Sugar

Sugars (clockwise from top-left): white refined,

unrefined, unprocessed cane, brown

Sugar is the generic name for sweet-

tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of
which are used in food. The various types
of sugar are derived from different
sources. Simple sugars are called
monosaccharides and include glucose
(also known as dextrose), fructose, and
galactose. "Table sugar" or "granulated
sugar" refers to sucrose, a disaccharide of
glucose and fructose. In the body, sucrose
is hydrolysed into fructose and glucose.

Sugars are found in the tissues of most

plants, but sucrose is especially
concentrated in sugarcane and sugar beet,
making them ideal for efficient
commercial extraction to make refined
sugar. Sugarcane originated in tropical
Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia,[1]
and is known of from before 6,000 BP,
sugar beet was first described in writing
(1575) by Olivier de Serres and originated
in southwestern, northern and Southeast
Europe along the Atlantic coasts and the
Mediterranean Sea, in North Africa,
Macaronesia, to Western Asia. In 2016, the
combined world production of those two
crops was about two billion tonnes. Other
disaccharides include maltose (from
malted grain) and lactose (from milk).
Longer chains of sugar molecules are
called oligosaccharides or
polysaccharides. Some other chemical
substances, such as glycerol and sugar
alcohols, may have a sweet taste, but are
not classified as sugar.

German sugar sculpture, 1880

Sucrose is used in prepared foods (e.g.

cookies and cakes), is sometimes added
to commercially available beverages, and
may be used by people as a sweetener for
foods (e.g. toast and cereal) and
beverages (e.g. coffee and tea). The
average person consumes about 24
kilograms (53 lb) of sugar each year, or
33.1 kilograms (73 lb) in developed
countries, equivalent to over 260 food
calories per day. As sugar consumption
grew in the latter part of the 20th century,
researchers began to examine whether a
diet high in sugar, especially refined sugar,
was damaging to human health. Excessive
consumption of sugar has been implicated
in the onset of obesity, diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, dementia, and
tooth decay. Numerous studies have tried
to clarify those implications, but with
varying results, mainly because of the
difficulty of finding populations for use as
controls that consume little or no sugar. In
2015, the World Health Organization
recommended that adults and children
reduce their intake of free sugars to less
than 10%, and encouraged a reduction to
below 5%, of their total energy intake.[2]

Etymology
The etymology reflects the spread of the
commodity. From Sanskrit (śarkarā),
meaning "ground or candied sugar," came
Persian shakar, then to 12th century
French sucre and the English sugar.[3]

The English word jaggery, a coarse brown

sugar made from date palm sap or
sugarcane juice, has a similar
etymological origin: Portuguese jágara
from the Malayalam cakkarā, which is
from the Sanskrit śarkarā.[4]

History
Ancient world to Renaissance
Sugar cane plantation

Asia

Sugar has been produced in the Indian

subcontinent[1] since ancient times and its
cultivation spread from there into modern-
day Afghanistan through the Khyber
Pass.[5] It was not plentiful or cheap in
early times, and in most parts of the world,
honey was more often used for
sweetening. Originally, people chewed raw
sugarcane to extract its sweetness.
Sugarcane was a native of tropical Indian
subcontinent and Southeast Asia.[1][6]
Different species seem to have originated
from different locations with Saccharum
barberi originating in India and S. edule
and S. officinarum coming from New
Guinea.[6][7] One of the earliest historical
references to sugarcane is in Chinese
manuscripts dating to 8th century BCE,
which state that the use of sugarcane
originated in India.[8]

In the tradition of Indian medicine

(āyurveda), the sugarcane is known by the
name Ikṣu and the sugarcane juice is
known as Phāṇita. Its varieties, synonyms
and characterics are defined in nighaṇṭus
such as the Bhāvaprakāśa (1.6.23, group
of sugarcanes).[9] Sugar remained
relatively unimportant until the Indians
discovered methods of turning sugarcane
juice into granulated crystals that were
easier to store and to transport.[10]
Crystallized sugar was discovered by the
time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th
century CE.[10] In the local Indian language,
these crystals were called khanda
(Devanagari: ख ड, Khaṇḍa), which is the
source of the word candy.[11] Indian
sailors, who carried clarified butter and
sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge
of sugar along the various trade routes
they travelled.[10] Traveling Buddhist
monks took sugar crystallization methods
to China.[12] During the reign of Harsha (r.
606–647) in North India, Indian envoys in
Tang China taught methods of cultivating
sugarcane after Emperor Taizong of Tang
(r. 626–649) made known his interest in
sugar. China established its first
sugarcane plantations in the seventh
century.[13] Chinese documents confirm at
least two missions to India, initiated in 647
CE, to obtain technology for sugar
refining.[14] In the Indian subcontinent,[1]
the Middle East and China, sugar became
a staple of cooking and desserts.

Europe
Two elaborate sugar triomfi of goddesses for a
dinner given by the Earl of Castlemaine, British
Ambassador in Rome, 1687

Nearchus, admiral of Alexander of

Macedonia, knew of sugar during the year
325 B.C., because of his participation in
the campaign of India led by Alexander
(Arrian, Anabasis).[15][16] The Greek
physician Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st
century CE described sugar in his medical
treatise De Materia Medica,[17] and Pliny
the Elder, a 1st-century CE Roman,
described sugar in his Natural History:
"Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but
Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey
found in cane, white as gum, and it
crunches between the teeth. It comes in
lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used
only for medical purposes."[18] Crusaders
brought sugar back to Europe after their
campaigns in the Holy Land, where they
encountered caravans carrying "sweet
salt". Early in the 12th century, Venice
acquired some villages near Tyre and set
up estates to produce sugar for export to
Europe. It supplemented the use of honey,
which had previously been the only
available sweetener.[19] Crusade chronicler
William of Tyre, writing in the late 12th
century, described sugar as "very
necessary for the use and health of
mankind".[20] In the 15th century, Venice
was the chief sugar refining and
distribution center in Europe.[8]

There was a drastic change in the mid-

15th century, when Madeira and the
Canary Islands were settled from Europe,
and sugar grown there.[21] After this an "all-
consuming passion for sugar ... swept
through society" as it became far more
easily available, though initially still very
expensive.[22] By 1492, Madeira was
producing over three million pounds
weight of sugar annually.[23] Genoa, one of
the centers of distribution, became known
for candied fruit, while Venice specialized
in pastries, sweets (candies), and sugar
sculptures. Sugar was considered to have
"valuable medicinal properties" as a
"warm" food under prevailing categories,
being "helpful to the stomach, to cure cold
diseases, and sooth lung complaints".[24]

A feast given in Tours in 1457 by Gaston

de Foix, which is "probably the best and
most complete account we have of a late
medieval banquet" includes the first
mention of sugar sculptures, as the final
food brought in was "a heraldic menagerie
sculpted in sugar: lions, stags, monkeys ...
each holding in paw or beak the arms of
the Hungarian king".[25] Other recorded
grand feasts in the decades following
included similar pieces.[26] Originally the
sculptures seem to have been eaten in the
meal, but later they become merely table
decorations, the most elaborate called
triomfi. Several significant sculptors are
known to have produced them; in some
cases their preliminary drawings survive.
Early ones were in brown sugar, partly cast
in molds, with the final touches carved.
They continued to be used until at least
the Coronation Banquet for Edward VII of
the United Kingdom in 1903; among other
sculptures every guest was given a sugar
crown to take away.[27]

Modern history

Still-Life with Bread and Confectionery, by George

Flegel, first half of 17th century

In August 1492 Christopher Columbus

stopped at La Gomera in the Canary
Islands for wine and water, intending to
stay only four days. He became
romantically involved with the governor of
the island, Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio,
and stayed a month. When he finally
sailed, she gave him cuttings of
sugarcane, which he carried to the New
World. This was the introduction of this
plant.[28] The cuttings were planted and
the first sugar-cane harvest in Hispaniola
took place in 1501. Many sugar mills had
been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by
the 1520s.[29] The Portuguese took sugar
cane to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800
cane-sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island
and another 2,000 on the north coast of
Brazil, Demarara, and Surinam.

Hacienda La Fortuna. A sugar mill complex in Puerto

Rico, painted by Francisco Oller in 1885. Brooklyn
Museum

Sugar was a luxury in Europe until the 18th

century, when it became more widely
available. It became highly popular and by
the 19th century, sugar came to be
considered a necessity. This evolution of
taste and demand for sugar as an
essential food ingredient resulted in major
economic and social changes.[30] Demand
drove, in part, the colonization of tropical
islands and areas where labor-intensive
sugarcane plantations and sugar
manufacturing could be successful. The
demand for cheap labor to perform the
labor-intensive cultivation and processing
increased the demand for the slave trade
from Africa (in particular West Africa).

After slavery was abolished, the demand

for workers in the British Caribbean
colonies was filled by indentured laborers
from Indian subcontinent (in particular
India).[31][32][33] Millions of slave and
indentured laborers were brought into the
Caribbean and the Americas, Indian Ocean
colonies, southeast Asia, Pacific Islands,
and East Africa and Natal. Thus the
modern ethnic mix of many nations that
have been settled in the last two centuries
has been influenced by the demand for
sugar.[34][35][36]

This is a close-up image of sugar cane. Demand for

sugar helped create the colonial system in areas
where cultivation of sugar cane was profitable.
Sugar also led to some industrialization of
areas where sugar cane was grown. For
example, in the 1790s Lieutenant J.
Paterson, of the Bengal establishment,
promoted to the British Government the
idea that sugar cane could grow in British
India, where it had started, with many
advantages and at less expense than in
the West Indies. As a result, sugar
factories were established in Bihar in
eastern India.[37][38] During the Napoleonic
Wars, sugar-beet production increased in
continental Europe because of the
difficulty of importing sugar when shipping
was subject to blockade. By 1880 the
sugar beet was the main source of sugar
in Europe. It was also cultivated in
Lincolnshire and other parts of England,
although the United Kingdom continued to
import the main part of its sugar from its
colonies.[39]

Until the late nineteenth century, sugar

was purchased in loaves, which had to be
cut using implements called sugar nips.[40]
In later years, granulated sugar was more
usually sold in bags. Sugar cubes were
produced in the nineteenth century. The
first inventor of a process to produce
sugar in cube form was Moravian Jakub
Kryštof Rad, director of a sugar company
in Dačice. He began sugar-cube
production after being granted a five-year
patent for the process on January 23,
1843. Henry Tate of Tate & Lyle was
another early manufacturer of sugar cubes
at his refineries in Liverpool and London.
Tate purchased a patent for sugar-cube
manufacture from German Eugen Langen,
who in 1872 had invented a different
method of processing of sugar cubes.[41]

Sugar was rationed during World War I and

more sharply during World War
II.[42][43][44][45][46] This led to the
development and use of various artificial
sweeteners.[42][47]
Chemistry

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose

(right), important molecules in the body.

Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a

number of carbohydrates, such as
monosaccharides, disaccharides, or
oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are
also called "simple sugars," the most
important being glucose. Most
monosaccharides have a formula that
conforms to CnH2nOn with n between 3
and 7 (deoxyribose being an exception).
Glucose has the molecular formula
C6H12O6. The names of typical sugars end
with -ose, as in "glucose" and "fructose".
Sometimes such words may also refer to
any types of carbohydrates soluble in
water. The acyclic mono- and
disaccharides contain either aldehyde
groups or ketone groups. These carbon-
oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the
reactive centers. All saccharides with
more than one ring in their structure result
from two or more monosaccharides joined
by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss
of a molecule of water (H2O) per bond.[48]
Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form
can form glycosidic bonds with other
monosaccharides, creating disaccharides
(such as sucrose) and polysaccharides
(such as starch). Enzymes must hydrolyze
or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds
before such compounds become
metabolized. After digestion and
absorption the principal monosaccharides
present in the blood and internal tissues
include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring
structures. In these closed-chain forms,
the aldehyde or ketone group remains non-
free, so many of the reactions typical of
these groups cannot occur. Glucose in
solution exists mostly in the ring form at
equilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the
molecules in the open-chain form.[48]

Natural polymers

Biopolymers of sugars are common in

nature. Through photosynthesis, plants
produce glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(G3P), a phosphated 3-carbon sugar that
is used by the cell to make
monosaccharides such as glucose
(C6H12O6) or (as in cane and beet)
sucrose (C12H22O11). Monosaccharides
may be further converted into structural
polysaccharides such as cellulose and
pectin for cell wall construction or into
energy reserves in the form of storage
polysaccharides such as starch or inulin.
Starch, consisting of two different
polymers of glucose, is a readily
degradable form of chemical energy
stored by cells, and can be converted to
other types of energy.[48] Another polymer
of glucose is cellulose, which is a linear
chain composed of several hundred or
thousand glucose units. It is used by
plants as a structural component in their
cell walls. Humans can digest cellulose
only to a very limited extent, though
ruminants can do so with the help of
symbiotic bacteria in their gut.[49] DNA and
RNA are built up of the monosaccharides
deoxyribose and ribose, respectively.
Deoxyribose has the formula C5H10O4 and
ribose the formula C5H10O5.[50]

Flammability and heat

response

Magnification of grains of refined sucrose, the most

common free sugar.
Because sugars burn easily when exposed
to flame, the handling of sugars risks dust
explosion. The risk of explosion is higher
when the sugar has been milled to
superfine texture, such as for use in
chewing gum.[51] The 2008 Georgia sugar
refinery explosion, which killed 14 people
and injured 40, and destroyed most of the
refinery, was caused by the ignition of
sugar dust.

In its culinary use, exposing sugar to heat

causes caramelization. As the process
occurs, volatile chemicals such as diacetyl
are released, producing the characteristic
caramel flavor.
Types
Monosaccharides

Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all

simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the
general formula C6H12O6. They have five
hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl
group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved
in water. They each exist as several
isomers with dextro- and laevo-rotatory
forms that cause polarized light to diverge
to the right or the left.[52]

Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally

in fruits, some root vegetables, cane
sugar and honey and is the sweetest of
the sugars. It is one of the components
of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a
high-fructose syrup, which is
manufactured from hydrolyzed corn
starch that has been processed to yield
corn syrup, with enzymes then added to
convert part of the glucose into
fructose.[53]
Galactose generally does not occur in
the free state but is a constituent with
glucose of the disaccharide lactose or
milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose.
It is a component of the antigens found
on the surface of red blood cells that
determine blood groups.[54]
 Glucose, dextrose or grape sugar,
occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices
and is the primary product of
photosynthesis. Most ingested
carbohydrates are converted into
glucose during digestion and it is the
form of sugar that is transported around
the bodies of animals in the
bloodstream. Glucose syrup is a liquid
form of glucose that is widely used in
the manufacture of foodstuffs. It can be
manufactured from starch by enzymatic
hydrolysis.[55]

Disaccharides
Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all
compound sugars, disaccharides, with the
general formula C12H22O11. They are
formed by the combination of two
monosaccharide molecules with the
exclusion of a molecule of water.[52]

Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar

found in milk. A molecule of lactose is
formed by the combination of a
molecule of galactose with a molecule
of glucose. It is broken down when
consumed into its constituent parts by
the enzyme lactase during digestion.
Children have this enzyme but some
adults no longer form it and they are
unable to digest lactose.[56]
Maltose is formed during the
germination of certain grains, the most
notable being barley, which is converted
into malt, the source of the sugar's
name. A molecule of maltose is formed
by the combination of two molecules of
glucose. It is less sweet than glucose,
fructose or sucrose.[52] It is formed in
the body during the digestion of starch
by the enzyme amylase and is itself
broken down during digestion by the
enzyme maltase.[57]
Sucrose is found in the stems of
sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It
also occurs naturally alongside fructose
and glucose in other plants, in particular
fruits and some roots such as carrots.
The different proportions of sugars
found in these foods determines the
range of sweetness experienced when
eating them.[52] A molecule of sucrose is
formed by the combination of a
molecule of glucose with a molecule of
fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is
split into its constituent parts during
digestion by a number of enzymes
known as sucrases.[58]
Sources
The sugar contents of common fruits and
vegetables are presented in Table 1. The
fructose to fructose plus glucose ratio is
calculated by including the fructose and
glucose coming from the sucrose.
Table 1. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)[59]
Sucrose
Total
Fructose/ as a %
carbohydrateA Total Free Free
Food item Sucrose (Fructose+Glucose) of
including sugars fructose glucose
ratio total
dietary fiber
sugars

Fruits              

Apple 13.8 10.4 5.9 2.4 2.1 0.67 20

Apricot 11.1 9.2 0.9 2.4 5.9 0.42 64

Banana 22.8 12.2 4.9 5.0 2.4 0.5 20

Fig, dried 63.9 47.9 22.9 24.8 0.48 0.9 2

Grapes 18.1 15.5 8.1 7.2 0.2 0.53 1

Navel
12.5 8.5 2.25 2.0 4.3 0.51 51
orange

Peach 9.5 8.4 1.5 2.0 4.8 0.47 57

Pear 15.5 9.8 6.2 2.8 0.8 0.67 8

Pineapple 13.1 9.9 2.1 1.7 6.0 0.52 61

Plum 11.4 9.9 3.1 5.1 1.6 0.40 16

Strawberry 7.68 4.89 2.441 1.99 0.47 0.55 10

Vegetables              

Beet, red 9.6 6.8 0.1 0.1 6.5 0.50 96

Carrot 9.6 4.7 0.6 0.6 3.6 0.50 77

Corn, sweet 19.0 6.2 1.9 3.4 0.9 0.38 15

Red pepper,
6.0 4.2 2.3 1.9 0.0 0.55 0
sweet

Onion, sweet 7.6 5.0 2.0 2.3 0.7 0.47 14

Sweet
20.1 4.2 0.7 1.0 2.5 0.47 60
potato

Yam 27.9 0.5 tr tr tr na tr

Sugar cane 13–18 0.2–1.0 0.2–1.0 11–16 0.50 high

Sugar beet 17–18 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 16–17 0.50 high

^A The carbohydrate figure is calculated

in the USDA database and does not
always correspond to the sum of the
sugars, the starch, and the dietary fiber.

Production
Sugar beet production – 2016

Country (millions of tonnes)

 Russia 51.4

 France 33.8

 United States 33.5

 Germany 25.5

 Turkey 19.5

World 277.2

Source: FAOSTAT, United Nations[60]

Due to rising demand, sugar production in

general increased some 14% over the
period 2009 to 2018.[61] The largest
importers were China, Indonesia, and the
United States.[61]

Sugar beet

In 2016, global production of sugar beets

was 277 million tonnes, led by Russia with
19% of the world total (table).

The sugar beet became a major source of

sugar in the 19th century when methods
for extracting the sugar became available.
It is a biennial plant,[62] a cultivated variety
of Beta vulgaris in the family
Amaranthaceae, the tuberous root of
which contains a high proportion of
sucrose. It is cultivated as a root crop in
temperate regions with adequate rainfall
and requires a fertile soil. The crop is
harvested mechanically in the autumn and
the crown of leaves and excess soil
removed. The roots do not deteriorate
rapidly and may be left in the field for
some weeks before being transported to
the processing plant where the crop is
washed and sliced, and the sugar
extracted by diffusion.[63] Milk of lime is
added to the raw juice with calcium
carbonate. After water is evaporated by
boiling the syrup under a vacuum, the
syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar
crystals. The white sugar that crystallizes
can be separated in a centrifuge and dried,
requiring no further refining.[63]

Sugarcane
Sugarcane production – 2016

Country (millions of tonnes)

 Brazil 768.7

 India 348.4

 China 122.7

 Thailand 87.5

World 1890.7

Source: FAOSTAT, United Nations[64]

Global production of sugarcane in 2016

was 1.9 billion tonnes, with Brazil
producing 41% of the world total and India
18% (table).
Sugarcane refers to any of several species,
or their hybrids, of giant grasses in the
genus Saccharum in the family Poaceae.
They have been cultivated in tropical
climates in the Indian subcontinent and
Southeast Asia over centuries for the
sucrose found in their stems.[1] A great
expansion in sugarcane production took
place in the 18th century with the
establishment of slave plantations in the
Americas. The use of slavery for the labor-
intensive process resulted in sugar
production, enabling prices cheap enough
for most people to buy. Mechanization
reduced some labor needs, but in the 21st
century, cultivation and production relied
on low-wage laborers.

Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate

with sufficient rainfall during the growing
season to make full use of the plant's
substantial growth potential. The crop is
harvested mechanically or by hand,
chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly
to the processing plant (commonly known
as a sugar mill) where it is either milled
and the juice extracted with water or
extracted by diffusion.[65] The juice is
clarified with lime and heated to destroy
enzymes. The resulting thin syrup is
concentrated in a series of evaporators,
after which further water is removed. The
resulting supersaturated solution is
seeded with sugar crystals, facilitating
crystal formation and drying.[65] Molasses
is a by-product of the process and the fiber
from the stems, known as bagasse,[65] is
burned to provide energy for the sugar
extraction process. The crystals of raw
sugar have a sticky brown coating and
either can be used as they are, can be
bleached by sulfur dioxide, or can be
treated in a carbonatation process to
produce a whiter product.[65] About 2,500
litres (660 US gal) of irrigation water is
needed for every one kilogram (2.2
pounds) of sugar produced.[66]
Refining

A pack of sugar made from sugar beet

Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that

has undergone a refining process to
remove the molasses.[67][68] Raw sugar is
sucrose which is extracted from
sugarcane or sugar beet. While raw sugar
can be consumed, the refining process
removes unwanted tastes and results in
refined sugar or white sugar.[69][70]

The sugar may be transported in bulk to

the country where it will be used and the
refining process often takes place there.
The first stage is known as affination and
involves immersing the sugar crystals in a
concentrated syrup that softens and
removes the sticky brown coating without
dissolving them. The crystals are then
separated from the liquor and dissolved in
water. The resulting syrup is treated either
by a carbonatation or by a phosphatation
process. Both involve the precipitation of a
fine solid in the syrup and when this is
filtered out, many of the impurities are
removed at the same time. Removal of
color is achieved by using either a granular
activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin.
The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling
and then cooled and seeded with sugar
crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize
out. The liquor is spun off in a centrifuge
and the white crystals are dried in hot air
and ready to be packaged or used. The
surplus liquor is made into refiners'
molasses.[71]

The International Commission for Uniform

Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards
for the measurement of the purity of
refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers;
lower numbers indicate a higher level of
purity in the refined sugar.[72]

Refined sugar is widely used for industrial

needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is
purer (ICUMSA below 300) than raw sugar
(ICUMSA over 1,500).[73] The level of purity
associated with the colors of sugar,
expressed by standard number ICUMSA,
the smaller ICUMSA numbers indicate the
higher purity of sugar.[73]

Forms and uses

Rock candy crystallized out of a supersaturated

sugar solution that contains green dye.

Brown sugars are granulated sugars,

either containing residual molasses, or
with the grains deliberately coated with
molasses to produce a light- or dark-
colored sugar. They are used in baked
goods, confectionery, and toffees.[74]
Granulated sugars are used at the table,
to sprinkle on foods and to sweeten hot
drinks (coffee and tea), and in home
baking to add sweetness and texture to
baked products (cookies and cakes) and
desserts (pudding and ice cream). They
are also used as a preservative to
prevent micro-organisms from growing
and perishable food from spoiling, as in
candied fruits, jams, and
marmalades.[75]
Invert sugars and syrups are blended to
manufacturers specifications and are
used in breads, cakes, and beverages for
adjusting sweetness, aiding moisture
retention and avoiding crystallization of
sugars.[74]
Liquid sugars are strong syrups
consisting of 67% granulated sugar
dissolved in water. They are used in the
food processing of a wide range of
products including beverages, hard
candy, ice cream, and jams.[74]
Low-calorie sugars and artificial
sweeteners are often made of
maltodextrin with added sweeteners.
Maltodextrin is an easily digestible
synthetic polysaccharide consisting of
short chains of glucose molecules and
is made by the partial hydrolysis of
starch.[76]
Milled sugars (known as confectioner's
sugar and powdered sugar) are ground
to a fine powder. They are used as
powdered sugar (also known as icing
sugar or confectionary sugar), for
dusting foods and in baking and
confectionery.[74]
Molasses is commonly used to make
rum, and sugar byproducts are used to
make ethanol for fuel.
Polyols are sugar alcohols and are used
in chewing gums where a sweet flavor is
required that lasts for a prolonged time
in the mouth.[77]
Screened sugars are crystalline
products separated according to the
size of the grains. They are used for
decorative table sugars, for blending in
dry mixes and in baking and
confectionery.[74]
Sugar cubes(de) (sometimes called
sugar lumps) are white or brown
granulated sugars lightly steamed and
pressed together in block shape. They
are used to sweeten drinks.[74]
Sugarloaf was the usual cone-form in
which refined sugar was produced and
sold until the late 19th century. This
shape is still in use in Germany (for
preparation of Feuerzangenbowle) as
well as Iran and Morocco.
Syrups and treacles are dissolved invert
sugars heated to develop the
characteristic flavors. (Treacles have
added molasses.) They are used in a
range of baked goods and confectionery
including toffees and licorice.[74]
In winemaking, fruit sugars are
converted into alcohol by a fermentation
process. If the must formed by pressing
the fruit has a low sugar content,
additional sugar may be added to raise
the alcohol content of the wine in a
process called chaptalization. In the
 production of sweet wines, fermentation
may be halted before it has run its full
course, leaving behind some residual
sugar that gives the wine its sweet
taste.[78]

Consumption
In most parts of the world, sugar is an
important part of the human diet, making
food more palatable and providing food
energy. After cereals and vegetable oils,
sugar derived from sugarcane and beet
provided more kilocalories per capita per
day on average than other food groups.[79]
According to one source, per capita
consumption of sugar in 2016 was highest
in the United States, followed by Germany
and the Netherlands.[80]

Nutrition and flavor

 Sugar (sucrose), brown (with molasses)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,576 kJ (377 kcal)

Carbohydrates 97.33 g
Sugars 96.21 g
Dietary fiber 0g

Fat 0g

Protein 0g

Vitamins Quantity %DV†

Thiamine (B1) 0.008 mg 1%
Riboflavin (B2) 0.007 mg 1%
Niacin (B3) 0.082 mg 1%
Vitamin B6 0.026 mg 2%
Folate (B9) 1 μg 0%

Minerals Quantity %DV†

Calcium 85 mg 9%
Iron 1.91 mg 15%
 Magnesium 29 mg 8%
Phosphorus 22 mg 3%
Potassium 133 mg 3%
Sodium 39 mg 3%
Zinc 0.18 mg 2%

Other constituents Quantity

Water 1.77 g

Full link to USDA database entry

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using
US recommendations for adults.
 Sugar (sucrose), granulated

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,619 kJ (387 kcal)

Carbohydrates 99.98 g
Sugars 99.91 g
Dietary fiber 0g

Fat 0g

Protein 0g

Vitamins Quantity %DV†

Riboflavin (B2) 0.019 mg 2%

Minerals Quantity %DV†

Calcium 1 mg 0%
Iron 0.01 mg 0%
Potassium 2 mg 0%

Other constituents Quantity

Water 0.03 g
 Full link to USDA database entry

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†Percentagesare roughly approximated using
US recommendations for adults.

Brown and white granulated sugar are 97%

to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively,
with less than 2% water, and no dietary
fiber, protein or fat (table). Brown sugar
contains a moderate amount of iron (15%
of the Reference Daily Intake in a 100 gram
amount, see table), but a typical serving of
4 grams (one teaspoon), would provide 15
calories and a negligible amount of iron or
any other nutrient.[81] Because brown
sugar contains 5–10% molasses
reintroduced during processing, its value
to some consumers is a richer flavor than
white sugar.[82]

Health effects
Sugar industry funding and
health information

Sugar refiners and manufacturers of

sugary foods and drinks have sought to
influence medical research and public
health recommendations,[83][84] with
substantial and largely clandestine
spending documented from the 1960s to
2016.[85][86][87][88] The results of research
on the health effects of sugary food and
drink differ significantly, depending on
whether the researcher has financial ties
to the food and drink industry.[89][90][91] A
2013 medical review concluded that
"unhealthy commodity industries should
have no role in the formation of national or
international NCD [non-communicable
disease] policy".[92]

There have been similar efforts to steer

coverage of sugar-related health
information in popular media, including
news media and social media.[93][94][95]

Obesity and metabolic

syndrome

A 2003 World Health Organization

technical report provided evidence that
high intake of sugary drinks (including fruit
juice) increased the risk of obesity by
adding to overall energy intake.[96] By
itself, sugar is not a factor causing obesity
and metabolic syndrome, but rather –
when over-consumed – is a component of
unhealthy dietary behavior.[96] Meta-
analyses showed that excessive
consumption of sugar-sweetened
beverages increased the risk of developing
type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome –
including weight gain and obesity – in
adults and children.[97][98]

Addiction

A 2018 systematic review concluded that

the potential for sugar addiction was
greater when in combination with dietary
fats.[99]

Hyperactivity

Some studies report evidence of causality

between high consumption of refined
sugar and hyperactivity.[100] One review of
low-quality studies of children consuming
high amounts of energy drinks showed
association with higher rates of unhealthy
behaviors, including smoking and alcohol
abuse, and with hyperactivity and
insomnia.[101]

Tooth decay

The 2003 WHO report stated that "Sugars

are undoubtedly the most important
dietary factor in the development of dental
caries".[96] A review of human studies
showed that the incidence of caries is
lower when sugar intake is less than 10%
of total energy consumed.[102]
Nutritional displacement

The "empty calories" argument states that

a diet high in added sugar will reduce
consumption of foods that contain
essential nutrients.[103] This nutrient
displacement occurs if sugar makes up
more than 25% of daily energy intake,[104] a
proportion associated with poor diet
quality and risk of obesity.[105]
Displacement may occur at lower levels of
consumption.[104]

Alzheimer's disease
Claims have been made of a sugar–
Alzheimer's disease connection, but there
is inconclusive evidence that cognitive
decline is related to dietary fructose or
overall energy intake.[106][107]

Recommended dietary intake

The World Health Organization

recommends that both adults and children
reduce the intake of free sugars to less
than 10% of total energy intake, and
suggests a reduction to below 5%. "Free
sugars" include monosaccharides and
disaccharides added to foods, and sugars
found in fruit juice and concentrates, as
well as in honey and syrups. According to
the WHO, "[t]hese recommendations were
based on the totality of available evidence
reviewed regarding the relationship
between free sugars intake and body
weight (low and moderate quality
evidence) and dental caries (very low and
moderate quality evidence)."[2]

On May 20, 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration announced changes to the
Nutrition Facts panel displayed on all
foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to
the panel is a requirement to list "Added
sugars" by weight and as a percent of
Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and
minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate
how much should be consumed. For
added sugars, the guidance is that 100%
DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is
defined as 50 grams. For a person
consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams
is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of
total calories—the same guidance as the
World Health Organization.[108] To put this
in context, most 12 ounce (335 mL) cans
of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the
United States, a government survey on
food consumption in 2013–2014 reported
that, for men and women aged 20 and
older, the average total sugar intakes—
naturally occurring in foods and added—
were, respectively, 125 and 99 g/day.[109]

Measurements
Various culinary sugars have different
densities due to differences in particle size
and inclusion of moisture.

Domino Sugar gives the following weight

to volume conversions (in United States
customary units):[110]

Firmly packed brown sugar 1 lb = 2.5

cups (or 1.3 L per kg, 0.77 kg/L)
Granulated sugar 1 lb = 2.25 cups (or
1.17 L per kg, 0.85 kg/L)
 Unsifted confectioner's sugar 1 lb = 3.75
cups (or 2.0 L per kg, 0.5 kg/L)

The "Engineering Resources – Bulk

Density Chart" published in Powder and
Bulk gives different values for the bulk
densities:[111]

Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL

Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( =
620 kg/m^3)
Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL

Society and culture

Manufacturers of sugary products, such
as soft drinks and candy, and the Sugar
Research Foundation have been accused
of trying to influence consumers and
medical associations in the 1960s and
1970s by creating doubt about the
potential health hazards of sucrose
overconsumption, while promoting
saturated fat as the main dietary risk
factor in cardiovascular diseases.[85] In
2016, the criticism led to
recommendations that diet policymakers
emphasize the need for high-quality
research that accounts for multiple
biomarkers on development of
cardiovascular diseases.[85]
See also
Barley sugar
Holing cane
List of unrefined sweeteners
Sugar plantations in the Caribbean
Sugar substitute

Gallery
Cube sugar

Brown sugar crystals

Whole cane sugar from the date palm

Whole cane sugar (grey), vacuum-dried

 Whole cane sugar (brown), vacuum-dried

Raw crystals of unrefined, unbleached

sugar

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Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Sugars.

Adas, Michael (2001). Agricultural and

Pastoral Societies in Ancient and
Classical History. Temple University
Press. ISBN 978-1-56639-832-9.
OCLC 44493265 .
Barrett, Duncan & Calvi, Nuala (2012).
The Sugar Girls. Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-
744847-0.
Hannah, A.C. (1996). The International
Sugar Trade. Cambridge: Woodhead.
ISBN 978-1-85573-069-4.
Hugill, Anthony (1978). Sugar And All
That. Gentry Books. ISBN 978-0-85614-
048-8.
James, Glyn (2004). Sugarcane.
Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-632-
05476-3. OCLC 51837990 .
Saulo, Aurora A. (March 2005). "Sugars
and Sweeteners in Foods" (PDF).
 College of Tropical Agriculture and
Human Resources.
Taubes, Gary (April 13, 2011). "Is sugar
toxic?" . New York Times.
Sugar . Cook's Thesaurus.

External links

Look up sugar in Wiktionary, the free

dictionary.

The Sugar Association Official website

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title=Sugar&oldid=900656895"
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