 294 pA

/ 50
.

55 O
, , P
F
O2
I = I 0 (e
36.3 ⋅ 0.5
− 1) = 0.61 mA #+ 0.5
2 2 *
.P C2
+ 2 0.49 mA H = 8
pn 4.4

pn-Junction and the Transistor

1.4.4
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
G#
"
!pn 4 < ,
& # !B

= pnp QR npn 6.4 <? L
.P@# P
1; 5
.$
#
# <
SJ
$ !bipolar junction transistor BJT
&,
/ F 4
<
R ? $ T ",F <
&,
/ F *4
57 .(I
E
+J
$ #2 <# I P S GS)
211
UQ ,& !gate 5& ,& !emitter 8 <Q ,&
; ;2 ! 4 $ A 1; F .collector =V
.P / P
; !UQ 4 !P / P
; !<Q 4
J
:3
4

&
&+ E
1 8 = VEE
& " I& <4L
!npn
p A , = " #& <4L
!(n = n <4
) n A
"&+ <4L
!P
UQ 4 !(p = p <4
)
.p " = " #&+ <4L
!n 4 " = " VCC
&
'%' %' .'%' % 6.4 : ( *F
% 23 '
6
' @
' 4 ( pnp '%' npn
J& 4, ' 6
' \ 5 7' O (Q5 . <
N 7 .
- 2
6
' 8 /: Q
]? = .4,&' = ;= D,* @ F*' 7 pnp '%' C
. &' - '.
' 8
' N npn '%'

pn
npn

() :6.4
!"# $ # .( )
.pnp

*+
,- (') .

%&
212
<, P W < #
G,

J X ;
P ? 8 ,& 34 1 !
? < GV,
8 2
p+ npn n+ :+ 0 P ? M& L
)
, , !Ie
<4
"
!P
<
.(pnp
E .9P
, H, =V 52 !P
<Q 4 <+
= ; ! , ,& 52 <4 !&, ? < E
!P *
E
, ,& "C? K !,& N ? <
G <*J O MV
E G# <ZF 1; .P ,
+ ;

. G Ib
4 ,
<[F
1 6.4 <? &J
:<, $ $
'
M* H
Q B
. 4 = C% 2 + J* 2' : •
, < 4 = C% 2 G+ + 2' :

•
2 (W& N 7 B :&/ ( 4,' 1) , %
6 ' C+ , , 2' 3 G+
? ;<
.[?= C ;= ' G2 U
, #$
The grounded-base transistor

' npn '%' - '. ' = ;< ' %D

, CM : #&T' .Ic H U
#$ pnp '%' ,*
:= α H U
#$ G+ 2
Ic = α Ie (7.4)

( I c = I e )
9
- ' . /01 (,%$ ) ! "# $% &'
%*+
. - !1 7 2

.- 5 (34 ) 2 "# $% .
. :"% .; +0
-* <$ .81 /9 "1 . $ %*+
213
!)

7.4
1
2# ./
0, Ic "# Vcb
&
'* $ +,
- .(6.4 "# $
%
3
145 $
46 74 89 2 8 % : :

$9 3 α ≈ 0.99 ) 2 $ :%
6 α $ % ;
2 $ <
;% -
# <'
! 3 $9 .(;%
/%

.:@= 182 "# / 89 5

8
><=,
8 3?= =
./
2
A :
5 B=% C@
/,

The grounded-emitter transistor

:4
"E :
F 1 "# /85 1D
$9
(%) . ! " #$ pnp

() :7.4
.& '* " #$ npn

? ' 8 Ib = #$ 4W ."7.4 ^ G+
214
'&D 2 678 .(C + I b I e = W23) ' ' O
'
R 2D .α ' CQ *= β ' R
YT' 7.4 5& &' Ie + ^&' (* I e = I b + I c = '%'
YT'' I c = (α (1 − α ))I b YT' 5& 678 '' C +N . I c α = I b + I c
: ' ' ' '5&
Ic = β Ib (8.4)
α
β= (9.4)
1−α
' + .1000 50 -'%' (W& ? β ( ,'

5& &'T' 4 ; U
]? - 2 CM, = & β
.- '. - - 2 8.4
@= ' U

]? &Q - 2 "7.4 D
+ 4,' ,' ,' U
- 2 P' 1 #+ Vce % +
7 Ic
' 5
4 3$ F*' 3 Vce H /$ C % = $ = Vce
= ,' ,< - 2 2' .Ib H & + 4' * #,
7) Ic _? ' P' G2 - * ' + & '%'
@ P< (= ,D 7) Ib ? ' P' (= F ,D
#$ /$ ( I c I b ) ' (?/' C $ O -2= 7$ .4*
] ' % Ic $ = Ib C+ , ' Ic _? ' (`2'
.@ 4S2' ' G+ ^ '%' & 7$ .Ib ] ' %'
4 = C% 2 ? #+

8 = S7' =
4?=
2 '%' V be = 0.7 V + , 3
a =

+ .
78 = VBB % 23
=

% Q/ , , E' G+ C+ ,
%
'
5.4 4 = % 2 M%
! + Ib C+ , '
215
Ib 2 8 & 2 = ^' 2 678 78 &'3)
4 ?/ '%' &' 2 7$ .(Vbe 2 8 ,< 2 =
C+ ,
P' (1 #$ 10 ) &
/ ? ' >P'
*= (8 : 678 ' J . 0.7 2 , Q/ , G+
.'%' - ?/ ,' 2 42/
pnp '%' npn '%' + ( 8 ! * 1

" " "
" ' ' ' M *'
- '. < npn -'%' ' 4+ = ."'$" ",*"
'' ' ,* ,*
' 9= 2 #+ - c
''
5 < ' 8= = #$ .pnp -'%' ;< 2
M%
[ 3 I0 & >' ' < -'%' +
. U
' 4
Q/
4.4
G+ ^ '%' U

]Q ? &'
.β ' R 2 ="7.4
: ! ' R 2 - 2 & , &'
β = ΔI c ΔI b = (15.5 − 13) mA (150 − 120) µA = 83.3
:#+ 2 #: , &' 7$
β = (3 − 1.5) mA (25 − 0) µA = 60
7$
B .- 2 8 W , 4? 1 '%' = U 78
CP , 42 '. - ^& '%' +
@< 8 ' = , E' ? β & N - 2
. 4? 7Q2 '%' '+
216
$ '+! 2.4.4
The field effect transistor (FET)
field

'( %#&
!" #$ .effect transistor FET
21(3 .BJT 01
/ - +, # )*
= %(- ( 1 9 :(- ;) 1 #45 6! 7
-&A " - ( #?@ 1* , 6 %"A -&A #45 )> FET
231 FET = @ B !& .(- ( 1 6 21* + )
.215 -&A #45 1@ 6! -& #- BC @D #1
.@ = \ FET '%' 4 /+ 4&, ="8.4 D
9 C ,2 @:FP' n 9 C / '%' JS\'
,2 #T' source drain J /, #D .p
/, < Id ' @ d /, VDD -ZD 7$ .
/, , 8 ρ $ G2 R = ρ l A H 2'' ' , &
'%' 5? O . /& @&, 2 A @ l +
% 2 4+ C% 2 ? &
, Q *
4 + C% 2 F' .(p n n p) ! VGG
^+ U2 F, p ,2 n C , ; /) ,
7$ .Id ' 6+ 7 A /& , 2 = C ,
8 $ 4, ? 4 C , !U/ = @N J , 4 Vgs

8 C8 W 678 (
(
78 J&D . ' = 3 G2
−5 V 7) pinch off Vp !?
= Vgs(off) ,
4+ C% 2 ? #+ , C .

J 7 .("8.4
Y'' 78 .C , ;< 2 '
(`2' 4
3
4 &d
J CP' , + & ,2 &: '%' =
217
E7 #$ J /D .? C $ ->P' %' 2 #+ _? ' (S2''
+ C% 2 ? C #$ + ' = (U,' = ? C $ #+ 1 @=

R !,2' 7 (- < 5 ? , ')
P G2 FET '%' 4 ? "8.4 D . + '
D .Q :'? C&' - , ' ,' D (
2
6
' = W23 .(p C , 2 ( 6
' 1&) FET H % _"8.4
(
6
' 8 4 = C% 2 + ' !' 6
' 8 (
., Q * '%' )'& J&
.n C 7 FET '%' J ]Q ? "8.4 D

"4 V 0 & Vgs (, , '
- 2 -D
X 2 20 V 0 Vds J !
P' E7
.
, ':'? ', %' - 2 " " &'
= #+ 4 S ,= ,' - 2 R' G2 >' , ,
+ , 8 678)
@ (S2' ' + & '%'
.10( , #T' 4 ; ' & '%'
FET = 1&( " E!" .(V ds < 4 V )

-F -&A 1 1 , 6 %# 1H B, ;5 GF 1 *
-1-
B, GI % B* :J K1
1+ -&A -1-
; 23 H
1 %V gs = 0 V @ 1-* %1 B* .G1 1
--
%V gs = −3V @ 1-* . ΔV ΔI = 4 V 10 mA = 400 Ω 61
1 ( %!, . ΔV ΔI = 4 V 1.5 mA = 2667 Ω 1&1 L G1 :M5
:J -&A1 G1 1 ( #?@ %; GF -&A
. B*
!
"
pn p
FET 10
. )* &+ Vgs # $% &' (
218
() .n FET

() .n FET

() :8.4
$ FET (#! !")
!" () . FET
.n
.( 4 V< Vds < 20 V )

! $% Vds "#
! .

0!0 !'1 2 /V gs = 0 V !' /
- . , &' *+

/88.4 ' 60 7! /VDD 4% 5 /30 3 *0 !!
1 06 ; 0 :& 4 ! /n *0 :%! 0 9 &
>
?- .(&' + = p 3 n !! n 3 p ! 2!) p <!
0 =1 9 VDD 6B1 n * = 0 @A01 2 4%
4 &' + -' 9 :0 * !'1 /C .30 V
-' !'1 1) 06,; E%1 ? A&D ! /30 :0
219
V gs = 0 = - *!$0! .* , (9 :0 F,1
Vds + 3 0 G 7 ! =1 + Id 1 % /88.4 '
71I1 =1 C * J K 1! .10- ! H * H' ! '
! /0 G 9 ! 4% 1 2!&! .! 5 ! 1
1& :0& .Id DD *+ = ! 20 =1 Vds H+ 2L1
+!) * 7F,1 + !4 /4% *+ ?M0 /3F01 1
. 01 0 G 9 1 0N ! /(!
1 (V gs = −1, − 2, − 3, − 4 V ) OIP H KI !

P (0 G 0.5 ! 1.5 ! 4 ! 6.5)
Q 0 1 ? 3F01 =
5 .pn ! &'$ + + 30! 0!0 0 :& 4% '
S ' R 0 A,1 V gs = −4 V !'1 *
D Vds *+ $% 9
, *+ 2! .0 G 0.5 ! 1 4I ' ! 1 =1
V gs = −4 V @ " T11&! .3F01 1 +1 Vds
2!&1 @1 H0- 1 30 !1&+1 $ /V ds >1V !
.V ds ≈1V !' $ 0 H0- 1 30 2 / I d = 0.5 mA
!

I d = 0 % $$ % Vgs "# $$
- $%( ,$ ( ) *+ Vds &$ '( $ !
&$2 3# .$ ( ($ 1#
+ 0 * . I d −V ds . )

! - ) 3# 4+ 5 6 7 7$ 1# 8 9% 6, 5
A Vds
?)@ .(=8.4 %2 5 &;<, ) +

< Vds B $ &, (&$2 ,< *) (#7( A $<
% (#7( 0 , % 3( .%$ .(=8.4 %2 (C) <5 20
.
) Vds B - 7 ! ) 5
* '( $$ *! E 9F$ Vp
! ' (A % D
.V p =V gs −V ds
220
/88.4 ' @CI 60 n * FET U KI
.(n * !1&+1 :%! Vds ! /:& Vgs >) /V p ≈ −5 V
:U0 3F01 9 1 :1 '!
I d = I dss (1 − V gs V p ) 2 (10.4)
.(88.4 ' 0 G 9 ! 2!&) V gs = 0 3F01 1 ! I dss
.4 !$ β 1 W0 ' /0 C- !1&+1
!0$ ! !$D !1&+1 @0 $!
:U0 6$ transconductance gm
g m = ΔI d ΔV gs (11.4)
U $ 0!0 4% FB1 = 9 1 FB1 0& 2!&1 4 2

:= 88.4 ' =&! $1&0 /- 0& = .Vds
(6.5 − 5) mA
gm = = 3 ⋅10−3 S
(−1 − (−1.5)) V
*XD' gm A#1 / . !$D H!1&+1 $C !

!1&+1 ?I,1 ' /0' gm H' ' :1 0!0 4% ?Y'1
.0'
Transfer characteristics $ ,-/ 3.4.4

FET U K!I 9! 9 KCI M OI KCI -
! /transfer characteristics !1 KCI C04'
HFB1 $01 H 2#1 .10.4 $ A #1 1 I d -V gs H
/gm $N! .4 ! 0!0 4% HFB1 = 9 1
.0' I,1 *0' gm ? 7!1 :Y'1 !1&+1 * 0$1 !
@ 701 2 !$D !1&+1 !1 KCI 9.4 ' 2N!
221
4>N Z' 3 ! ! .88.4 ' 60 9 KCI
!) 3F01 7! !1 > .10.4
$ $01 $0
.88.4 ' (!
.n FET
:9.4
0/% $ '+! 1 4.4.4

Other types of FETs
!1&+1 ! / !$D H!1&+1 ! -

/JFET U0 * @ +N 2 /junction FET ! ! !$D
@1 H' C 0& @10!0 4% !' 2! /1& 2 <! !!
9 <! !$D !1&+1 ! -! /n <!
@ %! 2 /metal oxide semiconductor MOSFET$ &'
6& ! /depletion mode (DE MOSFET) :,1 :
X-1&0 JFET U C04' @0 !P <!! .mode enhancement
3 ! $ /- <! . 0& ! 0%! !' ' Vgs 0!0 4%
&'P ! !$D !1&+1 +1 .n * ' :%! Vgs
H!1&+1 40 911 1 0!0 4% 0 !0 MOSFET $
') C4
@I ! + ?> /D1I FET U
222
@ 2 /@ A$D1 H!1' $%1 1 /( 1015 Ω =1 1
. I * 1& 2 :1
0 C- ! !1&+1 [ @ M =!

/ , n <! *C& !$D H!1&+1 5 /C& ! npn
01 7G ! /41DI :0&0 :!- 0%1& <& H!1'\ P

.-1 HGI, , 1 H0%1&! H!> <&
C- H!1&+1 +11 !$D H!1&+1 " = 9,N
"
41&! = -' = % [ '1 H 0
.H!! HD-' 4D!0 !$D H!1&+1 = *!
/
The Transistor as Amplifier 5 6/7! 5.4

!"#$

' * %+ .%&

'(
')
'

'*
1/ 0 -* /0
& & RLC ,

*4 56 .!#$ & 3 & & )

2
=
-(; 10:1)
8*
1 !#$ '7 !"#$

- &$ '
? @ !"#$
# /*1 >#
? " 3 '4 '
transducer 0; 'A1
)(

'7 )? B? .; ")

'
F/
?
.&
E$ # $? D -!#$ C1 ;

'7 )? E$ )? &
/?
-;
7
' /0
8# ' !H1) %

4B
-8# G

'4
;& ?;*A '
"#$
1 . ?;*A '
"#$

.)# / !H1 1
( -'; IAJ
.&& *! @ = ?GI, $ 0 E @
223
H+4%1 -' @ 3 31& /?GI, = ! %0
.feedback $% B1 3 ?GI, ! +14 /
- .OIP
Elements of an amplifier 6/7! 8 1.5.4

& ? : (B( ** !"#$
? 10.4 KL
7 =$ . ;/ /0

*
>6 1

(*)
;/

;
C# >#NL -!H1 O;0 )?
#$ O
7 0;) !"#$
0; =/
- ;/ KN .)*)*
!P1 K> # I$L* .C# )1 I -(

P#$

1

; )? 6
2 .S R'Q6 I
+1A . T>

P#$
#* S '/( 8* )?
-G6
#
6 > .VB ;/ /; *&

)? ;/ IR /;0
;/

)? ;/ 6
/ U K* K> -vo C#
;/ =
)*)*

.; ; VB 1 0

$ -'/(

; / 7 ' /3
&*V )
. 0;/ -'0 W -C#
.! &'
!
(
)* +&
! ""# $%
:10.4
0' W0 71 B0 "! /?I,1 * * ?GI, 9]^1!
?GI, aI! I 2
` _ 4% 11.4 ' 2N .@G 1 *! '
224
I& 4>1! /I *B 0!1 * %!1 .1 9]L
60 <! ?I,1 1 ! 31& '! .aI 4 ]I,
' aI! I C HD-' 3,! = a1 /11 = 10.4 '
JB! .11.4 ' 60 7! 1& 1 ! 3
*1& 10G' D]L *\ 1& 1 0' + ! D-'
H!$ (0!1) 0G' !'1 2!, ! /0!1!
*! 4% 3 , 4 D-' 9C>! ! . ' aI 0!
/- 0& = .?Y'1 : = !! 0' B1
$ ! /&& * H!1&+1 $1& ' /?]I, =!P
-' 0' VB = >! .! G % +!%11 :% I !4%
$0 ! = $1 4$! 1 3A0N ' @5 /"
"1 D-' $1 /!> .(4D1N ' =1 !)
1 W $1& : . 0 H1 1 W
=1 /]-^11 9!& ,DI H1 !4 0 $ H1
!&4 $ .]I, *\ D1I1 9!& % ,DI H1
$1& = !^% 0M ?! /,DI H1 <, :%1 %
.HD-' !B1&! /D'1 = !'1 ! /*0 $ 0#1 ?I,1
$2 3 45 . , - / 0 !'

1 :11.4
.( &( '
225
Basic design considerations
2.5.4
/npn !1&+10 10.4 ' $b D $ ,$1&

/VEE + 0 3 &&1 vs 0!1 * 30 I $,!!
/* J6L ?GI,0 * & .12.4 ' 60 * =
J10 .!1&+1 P + 71 ! 0 JB!
:!1&+1 I 4% 2!& /_4N Rs 30 !
V be = −V EE + v s (12.4)
vs I * $% /+ 0 4% W 1
1& 1 aI * C . VEE 4% I =]01 / D
:2!& a
R I 4% $ I c ≈ I e
V o =V B − I c R L (13.4)
.!6 7 1

/ 1 8 /( 9;< - :12.4

VEE

,- #( )*+
#$ %&' !" .v s = 0
VB

)*+ &6 $ #(23 453
/0 1" V B 2 (
9 :
; 8 #$ ,
6 .&6 )*+ 78* (
( Veb
#< vs
.( )*+ 9 :
; )*+
226
/ #( 13 @ @

#(12.4 > 12.4 (* ) <
5
4 ( C
'
) V B 2 Vo <A
(B5'
VEE < @
D @
#< vs
.(VB

@ @

3 V B 2 ; Vo ,E
#'"
F 12.4 (* E
.(2 4 ( Vo
'
) 13 @
0
(> 8 ' ,H6
.( G %" &6 Vo

IA
0 $ #v s = 0
V B 2 <

C
* ( ( & vs ( )*J ,
#VEE @
0
B6

VEE @
0 @ #<AD" . 1"
#(23 7 ' K2 ('
3 #v s = 0
V B 4
1 #)M ( )*+ # .453 7 3 V B 4 L @

± V B 4 6 ,-
( 45 N
# 7:* (
0
K
/ #(>0 ,E
VB V B 2
( + .'"
.

I $0 '_1 * H !1&+1 HGI, 911

41$1& 1 .1 ?I,1 ! ' /% 4% W0! ,DI
,DI *\ 30 $ !'1 $1&
0 4 .I H01
.=>$ 1& 0M -! /41$00
!$D H!1&+1 = Dc *!' + H01 701!

. , ED0
The BJT as amplifier 9:! ;8 6/7! 3.5.4

4P HGI, 3&! 7 = "_1 [0 '1 $1&#1
GI, 13.4 ' 2N . 0& *0' I $! $ W0 0 3%1
.!1&+1 KCI 3 <! &0
227
01$N /:813.4 ' ( I c -V ce ) aI KCI 60 7!
X+%P * $0 4 !' ) I
* *+4%1 !1&+1
%I * .(I =&1 1 H 1&
.I 4 /0! ! 4! /!1&+1 3 !!

` ; ! &!0 41 ' * $ I! I ! $!
[0 2 ?GI, aI * !4% <!% $N /
- .9!'

:U0 "_1
V CC − I c R L −V ce = 0 (14.4)
$% .npn

! "
# () .
() :13.4
.() &' * +$ , -/ 0 1 "
# 2
30 4' 5
228
aI KCI 7! 4& ' [0 $ :11 *50!
:= /Vce ! Ic -\ 6!' :813.4 ' 60
I c =V CC R L − (1 R L ) V ce (15.4)
11
2 :813.4 ' & 2 "' ?1& I $ !
7! I 3,! $N . −1 R L 2 load line I0 @&
I ! /!1&+1 KI1 *! :1$ 0
aI KCI
KI1! /($1 1 4-1 01$N 1) I c -V ce H DC0 ]-11!
I 31 A1! .15.4
$ 4G-1! I ! /aI * -
%!1 ' 1 ' Vce ! Ic ? aI KCI H 3
= 1 "1 M I1 ' 4%! !1&+1 1 .aI *
/31 ' ?]I, aI 4% ? W,! ! . I
1 ? 3 /10 V =1 V ce = 1V / I = ' 2 /-
' d Ib * 1 AN! .D =1 I c = 4 mA aI
2 /I * - !'1 I = ?GI,
!'& ! $ 0 & .?I,1 !'
/ VBB + 0 4% AN! .quiescent point (Q-point)
12
. 01 I 91 "1 31 :% 0& 1 !!
!! 0 4% 1I D' X1& d :& !'

0 .!1&+1 % B1 71 Q $ ! I!

" b ! y = b + mx

11
.
m # y #
"
' ) # *+ ! v s = 0 # $
%& ' (
$ " 12
,# ,
/ )0 + ' 1(
234
5
6 78
. I b = 5 μ A ,# -$

vs -<> ?' !(
#' 0.7 *
9 5.4 <
8) Ib ' -9 234 5
6 ,:
#' 0.7
)0 -

' @9 %## .7 ( %#
' -#+#

.&B VBB ) 9 5
6 A - $'
229
? ! ., "1 J$0 0 1 H010 KI 70& 3
$1& @^0 !1&+1 % B1 9$1 ' /OI ! 2 - '1
2 / 01 1& H 0 *6 $ -
.:813.4 ' 0 < I c < 4.5 mA ! 1V <V ce < 10 V U0 6$
.V CC = 10 V 4% 0
! 1I / -
$1& $1&
[0 R L ! 1I ?- . I
` 1; 4 O 1I AN!
Ic ! 3 31! Ib U
R = "0'" 0 I
I ?& / .9!$ VCC P RL 31 $#1 .V CC R L
: ,! $ 1I d W0N! . 01 D = $ %
' V ce = 5 V ! I c = 2.4 mA ) I &! !'1 :%
.(01 I b = 5 μ A 1 3 I 31 [ ! /:813.4

%&' () *+ ! " #$
" .
23 "4 5 6 7 8 4 -/ 0 !1 .%),
@ >? <= !4 !1
( !:; 9

#$
5; E F D? 9BC0; .%&' *& >? /A
!4 !1 21 %
G4 B$ !4 5 6D !:; 9 ! 52
.*/ 1 / *; D? H2
' = 1 W0 Dc !' ?GI, :!1 1 1 $N!

:I 1 = aI 1 0&
i o ΔI c (3.2 − 1.5) mA
G= = = = 425 (16.4)
i i ΔI b (7 − 3) μ A

-K, 1& >/ io I J 9
%&? -1 D?
Ib 5;
-K, >? <= !:; 6D1 .Ic E)
5;
5; - 5 NM13.4 1& 5; -K, LD" - G .
230
! B
B1 !1 6& F/ 5; O !4 O ! .16.4
.NM13.4 1& 5; Q npn $ E)
P
5$ <= =+ <! !$ " $& ! 4.5.4

Self-bias design and thermal runaway protection
;D .4M14.4 1& 5; Q A P& % 5; J

0 !4 !2 ; 12 R ? &4 5; J4
S F 1' - 5; EP& #
? D" .5+ LD" !
.51' $
5; - E
G ; % D, % 4
9(; 12) D, ! $A
DT U4 91& 5; !Q " B;
! Q1
P$
% ; .2 $ !/ >, 6D
X NY .npn $ 5+ $A
R2 R1 !
< F/
!
? 014 %/
!1 !4 5+ $A
!
! F/
E; + $A % ! B#$
RE !1 D .; 0.7
%/
5 $A 5; $ > .E)

5 N1 D" !4 6D >? .F/
! ; 0.7 R >/4
< !Z2Z ! B4 $ ; FC0 $A -
1 % %
$ / *4 ! :thermal runaway
1 9
@2 >? B= 9 ; $; 9 \2
!:; 94M14.4 1& % 5; 6D D? ]!1 .$ > %
95+ $A
\2 S $A
RE >/
5; %$
. ! % >? = $ 5; ;
4.5
O !4 G N

$
? N

F/ % !^ *) D" .* %&' >/ BG
231
P X; Q .4M14.4 1& 5; Q \Q=
:4M14.4 1& 5; I >/
&1 !G X E)

(#) .

!" # !$% &'% () .
() :14.4
1'% 20 3 (!) . ! !$% * + , *-/ !
! *0+
!
.() 4"
3 , *-/ - 1 5
232
V CC 1
Ic = − V ce (17.4)
RE + RL RE + RL
I ?& ' ! /814.4 ' *$ RL ! RE ! VCC ?

1I#1 :% 1 $ 1 ! =]01 ! .aI KCI 7!
1 + * ?1! . I b ≈ 17 μ A 2 / I 91
4% $1 1 4% C+%1 * C' Df- * 3, / "1 $1
' 0 7! 4% gA+% ?&
4& W0! .+
/C' D-f *0 814.4 ' 4% gA+% ,$1&0 .:814.4
31&! /
1 4& 1 a814.4 ' 60 * =

:I $ 01'
V Th = R Th I b + V be + R E I c (18.4)
10 RE ! 2 [0 1 $ 06

1 H $ &01 '! . I e ≈ I c ,1 2 /3A %
C- ! !1&+10 I 8.4 ?1 $ $1&0 !4%
+ 1 = / I c = β I b 2 /!4% 0 01 1 /0
:*
V Th − V be
Ib = (19.4)
β R E + R Th
.Q Ib

!%!& V be ≈ 0.7 V $ R 2 R1 #
!
"
RTh VTh
I c
/ $Ib +
- .'( )*
" + , β
.&
)*
" 0!1

23! $17.4
β I b - V ce
+ 5
' 6"7 !! 8 9) . - '(
- !9 ', .;:14.4 1 , + 6"7 :13.4 1 ,
.( R Th = R s V Th =V BB
/ &8

$ R E
233
$1 4 H0-! 814.4 ' *$ ? d 7 G 9!&
: .*! $
R Th = 4 ⋅ 27 (4 + 27) ≈ 3.5 kΩ ! V Th = (4 (4 + 27)) ⋅12 = 1.55 V
KCI H $1&0 ΔI c ΔI b 0& β W0 6 1!

: .3A%
=
>&- !
β = (5.9 − 4.6) mA (100 − 80) μ A= 65
.H D& β = (2 − 1) (0.04 − 0.02) = 50
β = 50 $1& /D&P *!%! $ = >!

:=
I b = (1.55 − 0.7) V (50.1 + 3.5) k Ω = 16 μ A
1 2!&! . I 91 :0 $!

$ $1&0! . I c = β I b = 50 ⋅16 = 0.8 mA $ 3A%
:[0! 3A% 0 4% = 17.4
V ce =V CC − I c (R E + R L ) = 12 − 0.8(1 + 6) = 6.4 V
.$ 3A% KCI *X! ? 3 ? 7011!
.W P +0 $ !1&+1 , 7Y1 '!

:I 9!' ! $N /a814.4 ' $1&0
V be =V Th − I c R E − I b R Th = 1.55 − 0.8 ⋅1 − 0.016 ⋅ 3.5 = 0.75 V
= 4% !0 > .+ 4% % 0 !

&C *!0 + 4% 61 / . % C, * 1 P 4 R Th
! = 4% !040! / R 2 ! R1 6!' 4% gA+% &!0
+ 1 0 1 + * ?!1 / . R E 2 1;D;
.* W
234
.*\ ?I,1 ' /?& ! = ?GI, ?1 $0! /d
$ ! I b I 1 FB1 = H /I = 0!1 * 0
0 I c aI 1 6B1 /(0) @D&! (0 !' 37) I = 0
! / 1.7 mA 37 μ A = 46 ?GI, W0 2!& .D! 0 G 1.7
,
= H0f&N *IP P / β = 50 B

W0 :&! .4%! 1& W00 , ?GI, 91 .$
. I b I 1! I * 30 4% 0
$ 1
! :% 4%

( )
' ." ! " !# $% "&#
3
. I b = 100 μ A &+ &2 1& (-/ ") *&+
7 8β 6 ! # 5" 45 +
.! " 92% 2 / 65 " 9' 3
Fixed-current bias $& 5.5.4

FB1 ?M0 *1& 70& - 1 + * G!1
1 H
1I :0&0 ! /* H% FB1 :0&0 !1&+1 H&!
+ 3 01 I β ! I c + /
- . ' %1 3 0 1

' @5 / M 4+! $ 1& ' 5 .* %
7! * 1 W &0 * + * $1&
." WA,! 1 -! .$
6.4
2 $ A# @14.4 + ?& > 12& :;5 <=

R FB *) " B=# 1 815.4 + ?& >& ( *)
CD
EF/ G )
H! G" .B& (
+ R L = 7 k Ω I&/ " BD= 8)@14.4 + *
235
7 *)2" H! <"
J 8 92 Q " H! G" .4.15
12& *)2" ?+ ) / 9' 4 .& + 16 7#
. 0.7 7# 12& *)2" & )
K 84 *( + 3

:( " 7# 3

R FB = ( V CC − 0.7) I b , Q = (12 − 0.7) V 16 μ A = 706 Ω
.

RFB
:15.4
>!6/7! $ '+! !' 6.5.4

The FET as amplifier
C- ! !1&+1 ?GI, ?1 FET U ?GI, ?1 @0
O%N /701 C
KCI 2 !1&+1 1I $0 .BJT 0
*! ! 0 1I " 6,1! .1& 10 H :!% ?1
* ?1 ?- / I A1 9!& 1 ! 1! /C
B1
/H&! 1I *0' X%\ G!! .$ $1 +
1 :!% ?1 1' $0! .&4 :% = D <! 0M !!
.H\ ?I,1 +% ?GI, W0N /1&
236
' BJT U ,$1&0 FET ?GI, = ! '
B1 4% = 1$ 2 / I 1 ' C$0 .FET U0 813.4
=! .FET U (9) aI KCI 7! @&! / ! =!
J$1& /+
D 0 $1& :%1 B0! /BJT U M
1;D; ! 1& *0 814.4 * 1 + *
JFET $1& GI, 816.4 ' 2N .FET U0 I 2
.n * ! !1&+1 !! /2N5459 +
!"
#
$ %&

' () .
FET :16.4
1%
2 () 1%
2 (0) .(/14.4 -) ' *+,

.n '
5 2N5459 JFET 34 0
) $/F/ . " ! #( 4! 4&

'
B+ )2& #
FET 6 B B#) BJT 6 >
237
M N 8 " )D)J 7 8BJT 6 I& 45 M+ .13(BJT 6
O ) * FET 6 O2 8 I c = β I b O&
# + 8) P $5" 7 )M" &
3
8 .10.4
" )) Q EF/ C 10.4 ) B& ; EF/
4" " ' 8R# : 92 & " P )2#= .4&
)"2 H FET 6 2 " :/
R &
" 9' S

.BJT 6 2 " :/ 4+
/816.4 ' 60 * 1& 4% :!% ?1 '1&
v s 30 *\ -^1 - !'
Q :%! .H! 3% ? 1 :%
/1& 4% v s 30 ?GI, +$N ! /!1&+1 +
0 DG-' ,1! .(!1D 1& 1 *) C 0 D-' &!0 "!
/DG-' ! .* 1& + 1 , "1
.* = :
0 *\ 30 = : + 1 '
4% % I % /(816.4 ') 9 KCI = *!$0!
I '! . I AN ! /V DD = 10 V ! B1
:1I /2!$ 0' 0
R L + R S =V DD I dss = 10 V 4 mA = 2.5 kΩ
.Vgs ! Vds ! Id % -

- 1 $ 611!
$ !4&0 O ' /9 KCI 7! I ?&
d '! .V gs = −0.6 V ! /V ds = 5 V ! / I d = 2 mA 31 *!
A1 1 H! ? %\ :1 7C ! 0 7C $1&
.*! $
#$ % &'( " . ! FET
13
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238
Graphical method ? 7.5.4
1 aI * 1& 4% H!040 I $ 611
:11 *50 .V DD = I d R L + V ds + I d R S U0 4% 9!' ! ! =$#1
:T#1 I $ B I^1 $
V DD 1
Id = − V ds (20.4)
RS + R L RS + R L
I = $ 1! .aI KCI 7! $ ?&#1!

4 ! '! /9 1! 0!0 4% 0
$ = a1
U0 :816.4 ' I * 4% H!0 <!% =$N .I *
Df- 4% ! V Th =V DD R1 (R1 + R 2 ) [ /V Th =V gs + I d R S
4% !0 $0 "! /Df- ! R Th = R1R 2 (R1 + R 2 ) !
$ 3,! ' C .% C, FET U 0!0 1 P I g R Th
: I B0
V Th 1
Id = − V gs (21.4)
RS RS
3 I 31 9!& C .!1 KCI 7! 4&!

"0 .a816.4 ' 60 7! $ 611 /!1 KCI
= I 3 31 =1 $ &50! / I d ! V gs 61
& W,]1 !! .V ds 61 /816.4 ' 9 KCI
R1 [
- H! ?0 $ 611 /21.4 + I $
. I d ! 3 @$1 ! + I R S 6#1 / $0 . R S ! R 2 !
!' ? $ ? 8.5.4

Approximate method for the Q-point
!4&0 R S ! R 2 ! R1 ? 611 / R Th ! V Th ! $ 1I#1
239
:(:814.4 ' >)
R 2 = R Th V DD V Th ! R1 = R Th R 2 (R 2 − R Th ) (22.4)
% ?1 ,1 . R S = (V Th − V gs ) I d :21.4 $ !

*0' I $ $%1 *0' ! P /?! B % T Th !'1
V gs U0 0' V Th , $%! .B1 *! 1& %1&1!
! /3 :0&0 Ic = !1&+1 IP HD1I @ [0
.B H
1I "1 D =01 /* 3 H6B1
7.4
$ HA0-1 816.4 ' 1& 4%0 + * ?A
. R L + R S = 2.5 kΩ ! V DD = 10 V !' V gs = −0.6 V
: V Th U ! 1.2 ! R Th U ?! B 1 1I $N
R 2 = 1MΩ ⋅10 V 1.2 V = 8.3MΩ
R1 = 1MΩ ⋅ 8.3MΩ (8.3 − 5) MΩ = 2.5 MΩ
. R S = (1.2 − (−0.6)) V 2 mA=0.9 kΩ :9 ! 2!&1!

2!&1 .0 G 2 2!& $ 9 1 ,1
? ! . R L = 2.5 kΩ − 0.9 kΩ=1.6 kΩ :4$1& :% 1 !
R Th U ! 3 ! ?! B 10 /- 0& = /1I !
` ' .!$
R 2 ! R1 H! 1.8 kΩ ! 33.3MΩ ! 14.3MΩ = /V Th !
!'1 :11 R S , !$ ? ! / R S !
.*\ ?I,1 ' 0 7G1 % *B ! / 0.6 k Ω
4% 3, R 2 ! R1 1! 6!' 4% gA+% ?M0!
240
4% ! :0&! .30 = 0&0 0& +1 0!0 5 /0!0 = 0%!
* $% ! /0!0 4% 0% -' ,P = 0&0 30
0&0 0!0 4% % /816.4 * 7 10 .30 = 0&0 0& -'
:2!& ,P = 0&0 30 4% ! /V Th = 1.2 V 2!& ,P =
I d R S = 2 mA ⋅ 0.9 kΩ=1.8 V
:!' !
V gs = 1.2 V − 1.8 V= − 0.6 V
.W + 4% ! !
?GI, W0 /1& 4%0 $1 :!% ?1 1' $0

0!0 = vs 0!1 I * 30 = 5 .I * ?I,1 +%
W00 9 KCI = vo aI 4> /!1 KCI 60 7!
:2!&
G = v o v g = (7.5 − 2.2) (−1 − (−0.2)) = −6.6
180 2!&1 ! + 3 * 6.6 0 *\ ?I,1 O% 2
/I 4% +1 aI 4% K 1) 0& *\ 4 H60 %
= 04 4% % 7 10 . h = CD1 ' ' .(W E'$!
E R S = 04 4% P /aI 4% !' 1 ! 4% ! R L
::816.4 ' aI 2A1 W,1! .aI 4% X+%
' . R L = 04 AB1 4% @ ! V DD H0- 4% ! vo
−1 R L U0 =$ @_ :!1 I ?&0 W W0 = !
I @$N 2 W W0 " 601! .$ 0 !
G = (7 − 3) −0.8 = −5 2!& :!1
241
MOSFET $ 9.5.4
Biasing of MOSFETs
<! 9 2 !$D !1&+1 K!I 'G 1

* $1& DE MOSFET :,1 $ 2 /$ &'
/,P! 0!0 0 _!1 R g *! ! 9^11 &0 * +
!1&+1 !1 KCI '] 1 .817.4 ' 60 7!
! :%! 0!0 4%0 B10 W&1 :817.4 ' 60 "1 0 1
R g ! .V gs = 0 3,!1 ' $ $ ! /:&
$ V gs = 0 % vs 300 g 0!0 01
1 @ ]'1 .
.4% 2 R g = 04 ! /H!1&+1 <! 0!0

! ,P = :&10 4 R g W&1 /0!0 = ?'11
V DD = 30 V ?GI, @G 2 W0 ! .0!0 O 2 [#1
2!&! 0 @ ! ' / R L = 30 V 4 mA = 7.5 kΩ !
2 /* = 04 vs 30 4% ?>$ > . G = v o v g ≈ −6
=! / % !1&+1 I $ = >) v s ≈ v g = v gs
.( R g R s J1 ' /?! B % R g !
$& !! A @+/ 10.5.4

Loss of gain due to biasing resistor
4 1! FET U! BJT U + R S ! R E 1! $%1

% H!1&+1 H&! H
1I !$D G1! /1&
% HFB10 Z& ! = !1&+1 ]-^1) * % HFB1
.( ! !1'\ $ 91 :0& -' ! 2 4%\! /*
' aI 1 2% : , ?GI, W0 JGDI1 + !
242
*\ 4>1! .+ !! R L ! 0 816.4! 814.4
" ! D aI 4% 3 /1! 1 ' = *6+% ]I,
. R L = 4> 2

() .DE MOSFET

() :17.4
.%& %'
*+ !"
#
$ ()
! !1 E /V B 2 /+ ! = 4> 2 X+%

" , '! .!1&+1 = ! 4% KGN ! /v i I 4% 3
:814.4 ' !1&+1 = ! 4% 2!& . 0
V be = v i − V B (23.4)
243
14
% 0& $% B1 JGDI1 / .V B = I c R E [
?GI, W
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! R E 3 D1 $& *0' D-' ! ' /$% B1 !
"0 .0!1 Hi ,P = ,DI $ 2 R & !'1 R S
H\ KI ,P = FET U 30 ! BJT U 3A% _!
D-' P /1& 4% KI C + ! =0! /0!1
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Safety considerations and grounding
! ! ,P! /,P + 10.4! 7.4 ' 6
-' = 2!11 1 *]$ H D .JP !' 2!& 4!'
15
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3% N:&
` 1$ ! . ' ! D ! ( O&) I-
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$1&0 .* ' &01 ! ,P + $1& Id :0&!

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JP 01$#1! .$ :0 0 JP *! OI $
$! .4 j1 1 H1 ! H <! 2 !4&0 011 C D-'
9^11 1 /*A 70 7! !+ ,1 *+4%1 7!
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X0 = 4!+
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! 4 J$1 ' 1 C04' X JP 3 +4%
2 KI .'4 3 "" "& E1 0 d
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247
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H1 ?4&D ! /!'' .C04' :0&1 /! 12
?1!I ! H& !N1 Q :% /(7C& !) *& E *+4% !
.! 12 4% H *I % = 3D11 ' 41 P /$
.+ C04' H10 I P H01 + -!
Residential wiring ! -C ! 1.6.4
JB ! + C04' H1 40 :!% -'
H1 !> 20.4 ' 2N .% E0 [- ,P "&
X04' '0 ! 4% I = , /2 + "
&P -
-
@0% =! /JP 3 !! !> "&! .+ =
.E1 60 2!& 10 0!1 ! 120 2!& 4 ' 4% /I %!
!" #" $% #& #'

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/ . 240 120 +,
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"+ #: 6 " #;

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17
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248
2 /% 180 U0 + P! 7+P I 24% !!
G!1 .40 0!1 ! 240 4% !%! $ ! /V B = − V R
/ 0!1 ! 240 I! /D :!1 ! 120
`
] I + !>
X!4 HDA' 41- ! / 1& = % H *+4%k !

L& D ! 120 U
`
] I $ -#1! .C04' Z! P!
U I 9^1) E0 ' 3 !! ,\ ,P "& = %
"&0 !! ,P "&! / "&! / "& ! 120
:!%! lIP '& ! B1& .('0
"& 1 /E0 '& E' :1 ! "
O 7 = L /C04' d ' 3 ! 120 4% 2
"& !%! .JP = 9 ! !! '4 E 2 KI0
= 1 A @5 /'4 3 W ! =
!! ' ! /,P
W,1 !' ^ . X ! /D 41 - JP
H+4%1 = 2!11 1 $ :$ ! ,6L M '4 g
E1 ! C04' +$ I ! 1 !'1 ' C04'
.0$ ! '4 3 "& ,_
_
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d X04' D! /! I +!1 M 1 71
. !
249
Summary D/ 7.4
HGI, 0 $1 -' H!1'\ && D $,! •
H+14! '1 H! H$ HI,! *$1
.-1! H!1'\!
:`! ! /:!-0! H!1'\0 1 ' ,!! •

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+ $ - !_ / / pn ! , 60! •

0' &'$ + ! /! $,! 0' P
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&'$1 !_ &!0 BJT 0 C- ! !1&+1 6!'! •

*+ aI ! H'! / *+ I ! H' [0
I ! 0 2% 2 1 P ' ?I,1 '! . &'
0 , ! = 0%N (*! [0 !) ! *B
U 60! .(3A%! * !) ! *0' aI !
.!% [ 1 ?GI, ! BJT
!4 /?!4D [ &0P !! /H!1&+1 - <! •

, * J I 4% A BN .FET !$D !1&+1
H' ! .4 10 ?Y'1 "0! /:! 9
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(() R L = 0 v = 0.2 V () ) i
("' I 0 = 1 μ A
. R L = 100 Ω v = +4 V (,) R L = 100 Ω v = −4 V

2
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v o #) -

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V CC = 8 V R L = 2.2 kΩ :) V ce I e I c ("' (()
. β = 500
I e = 1.503mA I c = 1.5 mA (() R S = 433kΩ () :
.V ce = 4.7 V
V CC & # 13.4

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R R 2 R L ("' . R1 = 10 kΩ R E = 0.5 kΩ V CC = 12 V
. G = ΔI c ΔI b

V ,3 @' 2" BJT "@ #"I .20
V CC = 9 V :

2

V ce I b R FB ("' .15.4

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. R FB = 1.13MΩ I b = 10 μ A V ce = 6 V :
. ,J; 9 , > 5

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L 5< 14.4

. β = 100 V CC = 12 V R 2 = 120 kΩ R1 = 30 kΩ
255
.V ce ,Q = 5.1V I c ,Q = 0.98 mA I b ,Q = 9.8 μ A :
8.4
B0 /0
JFET "@
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Q
$

: R L = 3kΩ V DD = 15 V R E = R Th = 0
. I d = 2.8 mA !" 70 ;# !E

V Th ' ()
.V ds = 10 V

V Th ()

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n
!E FET 1
H5
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R L = 1kΩ R 2 = 15 MΩ R1 = 3.3MΩ :2 16.4

70
/0 #" .V DD = 15 V R S = 1kΩ

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E
@'J 0 .25
R S = 1.5 kΩ R L = 2.5 kΩ V CC = 8 V 5< 16.4

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;
.16.4

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#"I 7" .26
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L"" LH5 ( 25.4 2
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29 26 25.4
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( 4 #
V DD = 15 V .V gs ,on KS) G () ;
4 2
.#
; ' R L = 3kΩ V GG = 7 V
.V d s ,Q = 8 V I d ,Q = 2.5 mA V gs , Q = 7 V :
!E MOSFET "@
$ L5 E
@'J #" .27
R S
0G 16.4

E8 ."'
;

@'J 4 ?' H R 2 R1 U 4
> '
#
B0/0
"@
."@2
@Y
(

@'J E

#8" G -16.4 2

R L = 3kΩ R 2 = 600 kΩ R1 = 400 kΩ : 16.4

.#
; ) V ds I d V gs ' V DD = 15 V R S = 0
. I g = 0 :
R S
$ L )< 4#5 (
CE @
<3 G ("' .28
H5
R < 4)
"
#
E&
$
? !" , > 5

' F
E 16.4

.7.4 3
,N"I'
R S G #" .M? 30 KU
2
/
25.4
;#
(

#" .29
:16.4

E&
R
? E?) G = v out v in H5
R ("' ()
.(
"
#

$ )< C E @ <3 L 5< G R

("' (()
.<0
!"
, Z
4# #
R S
257
id = g m vgs
#
#" : . 4% '
G (,)
&
\@
;
F
E 11.4
#
["

.$

4
v gs &
\@
$ i d 70

(,) G = − g m R L (() G = − g m R L (1 + g m R L ) () :

. R S = 0 ) R

25.4
258
‫ا
ا‬

Practical Amplifier Circuits
Introduction 1.5

!" #$ #"% & ' () ! *" )
. ! () ,- +
12 3 #4) /0 #"% 1
1: 9 ; <5= '> ( 9 < ' 9 670 85 .1
B) C <= @A '4 1 ? ? '"2
:CD 3 + < .( *) '

.1
+ , -*, /$01 ( )* ( ! " #$ %& '
.
' (& -2 3
+ ,
), 3 4 56 +5 0 7*51 " 3 ) .2
.
2
'
# 3$,
1

'5 " 9 9
! ' 1 < 1 ?FG ' < < '5
259
<= '= ! 1= / 12 1H 6+I < = /
< 1 13 J7 <= .+ 1H
3 < < '5 5 = < @"K 1=- 3 ("
) '5 13 1 / " ->" . ) '5 <= < *) 1
L H B) 9 < " 4 <=
) = 9 < () 1#4) CD
?%K > M) '5 '0 N- % 5 . %
5 1 ( P! B) < 1= 1H H M '5 O
< .106 < *) () @ < '" -4 5 10 1 <
*F ,- <H 1 Q7= -( /
! <= % M" /
! *F + .1000 10 < P! (" = / 1

C < *! 1H N / -4 106 N '= /
.100 N (" S= / R$+ H B)
@A9 ) 5
& (< => 9) 0$*: 9 )8 $
D, @A9 C 4=E 3 $ % $ " ) B ) 0 C 3
.& @A9 F
= $ .106 3$ 6 F ) # C A9 1.5 )6 38

%G B " & @A9 @D8 $ %D, @ 9 " D, G
# /91 @A9 ( I* C6 $ .#$, H C @A9 $D"
.F,9 " I$ & 8
@A9 $# D, @ 9 C1
B A $#$ %
6 & F,9 " 8 3 $D" & @A9 1
D, C1 C " % 1 100 $ 1 C
& /$ ( F9 @ 9
C1 $# 1 J6 , $ ." <$ < & ), " G,E F,9
$#$ %<*K$6 C 6L (& 3$ 3 $#
' @ 9
C$6 3 J CM" %&N F 9 @& ( I* C6 % 56L
260
.1
$ 6
C )6 D, @A9 *: C6 $ %N
!
(" ?G ' "&= (5 4 -4 ?4 <H
' -" H 5H / '
" "&= <85 = @A
? + .= " ( ,-
! @
D 5 .(U ?$ * 1D M < D
>$ FET '! #" <= - 1 @ ) 12 H !
.13 P" < 9 *F M "5 :(5 $ @ )
>"+ #" T> < % FET V T> < /
W
<= R) 12 3 '5 4D ,- < %H BJT !
.(! !" < @ ' A '""
$ .!" #

:1.5
% % & #' ( !!) #*

#'
.+,
! -
The Ideal Amplifier

2.5
CO "$ A ) DA9$ D9 "
9E
D, $# @A9
%5 @A9 7* " > -Q .v out = A v in C H %1P2.5 )6 "
A G C1 $# :9 - $, RD 4: C1 -, S!:9 # "
" ! .
1
)$ * # '+, $ &$

'( #$ #% $
.'0+ '( & %0! $- / $
261
frequency responce F, C1 -, $ % !D* C$6 C1 -,
* C$6 C1 -, $ %*6 < (&1 ( : C = #$
) <,* J# ( ):
O $* *& .$ F,9 *$ !D* F9
) 5 *# C * T5
* .-P2.5 )6 " *O ! @A9

.U9 )$:$ ) ( " %@A9 U9$ )9$
' *
C I* C F*1 (& S* C * T5 *# C1 6.1 " *$1 **1 =6
C !"6 C * T5

=
) 5 C6 F*M" %
=
D* C
)6 (& )9
* @A9 )9 D* / %C .C D* C #
* / %<0$ V* "$ .vs 5 D, * Rs $

U9 ) %F $* (&$ .Ri ) $ )6 (& @A9 )9
)0 C 7 1 ) $ )A5$ .RL ) $ ( * * @A9
)& 4 CW C6 B (& 7* .# Q$ < $ < $ #,
: A 2 & @A9 Ar @ 9
v o i o R L Av i (R o + R L )
Ar = = = RL (1.5)
vs vs vs
Ri RL
=A
R s + R i Ro + R L
.v i = v s (R i (R s + R i ) Y vs @A9 )9 " vi D, (8 H
G C 2:1 @A9 Ar 6 G C1 (& Z$$ 0N S*
C6 < 2 1 $ D*1 .A Z$ @A9
%C .L *"# $#$ %Ar 6 G @ I @A9 :*& @ 0 " D9
: 5 @A9 A8
<6) Ri " C DI
' * D, )6 CM" $ % R i → ∞ (1)
* (& V $ %(@A9 )9 * C F6 vs DI %/91
.( R i = ∞ *& i i = 0 ) & 31 @ )9
.open loop or open circuit gain

2
262
!"#
() .
() :2.5
.' $ % &
7 $ %RL " (& Avi D, )6 DI $ % R o → 0 (-)

% 1 : 3$ C1 Ro Y C6 C C6 $ .@A9 )9 F*
Ro <*6 6 %C . !D* & * C$6 C1 @A9 C61
<6) )01 @A9 " ) )$ C6 % @A9 " 2:1
.(@A9 ") " ( 3> RL %/91
-, 31 % \ 2 5 C$6 C1 -, $ ( , -L) A → ∞ (<)

. V* < , @ 9
:A8 A r , opt 5 G C )$ **6 F*1 # :N9 $
A r , opt = lim A r = A (2.5)

R i →∞
Ro →∞
C - $ 1P3.5 C 6 " CO "$ 5 @A9 ) 5 C6
@A9 @ : C .3U9 $ )9 C $:$ ) $ * C 8
(& .@ : < D:$ D $ S!:9 JD @# * & %
@A9 C ($L )9 * C$6 C1 -, %)5 )
< ' * " $ 6 C6 61 G $ )

.N
:1 * < 4
! "operational amplifier

3
/ 1 / 2 .)/
# $#%# &' "( )* +, -.
.*# ) $
263
(Ri = ∞)

() :3.5
. %& ! ($) . !
"#
1.5
.

"'!( * &
#
$ %)
!"
0 1" & * # / %) '- + (+
: .&72
(8 90 10
456 23 .(
>? 9!" (02 = .; 1" &<$ 0+ 1" 1 &
C A = 1V 10 mV = 100 ; '
A B B C@2.5 -
4563 2( B D&72
(8 0+ >- 1" B$ '
! 2( B C$ 1200 ! 2( B C$ 600 0!
.$ 200 9!" :! 2( B C$ 3000 9!"
(8
4563 :! '
* B
E + 10 mV ( 3000 (600 + 3000)) = 8.33 mV *( C 90 10 &72
.9!" ! 2( 456 2( > * FG !"0
*( C 100 ⋅ 8.33 = 833 mV '
:! * B
&08 * HG 0 + 833(1200 (200 + 1200)) = 714 mV
Ar 0- 9!" A >$ JK( I > . ! 2( 9!" :! 2(
:B
A r = v o v i = 714 10 = 71.4
/ 4$ %C .(1.5 ) 1 , * J# (& )$: C6 )
.(I
, C %71.4
264
@5 %) @A9 C ($L ) ( CW )** 4$
( D* "$ %61 0 3 D, @ 9 ( J& *
.& @ 9
Small-Signal Amplifiers

3.5
C( + 9!" A &08 < >- ;($ M <' (?
A < + Q% >$ O .! :! PBN* O (+ I
M C 90 * CS! > R 8
C&U !" 0 I (02 .' TF<! ((
>- ;($ O .A
V >-$ CTF<! (( &08 +( !

G( TF<! (( >$ :0 W+ (0< 0- Q%
! VG I + > ((9- (( > < VG 2 >= CX!O
>- B CG( 8
< ! ((- C> .+
"2O >6-K F( .W! CYU Z " !O
G* >[ &
C
B$ 02 G(
02 >6-K C; \- 1 ( + ;(8
.G( 9!" 0 > *( '3
- G Q%
FET

1.3.5
Small-signal model (FET)
" *O FET )$ $* S!:9 ( *I*
D, (& Id C1 *,$ %)5 ) (& %P16.4 $ P8.4 C 6
: 1 Vds 4^: D, (&$ Vgs $
I d = I d (V gs , V ds ) (3.5)
)$ Δ
2: <,E G,E
2: < ' "$
:(& ) $ )6 - C ):* %Q ) *
∂I d ∂I
ΔI d = ΔV gs + d ΔV ds (4.5)
∂V gs ∂V ds
265
. 6
' C -$* $1 K 2 7, Δ < \ 2 ) 5 **6 $
%(-P13.4 )6 I* ) I d = I d , Q + Δ I d = I d , Q + i d * %)5 ) (&
A6 C&
2: * N 4L J# " * H
: 2 : 4.5 6 CT6_ %!* .
' C $*
1
i d = g mv gs + v ds (5.5)
rd
< $* @I " 3$$ %$ 0* # g m = ΔI d ΔV gs
76 C& K #$ %V* $6 10000 $ 1000 C )$

B$ % , $ 0* O_ . $ D, $ 4^: " @6̀
< \ 2 ( 4^: < \ 2 * 91$ 4^: $ * C D, < 5
$ 1 .FET Y
$, C& )_ Q #$ . $ D,
%P16.4 )6 " U9 S!:9 " 4 C& K8 3 %9W
D 0 1 . $ D, < 5 O rd = ΔV ds ΔI d 4^: $ $D"
.50 KΩ D" !
() . FET () .FET

() :4.5
.FET !"
" $
$ %
$
& " < , # 5.5 C
%C .-P4.5 )6 " CO "$ $ * # D

*O 0$ . * # F,9 *& FET $* !"6 -$*
*) !"6 C$$*
2 : 9E C1 C6 * C1 6.1 "
) D, *) C * T5
2 : $1 ( (& $
)6 " *O C * T5
# FET Y ) 5 /9L %C .($
* < %C C # C #$ ! , )* **6 $ .UP4.5
266
%C .C!"6 C C1 (* %C " %#* # %#D,$ $
C H % Av gs $1 g m rdv gs !"6 C * T5
" * D, ) 3$
.4$* " D, G )A5 3 < $ @ ) $# g m rd = A
! "# $

$1 2 FET 0/5.5 ,- .!%& !' ()* +# 5.5
,-* .( 3 *4* vi 2* " $1 * 2$
.5 !%& !' ! *#6 +#7 + ! 8$ 9/5.5
0 + *&4*) !%& :7" :) :; ! <& )53
6 @ * .(*4* 2 ?@ *3 >- *#6
9* ! 5! :$1 +#7 B0 C3D "#
F *4 )53 + 3 .(/5.5 E* & !
I ! 3 *G )G* G : )H .R2 * R1 $ 637
) ?@ K- .5J7 *4 R1⏐⏐R 2 94 0 !@ 2 3
5J %& ?@ &* ** ! L7 5 $M1 ! +# )@ B0
P 3 B0 ? FET N JCO /5.5 65 !
)G* 3*$ ! 1- * .( JQ *G R 3 JQ) JQ B
!"# $% ) .

4
)
' * +# &
& (
!"# $% )
(

.(1 120 % ,
- -/ 0
#
- 1
23 4 5
67
!
6 1 89-: $
1
2
1 4.5 3.5 -/ 1
5# ;3 .2

5!1 8>-: 5
># .6 2
/< 1 89-: $
- 5=
6
.8 !6 1

># 5BCA? 2
/@ 6 1
( 1 ω C ≈ 0 $)
EC 2
+E +6F 1 2
- + + % +D#- 5
.‫ ه‬30-20 ‫ددات أآ‬
KL = A5.5 -/G 1 ?1- +
I
H - 3
$
J 6
$% vgs 6
DE G 5& ::E 0 M% NF . DE
.=
6 8"-: ! ;3
267
* LQ ! J :+ S 43 *+$ :*#6 *4+ 94
.! *0 1014
?@ (0/5.5 ) ,+ FET 6 ?3 3Q 4
+# 4 .&$ G (9/2.5 ) ##S %&
*4 G ##S :T* 0 $M1 G 9/2.5
5 ! 4* .( J 443 2* "
.L3* LJ Q K*# 9/2.5 *0 (/5.5
() . !" ( ) .FET

() :5.5
, R2 R1 & ' & %* *+ % (%) .#$ %
.-/
268

A r = v out v in

:
!
Av gs rd R L
v out = − R L = − g mv gs (6.5)
rd + R L rd + R L
:FET " #$ %&'*

+,

v out v o rR
Ar = = = −g m d L ≈ −g m R L (7.5)
v in v gs rd + R L rd R L
" /0- 12 3$ ,4 5 rd R L &-$ .

5%;&< %
57.5 &2 8 5%9 %&
2 7 . 2 /& #$ FET
0-
2 ?&- &4
#$ /&> 4 =- #$
& &. %&0 & &
&@ .RL & &. gm
0- & C 5& +, ,B$ .
%&0 A> #4
.$&7 &2 5

?&- 8, D
2.5
.5.5 ' #$ E

&* 7.5
&2 2
7.4 &F #$ />G # ! =;& /&-- /&&. ? 2
.H16.4 ' #$ E
&-&

?&- C& 7
!&- 57.5 &2 &2&
&
&

.>- &2&
.H16.4 ' /&-- rd ! &. gm
2
I$& ,4 5/
&F Vds)
2 ?&- - 52 >.- %0
:(v ds = 0
ΔI d (2.3 − 1.7) mA
gm = = = 3mS = 3 ⋅10−3 S
ΔV gs (−0.5 − (−0.7)) V
269
=;& #-- #4 5! &. - J
&' -
:(v gs = 0 I$& ,4 5/
&F Vgs) 2 >.- C.&
!
ΔV d s
rd = = (10 − 0) V (2.1 − 1.9) mA = 50 kΩ
Δ Id
rd
R L = 1.6 kΩ
7.4
:#$%& ' ( ) .7.5 ! "
RL
A r = − g m R L = (−3 ⋅10−3 )(1.6 ⋅103 ) = −4.8
7.4. &F #$ &-&

& &- # H5 - $ - K,4
BJT

2.3.5
Small-signal model (BJT)
% 3 41 5 /&1 2

- / 01, * +,
.397 % ;< 7
BJT 61 ,7 81
1 3 => +, 1 ;? 397 ;< $1
;B 3 C, D BJT @67% A1 ? . 1
3;< >E 1 ) F
%G 3; "1>
14.4 13.4 7.4
%G 1 1 H
397 1 1 C, +, 1
>1
FET IJ1 .1 C, 1 %
:/!> => 3 +, J1K 3 ;B Ic /!>
I c = I c (I b , V ce ) (8.5)
%&
- 5;0 /&.' &2&
?L2 K,4 &<

>.-
) %P E & /OP
Δ /OP M .N
:( 0&- 8, 0-
270
∂I c ∂I
Δ Ic = Δ I b + c ΔV ce (9.5)
∂I b ∂V ce
57
&- &

%P %&'* /OP F - 5A
& @
4 ∂I c ∂I b &
2- .v ce = ΔV ce 5 i b = Δ I b 5 i c = Δ I c 7 8
5(& hf "
β
0R .V ce Q 2 >.- - +,) β &

?&-
%& 8, (
&F Ib ? -) QE =;& 4 ∂I c ∂V ce
5,7 . rc = 1 ho QS &. #4 &
. 5ho 0 >2T # QS
:"
%P %&'* !,- ! U
1
ic = βib + v ce (10.5)
rc
.CH6.5 ' #$ -E

BJT " ;$& % &2 K,4
&&- &4) ! #&- - 5(CH4.5 ' ) FET " & @
.&. Q X< J$ W & Q
-
BJT " WF 5(V&
QS
FET BJT

+,- % . /*5.5
! "# $ % &'
( ') '#%
3 .& 3 1014 #%' +2 &'# FET
0 1 +
6 %7#)# '%89'% 6 1 + 5'0% 6 , BJT
% .8;2# :% 6 FET 3 '%# :%
= > ?> @ A<
7 ? BJT 3 ':% 3 <
0
.ً‫< ا
زة أ‬
! ( )

7
/!'* + , - ! /!'* .(&13.4 $ 11.4 $ %) "#
.( I b = I b , Q + Δ I b = I b , Q + i b :1
0 ') "# -
23 4
1 ' 2 "# 3 45- /6 7 8
" 3 45- /6 7 - 23 +6
.7 8239 4
1
271
.
() . BJT
() :6.5
.
( )
;2 +8 / # & 0 # ;2 3 52 B'3 = <#

0.7 V 9'D3 > .V be ≈ 0.7 V C3
A>
0%?
> C3 E 2 3 / # '% '' 7 6 +8 +9 '%89'%
C ' %8 9? ;2 2# .
'%89'%
;%2 H G% + 3 9 F

<
7% ) #%' &
$ 5' 'D &'!I ;2 $#)% <%% . . A<
"# $ (/ # & 0 < A< C3)
A< ) 0.7 ' %8 ;2
2 (vbe C3) &'D Vbe ='LD%
72% 8 M .6.5
!
'# A< ic '"D% "- '"D% ib 7
&'!I #2%8?
E# 6' %
0 % > .( i c = β i b ) ib E 58%#
! "# + 3 9 " NM 62> A<

7 %

' 6 01 ' 3 Ib ' 6 O! ' 3 '#% E 5.4
'0
; *1 3 '#% # 1 9? E 5.4 7
7%8# .Vbe
:A<
81 #
# A ; ? ? @ <6 - = > + 3 0.7 ; , 9
. 6 +5.4 $ 23 B C3 + 6 6 ? 3
272
I b = I o exp(eV be kT ) (11.5)
:11.5

Δ I b = (∂I b ∂V be ) ΔV be (12.5)

ri ,
+ ∂I b ∂V be &'*

$% !" #

* -.
ri = 1 (∂I b ∂V be ) = 1 (I be kT ) -.
:(T = 20 C = 293K )

0.025 0.025
ri = =β (13.5)
Ib Ic
I b e = 1.6 ⋅10−19 C k = 1.38 ⋅10−23 J K kT e = 0.025 V #0 1

12.5

4 0 #5 # .
2 #
#
3 I c
:

4
1
ib = v be (14.5)
ri

6
14

#" 3 7,

< .(4
;*

9
) 9 8
β != < !" 3 1 #4 >
14
.' 4 ,
ri !=
?@ 1 ho B4 A"
rc ?@ ) rc = 105 Ω 150 50 #4
14.5 10.5 #

?E@ .( hf B4 β D4
?C hi " rπ B4 ri
6.5
&
I J4

K
BJT B
!H ,
$ A F
9 G
!&7 ; v be ,
;* " . i b ,
4 I L
<4 4 1
=7
2.4 #24 P;* ,
#Q <4
!O

MN4
1 β i b = β v be ri = g m v be #" R >
G # . i b = v be ri

4 4 S*0 4 .BJT B
4
= g m = β ri 4@
273
6.5 ) BJT
;*
<4 F, . FET B
&

' *

! "#
$% & . g m

(
.FET -/ *
g m β + #, BJT
(4.5 ) FET 1 BJT

0/
0/#/'

78 FET ' * 435 /
#6
$% 23
.BJT ' * :#% # 1 $
3 09
J4
> 4= #
BJT !$,A
#5 2E.4 ?.
-C .
6 FG .4 >
G 7.5 18.4 14.4 Q
v i <4 24
U V N% <N N% - BJT !$,A "T7.5

A . = .F,
<
,
<

9 = I
&
+

4 BJT .'
# +T7.5
V ;Q N
24
2 +
;*
-.) 24

24
" G
<* #" >
G
0 ?AC .+

W =
3
) ?
Z W 4

.(+

X, AJY

>
G # R 9= N%
(M 3 20 # "
8 ri !$,A
, ,
2 . ![ , #A
.FT7.5
&

#\ (; <A 1) R 2 R1 '8
rc <E*
" .10 ri # 4" # R 2 R1 # N
#
# % 4" # (!" 100 50 #4 ; = <
)
'8 30 # R@ G
.( !" 10 -.
) R L

B
T7.5 B
BJ4
B2.4
B&
B
<BE *

! "#$

10
(
+$ * R2 R1
( $ &(
) (
*
'% β %&
.Ib $(
274
() . !" ( ) .BJT
() :7.5
& '* +$ ,-$ #$ % (%) .#$ %
.RL 01 rc 2ri 01 R2 R1 /
:
;.4 ; ;*
D4 #
275
v out v o βi R β RL
Av = = =− b L =− = −g m R L (15.5)
v in v be i b ri ri
:%
4
i out i o β i b
Ai = = = =β (16.5)
i in i b ib
2) β .'

D4 !$,A

D4 -. #G0
; rc
# #"
2 .8 D4 " .( R L -G

4 7
:B4 2C BJT B
!$,A
Pout v o i o β 2R L
Ap = = = Av A i = (17.5)
Pin v i ii ri
J4 FET

N
.'
P ]

0 BJT 42
&%

.' !$,A ' , # I" A"
4 T7.5
4 .+T2.5
J4
..Q

J4 G0 A " #
#0 ) S7*4 I4
I*" ^ +T2.5

.(#N_% ;* <44
<4 T7.5

3.5
!$,A , -$GC "T7.5

#J4
`
# $,A !E

!$,A #" b -" !" 10 -. I, ,a
# 3 +2
#0 . R L' = 10 kΩ -. I*,
U V ; #4

"T7.5
P ;* <4 ; +2
!$,A
" .!
= -G
!$,A
, <
.'
<E* X&, !
. ."T18.4
J4

2
N
2
2. 2, !. T14.4
J4

E .V CC = 12 V -. G ;* . .
2, ? <

276
, # &) Z o F,
Z i ,
R 2 R1 R E R L
.1 V -"
F,
;* 2
R s = (%
!$,A

+T18.4
#E4 .

I c = 6 mA V ce = 12 V # 2
#
2, G0 .&
.

2 2@ . R L + R E = 12 V 6 mA = 2 kΩ #" R T14.4

I c , Q ≈ 2.8 mA v ce , Q ≈ 6.2 V
2, ? ,

PG;
4

* . R E , +* #5 . I b , Q ≈ 50 μ A
-G
>G 3 c
!L,A
;*
#Q D4
b$N, ;
. A "

,
G3 #" M." R E ≈ 0.1 R L U V ,
d V .2 R L 2 #4 ;[
* A = G0 4" ;* & <2 . e4 2. 7
$%
24; . R L = 1.8 kΩ R E = 0.2 kΩ #G0 .>
G &'
2

2
0.56 -. 14
;* #0 -" 0.2 kΩ ⋅ 2.8 mA = 0.56 V R E
-. #" +* 14

#4 ;*
#"
0 [ .AQ
0 4.
4

;* -. #" +* =
0 .'
J 2
0.7
fE'* P$ #" +* ;* G3 AQ
0 4.
4 0.56 + 0.7 = 1.26 V
I 1 E !

. R1 = 1.26 V I 1 #G0 .'8 ;* 2 -G
;*

R1 ;*
fE'* P$ C
. "
0 [ .#5
U V

-. #" *
.;
.
# #\ R 2

%" I b # 4" R 2 R1

# 42 . 10 I b '8
=2
>7; . # ' ?. G3 #
.
* J .
!$,A

D4 b$N,C ,
XC '8 V
, 2.
0 e* G
.; +] ] N ;*

. R1 = 1.26 0.5 = 2.52 kΩ R I 1 ≈ 10 i b = 0.5 mA
:#" [7 ^,Q '8
R1 + R 2 =V CC I 1 = 12 V 0.5 mA = 24 kΩ
;*
2. ! G;4 . R 2 = 24 kΩ − R1 = 21.48kΩ :R ;
277
< J #" # #G
β I4 .'
2 #0 : .

.
PG3 .8 * ;e4 #N
*

T18.4
-C .

T14.4
J4
F,
X&, # .!$,A
G;
&
+

2,
+4.4 +
PG3 = ) rc ≈ 60 kΩ β ≈ 60 #" *
4 . ri = 0.025 ⋅ 60 2.8 = 536 Ω R@ 13.5 =7
.4 (

15.5 =7
.4 .
D4
+. !
PG3

:-. ;*
D4 #" *
Av = − β (R L⏐⏐R L' ) ri = −60 ⋅ (1.8 kΩ ⏐⏐10 kΩ) 0.536 kΩ = −171

10 mV ⋅171=1.71V

$
% &' %

&' ."# 1 V
!
"20 1 R s )

* # +, - /" ( 5.8 " ( 10
6 10 mV ⋅ ri (ri + R s ) = 5.8 mV %
ri $ $3
%
45,%
; . ri = 536 Ω $9 R s = 407 Ω :$ .7
8

) <(<
" ( 10 =% <
/
% ) "20 /- (6

6 " 1 =
#
%
2 / R s = 407 Ω * #
. Z i = ri = 536 Ω < +?@

)

*2 > .!
Z o = R L = 1.8 kΩ !

/

*2 <
.( rc ) *6' R L 2<
*8 !> C
% *% *! B
)
Comparison of amplifiers

3.3.5

)
FET

!
" " # ) " BJT $( !
" " #
*+ 23 $FET /01" ,-" % &"!' *+ .("
81' !"
4 4 ! 4" 467 ! 3 $4 *5 -
278
# 7
4
3 /; .(*5%": *9) 4 *9+ /
$# /! /+ 3 $(# !3= 4" ": ) *9+ 81<
/ *+ B: .- A-5 $& ! / @ 4 ? # >3
/-D 3 ! $4 4! ! FET @ *5%": C ! $11*+
$(1.5 /!1 ) 8 *-
@ E%" ! 3' *
A' 4 . /
+ @ > C
$*9 / *+ FG" H $
" BJT
* ," C FG" H $B+ 3 I;": .85 F *"
+ *; *-
@ + 4; 4 "+= 3 $FET
E
"" C *+ *-+ & ' / / ' .@ FET
.*9-" K FG" /
J ! $@"" A-5 " /
5 #
FM"" @" $BJT FET & L *+ >:"
/
*+ A' 4 .85 -! 5 $ rc rd # *5N9" R L
/!1 @ *O R L' * /
*+ 5 F-"" @") R L *-
*+ ' . Z o ≈ R L ' / ! $ rc rd 85 4;! 0G (P18.4
*30" 4? *67 &:
A' 8! -! 5 >:" @" L
R1
! %: > $buffer /,+Q A' L"
3 .81< *" *-

0 *" ) 8! /,+ / *+ !" B ." @"-

3 @" 8 A:S" .( *6
) 80G *+ !" (
(2W"1 UOV #N 3 BJT ) emitter follower @;5 #" T
$(2W"1 UOV FXG 3 FET) source follower @+ #"
"+= $3' . 100
*+ >:" $1 C >:
4 $@+ #" $@;5 #" R+ @"M >3 $2"1 # 3 FET

:

11
.!
"
279
4 8! / *+ *-;" *-% K FG" 4," /
@6;
4 0G /!" -!1 3
.4 80G L *+
/D @" Z 8, @ /+": #61 $/
Y W
! C-G
.81< :
UOV BJT @ $/+": 8 ! $*! *-!1" *;

R3 FG"" .* 2W"1 UOV FET $85 2W"1
? *D @ $( 20
) *M ? *9 / *+ *!"
.85 B?
G" @ BJT FET & E9
@ (*-D *-? >" # pn "-G) *% *6; 8," BJT
FG" .(% *-? " 8
*-G) *%
FET
5" * ": ;! K6G &

$*% ;! M 4 BJT
$/D *D% 2-": FET ! .FET L &
4 " ;!
@%+ *" ;! BJT $*9-!" K 0G -+ !
*-D A' 4 .U5 *" "": A' *' $A-5 &5%":
@ g m = 2 000 μS BJT @ g m = 50 000 μS ) ! +
.4;! A-5 C ! ! $(FET
Decibel Notation for Gain !

" # 4.5
# $&G" *!1 /D $* -: /+ @"
%% 81< &[+ &
1 $&," ? &
/ # 8
L /G >) @"" A-5 $/; /: A-5 $&G"
@:6 @ FM" $7
4 ; $>+ .(-" @"
Z9 #" @"" A-5 4 + & R3 /WG" $*5%":
I @"" A-5 *G &," R3 @-! C >: .4? *-+
# /: ! D $@-! C 23 B:

.*<

280
!" .4+ *< \ B
4 *"" /
\ &"?
>: 36
.*"" &," *5 *< \ ]'.. A 3 A 2 A1
decibel dB /: A 5 +" . A = A1 ⋅ A 2 ⋅ A 3 *+" A

:12A-5 /G

A dB = 10 log A = 10 log(A1 ⋅ A 2 ⋅ A 3 ) (18.5)
= 10 log A1 + 10 log A 2 + 10 log A 3 +
= A1, dB + A 2, dB + A 3, dB +
C1 $/: 2 >:" "5 / % * &9M" 3' $7

4 ;
! $/: 20 >: *5%": C $/: 3 >:" "5
.( −2dB − 3dB + 20dB =15dB ) /: 15 @-! * C
$8," *
@ .5 *: # /+"
% /:- A+ *;
dB O *5%": C A%+= $ /D L /
13
: A = Po Pi *5%": *: "?-
Pout
A dB = 10 log (19.5)
Pin
.

'() !
6 %& # $"
!
3

.3 dB (*& +() ,- / 0 $ " . 10 log(6 3) = 3.01dB

! " .Ap p

12
. A p = A i Av & Av = V 2 V 1 #$

% & A i = I 2 I 1
(
"
( "' & ( %)
*+ 13
1 2% 2
&#
$ (
, - ($ /% 0( ( 1

(5 &"$6 % 15 ) 1 (5 2
*46
&! . Pi "3% % 4
dBm
(5% . % 4 1 ($
/%
7% 10 log(15 0.001) = 41.8dB ) 1
.41.8 dBm 2% % ": %
*46
03%
.1 mW %) 8$
9

281

/ 7
- #5 6#
3 dB 4 $" 3 1 2
$ 7
- #5 6#
1 dB) 8)9 $" ( : $
3 / 0 (B $" $? ,@0 $ $A- !(<0 $" & $=
100
10 (*& / 7
0 ,-
.
- C0 6#
,- !<&
E 3
.30
20
10
D&(& '() ' 1000
.I30
I20
I10
D&(& F (* G0& / H0
*"! Q!S" $" # # *:" *5%": A' 4

&! 3' . A dB = 10 log ((V o2 R o ) (V i 2 R i )) *0G 4 19.5 *+
: *5%": C @%5_ $ R o = R i
'& D JK $

. A dB = 20 log V o V i = 20 log I o I i
D? D&( D $" M 3 CL . R o ≠ R i $
E 3E '5
%&
!1O?- . - (+@ %& NE + *
!V i <( (+@ 3 ' CQ& V o <@ (+@ ()
!1000 <- 'P
D $ !$ * $E !1

.60 dB
<- (+@ %& $ "
'P
.6 dB 4& + &" +" & !75 D C (E
'P
!20 dB 4& + &" $
!75 D D?" 10 +

4& + #") −6 dB 4& + &" $
!75 D $ 0.1 +

4& + &" $
!75 D $ 0.001 +
M
!( 6 dB
.( 60 dB 4& + #") −60 dB
#
$#! 5.5
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
$ D*
&? *& J* - 8&E A %& $" - (*
(( $ (
(E D@ 3 1&? A $
!1 R$ .D( ' ((
D
D@ %&& D@ - %& CL
.midband
5 D@ 3L !*-
282
:F !
5 D@ $ 3"
" 3(" (( : -
.
5
( & 0? +- :F N&" " .0 3E & %&
S:* ( . (( ( '( 0
0 ((
.1/
" 0 ((
% # & " '

1.5.5
Gain at low frequencies
.RC ' ( +& & $E $ 10TB 1K 1 "I5.8 D L
% !(&
" +&F
* " J ! DE $& & 0? $9

& 0? $ H#

."I7.2 D - $U& M D&F $ ((
J9&L $" $ VE) E D( 3 D

J
1*-
.< D

& &
'X W
!(
) &
&
" '(F
J 3 -A- :?
E 3 + 8 YT*E / !3.2 J* - < "
( (* NE $
.( (( 0? (9[ !
$
\" VE !NI8.5 D - U& '# 'P ' (
D&
E D(
* $ 1 ? &" '( $
+5 R 2
R1 $
*
0 -
) $E $&E - " 1K ( ) ri

5 D@ - %& $" (@ !15.5 FO D& .( R1⏐⏐R 2⏐⏐ri )
- 1 ω C 0? 9( $" H[- ) Av = v b 2 v b 1 = − g m (R L⏐⏐ri )

(( (
.(^F ' ( 0? $" U?] $
!'#
5 D@
:%&
! R L
ri R] F F 3E C 9( ( () VE !0
vb2 i r rR j ω C (ri + R L )
Av , l = = − 2 i = −g m i L (20.5)
v b1 v b1 ri + R L 1 + j ω C (ri + R L )
:8.5 (

) i 2

283
!" # () .
() :8.5

/ (-) . * & +$", ri & '
.$ %

. ' $ %

0 ,1
23 4
RL
i 2 = g mv b 1 (21.5)
R L + ri + 1 j ω C
,$- *+ "

! " #$ %&'
284
:#0 %"1 $ / .$
Av , l = Av ⋅ j ω C (ri + R L ) (1 + j ω C (ri + R L ))
%34!0 *5 * $ ,$- 2 ω /$

189 ; %&' . lim Av , l = Av ' #0 %1 3' " $ /
*6
ω →∞
$0 %/,> +? ! &'$ .

< ! =1 " *+ , 18
:@ %
!,; AB $0
$
ωl 1
fl = = (22.5)
2π 2π C (ri + R L )
:*4 C+$
! " D !
0
j f fl 1
Av , l = Av = Av (23.5)
1+ j f f l 1− j f l f
; *)
>4,
> 3,< $ %$4, $5 " , $ .E$
:(
4F .
1
Av , l = Av (24.5)
1 + (f l f ) 2
!"#
$% & .148.5

-"#
%
/0) 1+ .'#(
!%% %) !"
('
%*
+,
64
) f l 4 %% "
* .7.2 3 2" !%%
!"
%= >, %) ?4" ? %% 4=< ()"+ : 6- %% 4* 8+9 %%, 7"'*
>, ) 3dB @, A , 9 ? %% 4* 2+ 4 "
< >,
1 2
8
20 dB %9
, B#( >, *
>C'4 .+ 4 "
<

%E9D) 20 dB ?4"

) %%
< !
10 %9
B"#(

Av ‫ اا أن ا ا ل ا و وي‬14
.15.2
RC
285
!%% H%- G%4 " !4- !"
('
F( "
<4 .(!%%
.70 7%" 7"4- !" J:&4 2* 4* f l = 20 Hz 4 * I 2'#(
G, K /& " 2'#(

!%% %) G% %% ," /0) 4- 04
"
4 7"0 +, !"#
"L& "0) 4* 2(22.5 3) C 4 R L 4 ri @
I-* ",
+, ! !"
('
M9 .+9< ",
+, !"
('
0
"
!% < "
: O" 2N 8
4 24
4 79 *4 7"

-
8# !"#
"
,Q 2P(* "
4 .7, 7C !"#

(K(' 0
>, G%") R D 4 R E " :
4"9
8
7")# 8'4
!
G%%
!"
('
!" .0
"
!% < 7"'* 0
) R
/0) "=O4 K%) /& 734 2!% K" * L- < 7% G%#
",
+,
20# 8+ %% "=< %4 : :P(*
" #-, 6- "=S< 24 +, C%
.

" / ?* 2 f l = 0 / '#(
!%% K(' 4
4.5
. ri = 1kΩ R L = 5 kΩ :8.5

$ FET !" # . f l = 20 Hz C
. R g = 1MΩ
:'() *
&22.5 &BJT %

1
f l = 20 Hz =
2π C (1000 + 5000)
1
C = = 1.33 μ F
2π ⋅ 20 (1000 + 5000)
ri , %
!
+ &FET %

!" !
0 1,
) . /( + &-
FET 5 !" R Th 4 & R g /
%
2 3
:1 .16.4
0
286
1
f l = 20 Hz =
2π C (106 + 5000)
1
C = = 0.008 μ F
2π ⋅ 20 ⋅1.005 ⋅106
&BJT 5( 9( + - '()8 FET 5 !
+8 '7 -6

.- <*8 / FET 5 ; !" + ; +
<*8 + 8 / ; += ; <* > % ?1@
( ; + ; ;<B8 &-3 ?
1 - 3 &91 A .)
2 ; !" 91 + 2
- ;( C &- ) /
9( E + 8 ; !" ?1@ E +8 F &A 8 ; '7 D
.; /

# & " '
2.5.5
Loss of gain at high frequencies
+8 >!8
&= 3
G '7 A
)
+8 - "8
&= Av $ + '7 +*3
1!H E
A & 3dB 3 E ?
) J!
f h ) I*
8 A
E L,*! D8.5 4K .3( 20 0 ? +*3
E
9(
M N
) L
E &= + " ; E : , !"
J) % E L,*! L,*! ?1@ $ . 3

@ f h &'
= A3 @ f l +7 O & B = f h − f l 4 $ %
.'()= A3
'7 $
8 @ P ;
) E +*3

48 + (stray or parasitic ) <* ) ;
/ +
#K %) /
* +(
48 +8 I
+
.+(
S @ A +7 O & C = ε A d

d

287
; &89.5 +0 ( -3 .(15.1 6
) /
(*
<* F .%
I8 + + 48 + C cb C be C ce

) ) ; E* /
T &( + ) ; ?1@
'7 0 N + @) V + W% '7 U & ;
. ) 4= X L(3
! "

() .

() :9.5
.*! %+
$ #$ ! (') .
#$ %&
41 !" ( , ; 9.5

&; + $ = .8.5 +0 +(
"2 + &- +<* CE C A N # E*
! ; K & @ +Z E* ) ; 8 &*
Y /
)
I &= G A3 ;
) E . 3
; 8 &D9.5 +0 G 3 ( *3
'K . ( ! *! ) Cce (* Cd
:5 ( ?1@ / E
v o − g mv b 1 (R L⏐⏐C d ) 1
Av , h = = = Av (25.5)
v b1 v b1 1+ j ω RL Cd
288
3 +
#
) g mv b1 +) v o

8 . ( R ⏐⏐C
L d
) = ( RL jω Cd ) ( RL + 1 jω Cd ) :48 &Cd A )
*
E( 3( 3 1!H .= E / Av = − g m R L
:15'()
1
Av , h = Av (26.5)
1 + (f f h ) 2
:5 4( & % 8 &A3 'K
f h = 1 2π R LC d (27.5)
f h

24.5 26.5

! 26.5 & .
%$
f l ! " #

#" -
f h , '(! ) * +
3 # f h 2+! ) * + . Av $/ 0
1 1
! 6 Av , h = Av f h f $5 -) # f f h 4 -
) ) 0 −20
0 7
! # 1 f 7
7
1
7
0 *!
) #
)'(! 0
! 10

) ! * 0

.( 20 log A v , h A v = 20 log ( f h f ) = 20 log (1 10) = −20 dB 9
+

= 7
<;8.5 0 / 3
6
CDE
7
2B @ ) *
A-) #-B .?
+> *

0- #0
E *
CDE ( " #- .
* +
. f h 4 2+!
E ?
*
7 ? ,% 6(
5.5
; !" BJT %

26.5
Av

15
.14.2 !
289
& C d D! 8 . C ce & C bc = 5 pF & C be = 40 pF :
&1 . 300 pF 4 & C ce A ) ( ! +
0
.>!= ; A @
&?1@ C d W"

; & R L = 10 kΩ 3 +8 J
:4 41 4( A3 '() *
&D9.5
0
f h = 1 2π R LC d = 1 6.28 ⋅104 ⋅ 300 ⋅10−12 = 53kHz
;7 !" 27 !" EC(* 2 1 &-

J!
A 1@
+ +8 &(%( *) * 7 !"
8 17 8 . *
$ %
!K 1 .[@ < f h 4( A3
J! + .[@ < 5.3 '7 4( A3 A & C d = 5 pF
4 41 &!" E + &"8 4( A3 % +8 R L
.1,
) J!
I & − g m R L =
5 ; !" '() D9.5

0 ; G

.+/ FET 5 BJT 5(
N += &"8 FET
( #
$#!) 3.5.5
Combined frequency response
26.5 24.5 "!

; &E
M N " +Z +
:!" ( ( 2 + -
1 1
Av ( f ) = Av (28.5)
1+ ( f l f ) 2
1 + ( f f h )2
f l

.

Av ( f )
$"
$

") #

!
"

, -
f f l #
+ # .(24.5 %
!
&
'(
290
- #
"
1- 2 - /
0 - f f h

"
3 f > f h 3 #
+ . Av ( f ) = Av
$"
$

") #
"

89':
% -
%
%7 658.5 -4
$ .(26.5 %
!
&
'(
%:='

/
=- <#( % %+# < &; $(

/
?@# .%
!

%=
>4
=-

bandwidth (%+#
A)
A /0
#
=
/
f h f l
!/ . B = f h − f l %B1!
/!

0 &# 1 2 = 0.707 89':
$ "
$ !

./
0
3dB C
A=' "
; /
.!
20 ! 0/
1- 0 A='7

*+ ,- /( () %&' !$ !" #
.
4 "( 2
%&' 3 , 2 1(( 0('
08 2
96 + 73$ .5
%&' +
-; <= 1 2 : * $( ;
%&' A
() -(
( $@; .>?
1 2 ⋅1 2 = 1 2 * 9 $: -(3 0
@; ,2

,(>? -; 6 C +) >? -;
9J I + /H 1G .1 (
-
F F E$
J3 " I + 0 4 , −3dB C ->
I K .
/( (
3 I + (

.- /(
#
(; (3
-; # %&' M5 0 (

!3 $H ,L
1 );
-; ,1 (
@; ,)( 30 /N 100 * >?
291
3 /( O $: 3 . 100 ⋅ 30 = 3000 * >?
/( ,
(
% QP8.5 3 -; J *
20 O , ( 40 R * J %= : ,+
.
(
< %= *$ (

## *& # 4.5.5
Cascading of amplifier circuits

- /(
# /H 8( ,5S <H + 1 ;
Q <; 7) (
1 " +P8.5 3 * .3 /H

/
T- $: 3 3 .) (
/? (

Q <; FU 0 /( '
/
*+ ,F(>
.-V "
' ,+P8.5 3 -; J

-&) " -;
F H 5)3 W$: 6 .C > 5)3 > (

? 2 #6 0 # ,-) /H ? 2 7
$ 0 J? E$ O .-) 2 = /H '
#K /H , V 0 1)3 3+ 3 *$ ,VCC
*
3 <5( /H /
, < -) 2
2 -; 0 2
F6 <+ E$ /H 9) < 2
-; ? /? 5)3 *X .( R 2 R1 W"; *$ -)
. Q 0 2 -; () 5G +P8.5 3
! ,

-&) " Q 0 F3Y
,'
Z = 0() 3 ' > !5)3 !6 3 A
,>?
: '
v o = (v o 1 ) A 2 = (v i A1 ) A 2 = v i A (29.5)
292
3 /? (
Q -; V 0 : vo1 = A1 vi
/? (

: A 2 A1 ,() (
:) +P8.5
* <(
"( -(3 + J ? .)
" + -: .(
-
T *+ , A = A1 A2
! !$ V Y(' F -: (29.5) ? >? -;
1 3 O ,> !5)3 !6 5UH 3 O A
,1 ' !
.
Z 5 2 Y! I"5Y A

+
$#!) 6.5
Time Response and Pulse Amplifiers
0 -: " !H + #> -;
* # - ! !$ !V + J .

E$ Q # - ! + , M5 7Y "( >?
)3 J3 - L3 V = , H + J .JY
V *
O
\ + F <+ ." /( ! 6Y> = ,!
< -; " 4 -3 E$ ,>? Q ! /( L3
Q = ! ; . H 3 M5 0 7 H
.WJ 9 7 V + - $: ,=+ 3 9 >?
T>V >? # + F ! V
H *+
: 9 93; . H 3 M5 0 Q -; 7
> (
+ : <; (
H ] V *

. 063 /H V ^62
Fourier series ,- !! 1.6.5

! 0 ! _ !V ) 3
$+ $H .+P10.5 3 -; J ,L
1 ) ,$̀Y .5( !O>
293
)) (?) /? harmonic ; L) ,> ;
/( ('
,1 : ,FP10.5 3 -; >
J
! ; 12 5+ $H . < *$ -

W *$ F=O 3+ ,(&L !O> !)
Q <('5 # *$) Fourier series ; ( (
-> .J
. 063 /H H (
53 1 5' (F3 $: : >H
:-( T : V p 0> <; (( />Y ,L
1 );
4V p ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
v (t ) = ⎜ sin ω t + sin 3ω t + sin 5ω t + sin 7ω t + ⎟ (30.5)
π ⎝ 3 5 7 ⎠
: f ω T

! : 30.5
.T = 1 f = 2π ω
- ) 4 V p π ,* ω * + ( )
" #$% &'
, 1 2 )3! .. 4 V p 3 π ,* 3ω /0 * +
1! 6" 7 8 # & " )# 1! / 4 5 )
&$% ,9 7 ); < 1 .T V p *

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( 200 kHz ) T" ' D 2 ' ( 88-108 MHz )
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4 1.8.5
antenna

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( $# % & ! % #! "

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## 13, ,# % $#! LC 2 $# 2
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315
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J
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316
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325
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. R L = 16 kΩ ' rd ≈ 60 kΩ ' g m ≈ 0.75 mS :
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J/ .6
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0 J/ .8
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326
b
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3 , M # :, (
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A i = = :
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A i =
R L + R L'

1
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0.1 1 100 ! " #
$$

.
. −10 dB ' 0 dB ' 20 dB :
327
#8 ' 10 mV Y( 51) $ =3 -# #8 -!: .14

8 J*
/ . 30 dB 9/ B# 1) N
2
8
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. 300 Ω )( +# 3kΩ
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$$
%
. A P = 67.3dB ' Av = 55.6 dB :
(
/
( fX 3 J3 1) ^( M!
-! .17
&P# . 1mW !) /7 ' 600 Ω 9/ !) (
1) 0 -G # 'B# dBm b K/ 16 ( ^( ,
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b
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4 30 dBm 9/ / B) -# -!: , J) 4
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328
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8 19 >/ N

M<3 @/
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.20
9& 20 3 (/ ) -# B

3()
W f l = 10 Hz 9/
. 6 dB (
M<3 :
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100 ? -# 8 < !/ 9/ .24
J/ ' 10 kΩ 9/ 2 $ , M #
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! <3 N 20 , M #
.25
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329
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9& /7 J3 *: .30
? / "& -!: G . R L' = 500 Ω (
12.5 8
W, / R L' = 250 Ω , R L' = 1000 Ω -! G W=,
330

.31
. R L = 10 Ω ' 12.5 ! "# $%&
-#
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W637 ^<3
., 479.5 :
9/ ' R L = 5 Ω 9/ 3 12.5 8 -#

-# .33
N
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12.5 8 -#
S3
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: R 2 R E =# .5/ 10 mA B ( 2 /
. R1 b ) ( J/ (,)
.Y ? / J/ (J)
' R L' = 500 Ω ' R1 = 800 Ω 'V ce , Q = 5 V ' I c , Q = 10 mA :
. ≈ 50% ' 25 mW
-#
B X# J&) 2# -# ' R L' /8!3 ( * .35
. 0.5 W ? / V CC
1) 8 3 '13.5 8
., 81 :
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B X# J&) 2# -# I c -= * .36
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R L = 8 Ω '15.5 8 -#
=3 -# .37
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1) , M # .V CC = 12 V
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331
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16.5 8 -#
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( / -#
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d ` 0 * . 10 kHz $
C = 1.59 nF ' R = 10 kΩ :
-# 'AGC N
-# -H Z8 -36
C 0 , M #
.41
J/ 50 ms 9/ 16.5 8 -#
- !
( /
WN &G 20 ( . R g = 15 kΩ (# C g 0
! /: f h 9! 2( (! ( :

&X3 . f h = 1 ( T 2) 9, '
3 J( G T 2 1
3
8 &4 '5!
. t r = 0.33(T 2) 9/ !$ 32.5 ! -!
B) -# , '^ G 1 ( T 2)
8, 6 M
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) 8 4 J0, 18 !

3
332
‫ا
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Operational Amplifiers
Introduction 1.6

operational

&
#$ % !"
amplifier
.. / 01 23 4 ' + ,- )*
'(

7 741 % 6 " / 01

' 1 %9 + 01 !: .6
'(
24 48
%9 /
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. GA %9 0 %
<H 0
7-
v − v + 8H 41 .0 %
> <H $ I A ' 2" + <H
#$ A H L. v out = A (v + −v − ) K 0 %
J
> <H 4
J @ !"
(2 N
F " 41 ) 6 A- %> .1 " 8H . %9 !"
v out = A v + 41 A- E 0 + <H ' " v out
333
+1
<H $ I A
H 0"
.v out = −A v − 1
. 6;
P8.=
$ @
< 0
<H ? 3 G

2.6
OP AMP--An Almost Ideal Amplifier
( A = ∞ ) %; !/ #$ $ P-
% 3 1 2.5 C %9 1
.( R o = 0 ) A- 4 '
K ( R i = ∞ ) ; !/ 0
1 *" 4
2 " R 1 61 Q; - B8 H P 1

. A-
" % 3 H 41 6; !/
$
1 *" $ ' Q; - 1 S8 H P . GA$
1
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+
'

!"# .

, #
# +'( )%# * ## + μ A741 # &%# $
-#/0 2## + R i = 2 MΩ -#/0 1 2## + A = 105 -#/
## +7 &6 24! 5 "31.6 1!$ - . R o = 75 Ω
+)<0 # +#; 7 * + # .8 9$ :
:?! @# ?! +8 % * =6 * >; * < 8"
v o = A (v + −v − ) = A v d (1.6)
(" 8,
"
/ 41) .
A . #$ A

- – +
<D $ 7.
v d $C 1 :./ . 31 1 105 4 '

L3 $ % 3 ( $C
: %9 . %>$
%9 0 R
' 2H 41 .KX1.6 0< %9 7$ VW? C

@- + $ K R
' ( R i = ∞ ) .
A + $ 1X1.6 0<
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0
#$ L. 6 3 $
E $
334
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The inverting amplifier

1.2.6
, . 31 C'$1 *X1.6 0< %9 7$ G $

$ (* ') G 0 v i 0 + <H !9 I$7 C=
%

I.
R F 0
' G E 0 R N
R1
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335
*
1 !'$ C
' !" P< 0
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K . v i = i 1R 1 − v d 0 .
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*" *X1.6 0< %9 +" ' % ? H A v d 29 .
!"
C7'$ . *X1.6 0< %9 03 9 . 6Z$ S8 /
[1
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( R o = 0 R i = ∞ ) 3 Q; - 0
' $ :% 6 9 " 8,

8 . R i = ∞ ? i = 0 1 ]

' KX1.6 0< %9 7$
: R F $ R1 $ ^
0 Y9
i1 = i F (2.6)
0 H 41 A → ∞ ? v d = v o A ≈ 0 F 1 .

H 0 8 .1R7 _ G 0 1 - &-. $
:`$ C #$
v o −i F R F R
Ar = = =− F (3.6)
vi i 1R 1 R1
$% !

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#

*+*% ( .)* $ ( & $ '
' $&
.10 A 0 / A )$ ' /,$- $
''% 150 )3 4% * ** 2& $ ''%
0 10 6 7%
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9 .
<- ' 4;= ; .$ 5 $ ': **; 7
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336
/ & ) .)8 *@ 3.6 * B C+%
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G
H *3) 1 - 1 (P ,$
) 60 )* / R F $ ,'
*" <
/(,$
9 <- I,$ ,, <# @ 9
# *
) .8 ' ,$
9 <- v −
.<# ( 10 1 GK P ,$
<# $$% J83 4* * *
/? )0; <- 7
G
H /L# 0 ' P ,$
0 (
<- P ,$
$ .< -: <# 8
/ i = 0
.v i )* 4;( 2&
0 " 1 - 1 60
P

!
" # $%& ' ( .summing point
$ - / .,4.6
% ) *# + P ( $ '
& 3 .)2 P # 1' R F 0' $
.( # $78 P ) !4 56
'# (
1.6
*# ;
1<0 i F i v i v d 0' 9# :4
R o = 0 R i = 106 Ω A = 5 ⋅105 = .:,1.6
% )
+<4 )
. ± 5 V / >? '4 ' R1 = 1kΩ R F = 100 kΩ
' 3.6 A# $ 1<0 9# @0
.v d = 0 '# ) =B
1<0 & 0' i #8 #

R i 0' & 3
) / 2.6 ' 4 C > . $
: R F ) R1
v i + v d −v d −v o
=
R1 RF
337
:# ' F > v d = v o A 1.6 ' E#
⎛ 1 R ⎞ R
v o ⎜1 + + F ⎟ = − F v i
⎝ A AR1 ⎠ R1
A → ∞ #
' #
$ 1<0 9# & 3
:(
RF
vo = − vi
R1
.3.6 ' ) ' % )G
$ H 0 $ /> $ 1<0 9# '
3.6 ' E# > . 5 !
# I>G ) # %J ) . A r = − R F R1 = −100 1 = −100
.0' '# ' 180 '# MK 1L0 '
0' ( 5! 4 (# G ) /) 0'
# B0 0' I>G . R = v i i 1 = R1 = 1kΩ / (v i '
(0' $ - / # 4 9! 8)
2 1<0 0' ( #
@0 /> %& (# ! P C
H> & Q8 .1<0 & ! Q (# ' >P4 ?! EK
0' # ) #
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.PR 0' /> 1<0 (
'4 # '# v o @0 ' 3 '*'4

4 0 /8
% / .( 2 4# H> A '
) >?
=# .v o , max ≈V powersupply S @,17.4 :,13.4
% #A
338
v d = −5 V −A = 5 (5 ⋅105 ) = 10 μ V )B ' ' v o = −5 V
.T 8 > ' ?! ' >G

.v i = (−R1 R F )v 0 = (−1 100)(−5) = 50 mV 3.6
i = v d R i = 10 μ V 1MΩ = 10 pA

, -
/
."%& '( ) *+ # $ "# !
. i F = −v o R F = 5V 100 kΩ = 50 μ A -+ i F = i 1 #
$<0 $' 4 2 ' ' !0#

$ 1<0 0' )
U V )
U V

S .$

S .(v + = v − ) v d = 0 # )B ' & /

.( i = 0 ) 0' )V /
W ) / R 5

. I># B0 >? $> $ 1<0 ' / 4
The noninverting amplifier

2.2.6
>? ' ;

C 0' 0' %& *# >&
> <0 $
,2.6
% ) *# + ;
0'
)%& # ) +# ( B0 @0 ' 0'
/> (# ( ! 8
5& X4 )" 1<0 >G .@0 0'
=B0 4# 50 !8
((# 748 R) @0
.(1<0 ) 4 "Y8 R)

% ) )0 R1 Q =7Y ;
C 1<0 +4

>P4 .;
C 0' v i 0' %& +7# @ :,1.6
.v 1 : >? ' 5B! # ;
0' *# i 1R1 '
>P4 .v i = v 1
> v d = 0 i = 0 0' G =B
:/ R1 R F

339
v o −v 1 v 1
=
RF R1
:0 ' ( $ 1<0 )B 9# /
v o v o i 1 (R F + R1 ) R
Ar = = = = 1+ F (4.6)
v i v1 i 1R 1 R1
G 9# ' ;

1<0 4 ) 9# C
.0 #
) R1 / B0 $

;
1<0 0' 4 )
. PR ;
C 1<0 0' #
:,1.6
%
. R i' = v i i / 0' S
,2.6
%
:FZ 0' 4 ' Q %
A +#
−v i + v d + i 1 R1 = 0 (5.6)
:0' !4 6.5 ' i @# .v d = i R i & X4
vi vi Ri R
R i' = = = ≈ i =∞
i (v i − i 1R1 ) R i 1 − i 1R1 v i 1 − 1
A' "
4
.5.6 A E# i 1R1 ≈ v i '
R i & 3 R i' R i +<4 ;
C 1<0 0' 7#
'B # R i' : $ $<0 ) $ 2 #
B (# $%& 10 P ;
C 1<0
H># .'
.2(#
$>) '
" #$ %&' R o ! R o

2
. 100 Ω () (
340
! " 3.6
Voltage Followers and the Unit Gain Buffer
(## 'B

% ;
C 1<0 !0 $R4
# ' (# +L4 .:,2.6
% ) *# voltage follower '
9#! >P4 .,2.6
% ) (4 B ') R1 = ∞ (T!A ') R F = 0
:9#
vo R
Ar = = 1+ F = 1 (6.6)
vi R1
. v o = v i ! "#

() .

() :2.6
R i' ' (# 0' '*'4Z .0' ' (# @0 ' & /
FZ :,2.6
% ) *# ' ' Q %
A +##
X4 v i = v d + v o = i R i + Av d = i R i (1 + A ) ≈ i R i A H>
0' ' # / 0' & 3 .v o = A v d v d = i R i
: !4 0' &
vi
R i' = = A Ri (7.6)
i
A = 106 R i = 1MΩ 2
# R i' :
G
& . R i' = 1012 Ω = 1TΩ )8 H> .' $ $<0 )
.
# 4 B ' )G 1 ? / )
)4 5 4 (# # - >G 1<0 ( 4
341
unit gain 9# /'4
P4 >P4 (# #
$ 4
(# 4 K ) ' / P4
#C .buffer
%2 EA ; Y $
$*4
[ #A ) (# 2
( %# =B0 4 ! . 4 '< R ?
.GJ ' &
P 4 # ' ) (#
@0 P 0' > P4 17' \02 4
.34 & (# '
# '
2.6
/ ' )8 G R s = 10 kΩ ;

] 4
[ 8 0' /
# "
A /<>? Q ;
] 4
[ 8 =# .v s = 2 V
7
.A 4 V R 'T :4 500 Ω / 4
.4 (# # 9# /'4 P4 4 4
/ v L = v o = v s 0.5 (10 + 0.5) = 0.095 V 4 ' /

. PL = v L2 R L = (0.095) 2 500 = 18.14 μ W 4 & ' R
3.6

#$% +, #$% & '* ( R o = 0 R i = ∞ ) !"
-) #$% +, #$% ( R i = ∞ - . "# /)
45 1# 123,/ +, v L = 2 V * +, #$% 0 ( R o = 0
8 45 +#7 &, 5 . PL = v L2 R L = (2) 2 500 = 8 mW
+, 123, 8 45 2 V 0.095 V=21 +, #$%
?& 5 .5 . 9:;
<= *> 8 mW 18.14 μ W = 441
123,/ <#B
/ 1@3 A/< 3@ 1

. &, # 123,/ 1;" C
.
!" #
$

.

3
342

() :3.6
!" " ! # $ % &' * () .
.+, -' $/0 1"2
# $ % & 4.6

Summers, Subtracters, and Digital-to-Analog Converters

!
#$ %$ &' ( #$ )* +$ ,-. /"4.6
./ 19 .4!,

(8 2
1 3 4!
567 )!'
.
= ;.>
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9' !
9:
;
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?76 / ! &>
i1 + i 2 + i 3 = i F (8.6)
v1 v 2 v 3 v
+ + =− o (9.6)
R1 R 2 R 3 RF
:>
4C2)
D!. R1 = R 2 = R 3 +
RF
v0 = − (v 1 + v 2 + v 3 ) (10.6)
R1
+$
F9-! R F = R1 ! .)
+$

67 E '.
+$
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343
R F = R1 # ?"1.6
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(
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vo = − (v 2 −v 1 ) (11.6)
R1
.v o = v 1 −v 2 ) ' L ,-. R F = R1 !
digital to analog converter DAC 3!

C
M
/
)* 3
' .43! binary number 1..3

1 M-
#!J 111 !- 000 !
4323
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67 ( #$ )* 9.6 4C2)
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v1 v 2 v 3
v o = −R F ( + + ) (12.6)
R1 R 2 R 3
R 2 = 20 kΩ R 3 = 10 kΩ R F = 8 kΩ 1$! .!

6
v 2 = 0 v 3 = 0 &/) 001 4..3=

/ R1 = 40 kΩ
:4 !
#$
+$
49
(v 1 = 5 V
; -. .12.6 4 )
O. I 6 v o = −8(5 40 + 0 + 0) = −1
&' ( #$ (v 1 = 5 v 2 = 5 v 3 = 5 ) 111 4..3=

)<!
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+$
9 6 .v o = −8(5 40 + 5 20 + 5 10) = −7
+$
R ..v 5 v 4

8 4Q .3! C
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v 2 −v p v 1 −v p
+ =0 (13.6)
R R
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567 D!.
v 2 + v 1 = 2v p (14.6)
(v 0 − v 1' ) R F = v 1' R1 &/ R1 R F !9

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4
345

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