Sugar

Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates,

many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called
monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double sugars, are
molecules made of two bonded monosaccharides; common
examples are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose +
galactose), and maltose (two molecules of glucose). White sugar is
a refined form of sucrose. In the body, compound sugars are
hydrolysed into simple sugars.

Longer chains of monosaccharides (>2) are not regarded as sugars,

and are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Starch is a
Sugars (clockwise from top-left):
glucose polymer found in plants, and is the most abundant source
white refined, unrefined, unprocessed
of energy in human food. Some other chemical substances, such as cane, brown
glycerol and sugar alcohols, may have a sweet taste, but are not
classified as sugar.

Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants. Honey and fruit are abundant natural sources of simple
sugars. Sucrose is especially concentrated in sugarcane and sugar beet, making them ideal for efficient
commercial extraction to make refined sugar. In 2016, the combined world production of those two crops
was about two billion tonnes. Maltose may be produced by malting grain. Lactose is the only sugar that
cannot be extracted from plants. It can only be found in milk, including human breast milk, and in some
dairy products. A cheap source of sugar is corn syrup, industrially produced by converting corn starch into
sugars, such as maltose, fructose and glucose.

Sucrose is used in prepared foods (e.g. cookies and cakes), is sometimes added to commercially available
processed food and beverages, and may be used by people as a sweetener for foods (e.g. toast and cereal)
and beverages (e.g. coffee and tea). The average person consumes about 24 kilograms (53 pounds) of sugar
each year, with North and South Americans consuming up to 50 kg (110 lb) and Africans consuming under
20 kg (44 lb).[1]

As sugar consumption grew in the latter part of the 20th century, researchers began to examine whether a
diet high in sugar, especially refined sugar, was damaging to human health. Excessive consumption of
sugar has been implicated in the onset of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and tooth decay.
Numerous studies have tried to clarify those implications, but with varying results, mainly because of the
difficulty of finding populations for use as controls that consume little or no sugar. In 2015, the World
Health Organization recommended that adults and children reduce their intake of free sugars to less than
10%, and encouraged a reduction to below 5%, of their total energy intake.[2]

Contents
Etymology
History
Ancient world to Renaissance
 Asia
Europe
Modern history
Chemistry
Natural polymers
Flammability and heat response
Types
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Sources
Production
Sugarcane
Sugar beet
Refining
Forms and uses
Crystal size
Shapes
Brown sugars
Liquid sugars
Other sweeteners
German sugar sculpture, 1880
Consumption
Nutrition and flavor
Health effects
Sugar industry funding and health information
Obesity and metabolic syndrome
Hyperactivity
Tooth decay
Nutritional displacement
Recommended dietary intake
Measurements
Society and culture
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Etymology
The etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. From Sanskrit (śarkarā), meaning "ground or candied
sugar", came Persian shakar, then to 12th century French sucre and the English sugar.[3]
The English word jaggery, a coarse brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar
etymological origin: Portuguese jágara from the Malayalam cakkarā, which is from the Sanskrit śarkarā.[4]

History

Ancient world to Renaissance

Asia

Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent[5] since ancient

times and its cultivation spread from there into modern-day
Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass.[6] It was not plentiful or
cheap in early times, and in most parts of the world, honey was
more often used for sweetening. Originally, people chewed raw
sugarcane to extract its sweetness. Even after refined sugarcane Sugar cane plantation
became more widely available during the colonial era,[7] palm
sugar was preferred in Java and other sugar producing parts of
southeast Asia, and along with coconut sugar, is still used locally to make desserts today.[8][9]

Sugarcane is native of tropical areas such as the Indian subcontinent (South Asia) and Southeast Asia.[5][10]
Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in
India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[10][11] One of the earliest historical
references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating to 8th century BCE, which state that the use of
sugarcane originated in India.[12]

In the tradition of Indian medicine (āyurveda), the sugarcane is known by the name Ikṣu and the sugarcane
juice is known as Phāṇita. Its varieties, synonyms and characteristics are defined in nighaṇṭus such as the
Bhāvaprakāśa (1.6.23, group of sugarcanes).[13]
Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians
discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store and to
transport.[14] Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century
CE.[14] In the local Indian language, these crystals were called khanda (Devanagari: खण्ड, Khaṇḍa), which
is the source of the word candy.[15] Indian sailors, who carried clarified butter and sugar as supplies,
introduced knowledge of sugar along the various trade routes they travelled.[14] Traveling Buddhist monks
took sugar crystallization methods to China.[16] During the reign of Harsha (r. 606–647) in North India,
Indian envoys in Tang China taught methods of cultivating sugarcane after Emperor Taizong of Tang (r.
626–649) made known his interest in sugar. China established its first sugarcane plantations in the seventh
century.[17] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, to obtain
technology for sugar refining.[18] In the Indian subcontinent,[5] the Middle East and China, sugar became a
staple of cooking and desserts.

Europe

Nearchus, admiral of Alexander of Macedonia, knew of sugar during the year 325 BC, because of his
participation in the campaign of India led by Alexander (Arrian, Anabasis).[19][20] The Greek physician
Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st century CE described sugar in his medical treatise De Materia Medica,[21]
and Pliny the Elder, a 1st-century CE Roman, described sugar in his Natural History: "Sugar is made in
Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches
between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes."[22]
Crusaders brought sugar back to Europe after their campaigns in
the Holy Land, where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet
salt". Early in the 12th century, Venice acquired some villages near
Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe. It
supplemented the use of honey, which had previously been the
only available sweetener.[23] Crusade chronicler William of Tyre,
writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary
for the use and health of mankind".[24] In the 15th century, Venice
was the chief sugar refining and distribution center in Europe.[12] Two elaborate sugar triomfi of
goddesses for a dinner given by the
There was a drastic change in the mid-15th century, when São Earl of Castlemaine, British
Tomé, Madeira, and the Canary Islands were settled from Europe, Ambassador in Rome, 1687
and sugar grown there.[25][26] After this an "all-consuming passion
for sugar ... swept through society" as it became far more easily
available, though initially still very expensive.[27] By 1492, Madeira was producing over 1,400 tonnes
(3,000,000 lb) of sugar annually.[28] Genoa, one of the centers of distribution, became known for candied
fruit, while Venice specialized in pastries, sweets (candies), and sugar sculptures. Sugar was considered to
have "valuable medicinal properties" as a "warm" food under prevailing categories, being "helpful to the
stomach, to cure cold diseases, and sooth lung complaints".[29]

A feast given in Tours in 1457 by Gaston de Foix, which is "probably the best and most complete account
we have of a late medieval banquet" includes the first mention of sugar sculptures, as the final food brought
in was "a heraldic menagerie sculpted in sugar: lions, stags, monkeys ... each holding in paw or beak the
arms of the Hungarian king".[30] Other recorded grand feasts in the decades following included similar
pieces.[31] Originally the sculptures seem to have been eaten in the meal, but later they become merely table
decorations, the most elaborate called triomfi. Several significant sculptors are known to have produced
them; in some cases their preliminary drawings survive. Early ones were in brown sugar, partly cast in
molds, with the final touches carved. They continued to be used until at least the Coronation Banquet for
Edward VII of the United Kingdom in 1903; among other sculptures every guest was given a sugar crown
to take away.[32]

Modern history

In August 1492, Christopher Columbus collected sugar cane samples in La Gomera in the Canary Islands,
and introduced it to the New World.[33] The cuttings were planted and the first sugar-cane harvest in
Hispaniola took place in 1501. Many sugar mills had been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the
1520s.[34] The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane-sugar mills in Santa
Catarina Island and another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, Demarara, and Surinam. It took until 1600
for Brazilian sugar production to exceed that of São Tomé, which was the main center of sugar production
in sixteenth century.[26]

Sugar was a luxury in Europe until the early 19th century, when it became more widely available, due to
the rise of beet sugar in Prussia, and later in France under Napoleon.[35] Beet sugar was a German
invention, since, in 1747, Andreas Sigismund Marggraf announced the discovery of sugar in beets and
devised a method using alcohol to extract it.[36] Marggraf's student, Franz Karl Achard, devised an
economical industrial method to extract the sugar in its pure form in the late 18th century.[37][38] Achard
first produced beet sugar in 1783 in Kaulsdorf, and in 1801, the world's first beet sugar production facility
was established in Cunern, Silesia (then part of Prussia, now Poland).[39] The works of Marggraf and
Achard were the starting point for the sugar industry in Europe,[40] and
for the modern sugar industry in general, since sugar was no longer a
luxury product and a product almost only produced in warmer
climates.[41]

Sugar became highly popular and by the 19th century, was found in every
household. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential
food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes.[42]
Demand drove, in part, the colonization of tropical islands and areas
where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and sugar manufacturing
facilities could be successful.[42] World consumption increased more than
100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by Britain, where it increased from
about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th
century. In the late 18th century Britain consumed about half the sugar Close-up image of sugar
which reached Europe.[43] cane; demand for sugar
contributed to creating
After slavery was abolished, the demand for workers in European colonial systems in areas
colonies in the Caribbean was filled by indentured laborers from the where cultivation of sugar
Indian subcontinent.[44][45][46] Millions of enslaved or indentured cane was profitable.
laborers were brought to various European colonies in the Americas,
Africa and Asia (as a result of
demand in Europe for among other
commodities, sugar), influencing
the ethnic mixture of numerous
nations around the
globe.[47][48][49]

Sugar also led to some

industrialization of areas where Hacienda La Fortuna. A sugar mill
sugar cane was grown. For complex in Puerto Rico, painted by
example, in the 1790s Lieutenant Francisco Oller in 1885, Brooklyn
J. Paterson, of the Bengal Museum
Presidency promoted to the British
German chemists Andreas
parliament the idea that sugar cane
Sigismund Marggraf and
could grow in British India, where it had started, with many advantages
Franz Karl Achard (pictured)
and at less expense than in the West Indies. As a result, sugar factories
both laid the foundation of
the modern sugar industry
were established in Bihar in eastern India.[50][51]
During the Napoleonic
Wars, sugar-beet production increased in continental Europe because of
the difficulty of importing sugar when shipping was subject to blockade.
By 1880 the sugar beet was the main source of sugar in Europe. It was also cultivated in Lincolnshire and
other parts of England, although the United Kingdom continued to import the main part of its sugar from its
colonies.[52]

Until the late nineteenth century, sugar was purchased in loaves, which had to be cut using implements
called sugar nips.[53] In later years, granulated sugar was more usually sold in bags. Sugar cubes were
produced in the nineteenth century. The first inventor of a process to produce sugar in cube form was Jakob
Christof Rad, director of a sugar refinery in Dačice. In 1841, he produced the first sugar cube in the
world.[54] He began sugar-cube production after being granted a five-year patent for the process on 23
January 1843. Henry Tate of Tate & Lyle was another early manufacturer of sugar cubes at his refineries in
Liverpool and London. Tate purchased a patent for sugar-cube manufacture from German Eugen Langen,
who in 1872 had invented a different method of processing of sugar cubes.[55]
Sugar was rationed during World War I, though it was said that "No previous war in history has been
fought so largely on sugar and so little on alcohol",[56] and more sharply during World War
II.[57][58][59][60][61] Rationing led to the development and use of various artificial sweeteners.[57][62]

Chemistry
Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of
carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides,
disaccharides, or oligosaccharides.
Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars",
the most important being glucose. Most
monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to
Cn H2n On with n between 3 and 7 (deoxyribose
being an exception). Glucose has the molecular
formula C6 H12 O6 . The names of typical sugars Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose
end with -ose, as in "glucose" and "fructose". (right), important molecules in the body.
Sometimes such words may also refer to any types
of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic
mono- and disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double
bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from
two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water
(H2 O) per bond.[63]

Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating
disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch or cellulose). Enzymes must hydrolyze
or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become metabolized. After digestion
and absorption the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose,
fructose, and galactose. Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. In these closed-chain forms,
the aldehyde or ketone group remains non-free, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot
occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the
molecules in the open-chain form.[63]

Natural polymers

Biopolymers of sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis, plants produce glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P), a phosphated 3-carbon sugar that is used by the cell to make monosaccharides such as
glucose (C6 H12 O6 ) or (as in cane and beet) sucrose (C12 H22 O11 ). Monosaccharides may be further
converted into structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and pectin for cell wall construction or into
energy reserves in the form of storage polysaccharides such as starch or inulin. Starch, consisting of two
different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable form of chemical energy stored by cells, and can be
converted to other types of energy.[63] Another polymer of glucose is cellulose, which is a linear chain
composed of several hundred or thousand glucose units. It is used by plants as a structural component in
their cell walls. Humans can digest cellulose only to a very limited extent, though ruminants can do so with
the help of symbiotic bacteria in their gut.[64] DNA and RNA are built up of the monosaccharides
deoxyribose and ribose, respectively. Deoxyribose has the formula C5 H10 O4 and ribose the formula
C5 H10 O5 .[65]

Flammability and heat response

Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the handling of
sugars risks dust explosion. The risk of explosion is higher when
the sugar has been milled to superfine texture, such as for use in
chewing gum.[66] The 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion,
which killed 14 people and injured 36, and destroyed most of the
refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust.[67]

In its culinary use, exposing sugar to heat causes caramelization. As

the process occurs, volatile chemicals such as diacetyl are released, Magnification of grains of refined
producing the characteristic caramel flavor.[68] sucrose, the most common free
sugar.
Types

Monosaccharides

Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula
C6 H12 O6 . They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when
dissolved in water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause
polarized light to diverge to the right or the left.[69]

Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and
honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table
sugar. It is used as a high-fructose syrup, which is manufactured from hydrolyzed corn starch
that has been processed to yield corn syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of the
glucose into fructose.[70]
Galactose generally does not occur in the free state but is a constituent with glucose of the
disaccharide lactose or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It is a component of the
antigens found on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood groups.[71]
Glucose occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary product of
photosynthesis. Starch is converted into glucose during digestion, and glucose is the form of
sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. Although in
principle there are two enantiomers of glucose (mirror images one of the other), naturally
occurring glucose is D-glucose. This is also called dextrose, or grape sugar because drying
grape juice produces crystals of dextrose that can be sieved from the other components.[72]
Glucose syrup is a liquid form of glucose that is widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs.
It can be manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis.[73] For example, corn syrup,
which is produced commercially by breaking down maize starch, is one common source of
purified dextrose.[74] However, dextrose is naturally present in many unprocessed, whole
foods, including honey and fruits such as grapes.[75]

Disaccharides

Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with the general formula
C12 H22 O11 . They are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules with the exclusion of
a molecule of water.[69]

Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is formed by
the combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down
 when consumed into its constituent parts by the enzyme lactase during digestion. Children
have this enzyme but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.[76]
Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable being barley,
which is converted into malt, the source of the sugar's name. A molecule of maltose is
formed by the combination of two molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose,
fructose or sucrose.[69] It is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme
amylase and is itself broken down during digestion by the enzyme maltase.[77]
Sucrose is found in the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally
alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some roots such as
carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of
sweetness experienced when eating them.[69] A molecule of sucrose is formed by the
combination of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose
is split into its constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as
sucrases.[78]

Sources
The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1.
The fructose to fructose plus
glucose ratio is calculated by including the fructose and glucose coming from the sucrose.

In November 2019, scientists reported detecting, for the first time, sugar molecules, including ribose, in
meteorites, suggesting that chemical processes on asteroids can produce some fundamentally essential bio-
ingredients important to life, and supporting the notion of an RNA World prior to a DNA-based origin of
life on Earth, and possibly, as well, the notion of panspermia.[79][80]
 Table 1. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)[81]

Total Sucrose
Fructose/
as a %
carbohydrateA Total Free
Free
Food item Sucrose (Fructose+Glucose) of

including
sugars fructose glucose
ratio total
dietary fiber
sugars
Fruits              
Apple 13.8 10.4 5.9 2.4 2.1 0.67 20
Apricot 11.1 9.2 0.9 2.4 5.9 0.42 64
Banana 22.8 12.2 4.9 5.0 2.4 0.5 20
Fig, dried 63.9 47.9 22.9 24.8 0.9 0.48 1.5
Grapes 18.1 15.5 8.1 7.2 0.2 0.53 1
Navel orange 12.5 8.5 2.25 2.0 4.3 0.51 51
Peach 9.5 8.4 1.5 2.0 4.8 0.47 57
Pear 15.5 9.8 6.2 2.8 0.8 0.67 8
Pineapple 13.1 9.9 2.1 1.7 6.0 0.52 61
Plum 11.4 9.9 3.1 5.1 1.6 0.40 16
Strawberry 7.68 4.89 2.441 1.99 0.47 0.55 10
Vegetables              
Beet, red 9.6 6.8 0.1 0.1 6.5 0.50 96
Carrot 9.6 4.7 0.6 0.6 3.6 0.50 77
Corn, sweet 19.0 6.2 1.9 3.4 0.9 0.38 15
Red pepper,
6.0 4.2 2.3 1.9 0.0 0.55 0
sweet
Onion, sweet 7.6 5.0 2.0 2.3 0.7 0.47 14
Sweet potato 20.1 4.2 0.7 1.0 2.5 0.47 60
Yam 27.9 0.5 tr tr tr na tr
Sugar cane 13–18 0.2–1.0 0.2–1.0 11–16 0.50 high
Sugar beet 17–18 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 16–17 0.50 high

^A The carbohydrate figure is calculated in the USDA database and does not always
correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the dietary fiber.

Production
Due to rising demand, sugar production in general increased some 14% over the period 2009 to 2018.[82]
The largest importers were China, Indonesia, and the United States.[82]

Sugarcane

Global production of sugarcane in 2020 was 1.9 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 40% of the world
total and India 20% (table).
Sugarcane refers to any of several species, or their hybrids, of giant grasses
in the genus Saccharum in the family Poaceae. They have been cultivated Sugarcane production – 2020
in tropical climates in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia over Millions
centuries for the sucrose found in their stems.[5] A great expansion in Country of
tonnes
sugarcane production took place in the 18th century with the establishment
of slave plantations in the Americas. The use of slavery for the labor-  Brazil 757.1
intensive process resulted in sugar production, enabling prices cheap
 India 370.5
enough for most people to buy. Mechanization reduced some labor needs,
but in the 21st century, cultivation and production relied on low-wage  China 108.1
laborers.
 Thailand 75.0
Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the World 1,870
growing season to make full use of the plant's substantial growth potential.
[83]
The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and Source: FAOSTAT, United Nations
conveyed rapidly to the processing plant (commonly known as a
sugar mill) where it is either milled and the juice extracted with
water or extracted by diffusion.[85] The juice is clarified with lime
and heated to destroy enzymes. The resulting thin syrup is
concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is
removed. The resulting supersaturated solution is seeded with
sugar crystals, facilitating crystal formation and drying.[85]
Molasses is a by-product of the process and the fiber from the
stems, known as bagasse,[85] is burned to provide energy for the
sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky World production of raw sugar, main
brown coating and either can be used as they are, can be bleached producers[84]
by sulfur dioxide, or can be treated in a carbonatation process to
produce a whiter product.[85] About 2,500 litres (660 US gal) of
irrigation water is needed for every one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of sugar produced.[86]

Sugar beet

In 2020, global production of sugar beets was 253 million tonnes, led by Sugar beet production – 2020
Russia with 13% of the world total (table). Millions
Country of
The sugar beet became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when tonnes
methods for extracting the sugar became available. It is a biennial plant,[88]
 Russia 33.9
a cultivated variety of Beta vulgaris in the family Amaranthaceae, the
tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated  United States 30.5
as a root crop in temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a  Germany 28.6
fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown
of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and  France 26.2
may be left in the field for some weeks before being transported to the World 253
processing plant where the crop is washed and sliced, and the sugar
[87]
extracted by diffusion.[89] Milk of lime is added to the raw juice with Source: FAOSTAT, United Nations
calcium carbonate. After water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a
vacuum, the syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The white sugar that crystallizes can be
separated in a centrifuge and dried, requiring no further refining.[89]

Refining
Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a refining process to remove the molasses.[90][91]
Raw sugar is sucrose which is extracted from sugarcane or sugar beet. While raw sugar can be consumed,
the refining process removes unwanted tastes and results in refined sugar or white sugar.[92][93]

The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often
takes place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a
concentrated syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals
are then separated from the liquor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either by a
carbonatation or by a phosphatation process. Both involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and
when this is filtered out, many of the impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of color is achieved
by using either a granular activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by
boiling and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize out. The liquor is
spun off in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or used. The
surplus liquor is made into refiners' molasses.[94]

The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards for the measurement
of the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity
in the refined sugar.[95]

Refined sugar is widely used for industrial needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is purer (ICUMSA
below 300) than raw sugar (ICUMSA over 1,500).[96] The level of purity associated with the colors of
sugar, expressed by standard number ICUMSA, the smaller ICUMSA numbers indicate the higher purity
of sugar.[96]

Forms and uses

Crystal size
Coarse-grain sugar, also known as sanding sugar,
composed of reflective crystals with grain size of about 1
to 3 mm, similar to kitchen salt. Used atop baked
products and candies, it will not dissolve when subjected
to heat and moisture.[97]
Granulated sugar (about 0.6 mm crystals), also known as
table sugar or regular sugar, is used at the table, to Misri crystals
sprinkle on foods and to sweeten hot drinks (coffee and
tea), and in home baking to add sweetness and texture
to baked products (cookies and cakes) and desserts (pudding and ice cream). It is also used
as a preservative to prevent micro-organisms from growing and perishable food from
spoiling, as in candied fruits, jams, and marmalades.[98]
Milled sugars are ground to a fine powder. They are used for dusting foods and in baking
and confectionery.[99][97]
Caster sugar, sold as "superfine" sugar in the United States, with grain size of about
0.35 mm
Powdered sugar, also known as confectioner's sugar or icing sugar, available in varying
degrees of fineness (e.g., fine powdered or 3X, very fine or 6X, and ultra-fine or 10X).
The ultra-fine variety (sometimes called 10X) has grain size of about 0.060 mm, that is
about ten times smaller than granulated sugar.
Snow powder, a non-melting form of powdered sugar usually consisting of glucose,
rather than sucrose.
 Screened sugars are crystalline products separated according
to the size of the grains. They are used for decorative table
sugars, for blending in dry mixes and in baking and
confectionery.[99]

Shapes
Sugar cubes(de) (sometimes called sugar lumps) are white or
brown granulated sugars lightly steamed and pressed together
in block shape. They are used to sweeten drinks.[99]
Sugarloaf was the usual cone-form in which refined sugar was
produced and sold until the late 19th century. This shape is still
in use in Germany (for preparation of Feuerzangenbowle) as
well as Iran and Morocco.
Rock candy coloured with
green dye.
Brown sugars

Brown sugars are granulated sugars, either containing residual

molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to
produce a light- or dark-colored sugar. They are used in baked
goods, confectionery, and toffees.[99] Their darkness is due to the
amount of molasses they contain. They may be classified based on
their darkness or country of origin. For instance:[97]

Light brown, with little content of molasses (about 3.5%) Sugar cubes
Dark brown, with higher content of molasses (about
6.5%)
Non-centrifugal cane sugar, unrefined and hence very
dark cane sugar obtained by evaporating water from
sugarcane juice, such as:
Panela, also known as rapadura, chancaca,
piloncillo.
Some varieties of muscovado, also known as
Barbados sugar. Other varieties are partially refined
by centrifugation or by using a spray dryer. Brown sugar examples: Muscovado
(top), dark brown (left), light brown
Some varieties of jaggery. Other varieties are
produced from date fruits or from palm sap, rather (right)
than sugarcane juice.

Liquid sugars
Honey, mainly containing unbound molecules of fructose and glucose, is a viscous liquid
produced by bees by digesting floral nectar.
Syrups are thick, viscous liquids consisting primarily of a solution of sugar in water. They are
used in the food processing of a wide range of products including beverages, hard candy,
ice cream, and jams.[99]
Syrups made by dissolving granulated sugar in water are sometimes referred to as liquid
sugar. A liquid sugar containing 50% sugar and 50% water is called simple syrup.
 Syrups can also be made by reducing naturally sweet juices
such as cane juice, or maple sap.
Corn syrup is made by converting corn starch to sugars (mainly
maltose and glucose).
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), is produced by further
processing corn syrup to convert some of its glucose into
fructose.
Inverted sugar syrup, commonly known as invert syrup or invert
sugar, is a mixture of two simple sugars—glucose and fructose
—that is made by heating granulated sugar in water. It is used
in breads, cakes, and beverages for adjusting sweetness,
aiding moisture retention and avoiding crystallization of
sugars.[99]
A jar of honey with a
Molasses and treacle are obtained by removing sugar from dipper and a biscuit
sugarcane or sugar beet juice, as a byproduct of sugar production.
They may be blended with the above-mentioned syrups to
enhance sweetness and used in a range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees
and licorice.[99]
Blackstrap molasses, also known as black treacle, has dark color, relatively small sugar
content and strong flavour. It is sometimes added to animal feed, or processed to
produce rum, or ethanol for fuel.
Regular molasses and golden syrup treacle have higher sugar content and lighter color,
relative to blackstrap.
In winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation process. If the must
formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise
the alcohol content of the wine in a process called chaptalization. In the production of sweet
wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some
residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.[100]

Other sweeteners
Low-calorie sweeteners are often made of maltodextrin with added sweeteners. Maltodextrin
is an easily digestible synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of three or more
glucose molecules and is made by the partial hydrolysis of starch.[101] Strictly, maltodextrin
is not classified as sugar as it contains more than two glucose molecules, although its
structure is similar to maltose, a molecule composed of two joined glucose molecules.
Polyols are sugar alcohols and are used in chewing gums where a sweet flavor is required
that lasts for a prolonged time in the mouth.[102]
Several different kinds of zero-calorie artificial sweeteners may be also used as sugar
substitutes.

Consumption
In most parts of the world, sugar is an important part of the human diet, making food more palatable and
providing food energy. After cereals and vegetable oils, sugar derived from sugarcane and beet provided
more kilocalories per capita per day on average than other food groups.[103] In 1750 the average Briton got
72 calories a day from sugar. In 1913 this had risen to 395. In 2015 it still provided around 14% of the
calories in British diets. [104] According to one source, per capita consumption of sugar in 2016 was
highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands.[105]
Nutrition and flavor
Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% Sugar (sucrose), brown (with
carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no molasses)
dietary fiber, protein or fat (table). Brown sugar contains a
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
moderate amount of iron (15% of the Reference Daily Intake
in a 100 gram amount, see table), but a typical serving of 4 Energy 1,576 kJ (377 kcal)
grams (one teaspoon), would provide 15 calories and a Carbohydrates 97.33 g
negligible amount of iron or any other nutrient.[106] Because Sugars 96.21 g
brown sugar contains 5–10% molasses reintroduced during Dietary fiber 0g
processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavor than
Fat 0g
white sugar.[107]
Protein 0g

Health effects Vitamins Quantity %DV†

Thiamine (B1) 0.008 mg 1%
Riboflavin (B2) 0.007 mg 1%
Sugar industry funding and health Niacin (B3) 0.082 mg 1%
Vitamin B6 0.026 mg 2%
information
Folate (B9) 1 μg 0%
Sugar refiners and manufacturers of sugary foods and drinks Minerals Quantity %DV†
have sought to influence medical research and public health Calcium 85 mg 9%
recommendations, [108][109] with substantial and largely Iron 1.91 mg 15%
clandestine spending documented from the 1960s to Magnesium 29 mg 8%
2016. [110][111][112][113] The results of research on the health Phosphorus 22 mg 3%
effects of sugary food and drink differ significantly, depending Potassium 133 mg 3%
on whether the researcher has financial ties to the food and Sodium 39 mg 3%
drink industry.[114][115][116] A 2013 medical review Zinc 0.18 mg 2%
concluded that "unhealthy commodity industries should have Other constituents Quantity
no role in the formation of national or international NCD [non-
Water 1.77 g
communicable disease] policy".[117]

There have been similar efforts to steer coverage of sugar- Full link to USDA database entry (http
related health information in popular media, including news s://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6
318)
media and social media.[118][119][120]
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
Obesity and metabolic syndrome IU = International units

A 2003 technical report by the World Health Organization †Percentages are roughly approximated
(WHO) provides evidence that high intake of sugary drinks using US recommendations for adults.
(including fruit juice) increases the risk of obesity by adding to
overall energy intake.[121] By itself, sugar is not a factor Sugar (sucrose), granulated
causing obesity and metabolic syndrome, but rather – when
over-consumed – is a component of unhealthy dietary Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
behavior.[121] Meta-analyses showed that excessive Energy 1,619 kJ (387 kcal)
consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increased the risk
Carbohydrates 99.98 g
of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome –
Sugars 99.91 g
including weight gain[122] and obesity – in adults and
Dietary fiber 0g
children.[123][124]
Fat 0g
Hyperactivity Protein 0g
Vitamins Quantity %DV†
A 2019 meta-analysis found that sugar consumption does not Riboflavin (B2) 0.019 mg 2%
improve mood, but can lower alertness and increase fatigue Minerals Quantity %DV†
within an hour of consumption.[125] Some studies report
Calcium 1 mg 0%
evidence of causality between high consumption of refined
Iron 0.01 mg 0%
sugar and hyperactivity.[126] One review of low-quality
Potassium 2 mg 0%
studies of children consuming high amounts of energy drinks
showed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviors, Other constituents Quantity
including smoking and excessive alcohol use, and with Water 0.03 g
hyperactivity and insomnia, although such effects could not be
specifically attributed to sugar over other components of those Full link to USDA database entry (http
drinks such as caffeine. [127] s://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6
319)

Tooth decay
The 2003 WHO report stated that "Sugars are undoubtedly the
most important dietary factor in the development of dental
caries".[121] A review of human studies showed that the
incidence of caries is lower when sugar intake is less than 10%
of total energy consumed.[128]
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated
using US recommendations for adults.

Nutritional displacement

The "empty calories" argument states that a diet high in added (or 'free') sugars will reduce consumption of
foods that contain essential nutrients.[129] This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than
25% of daily energy intake,[130] a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity.[131]
Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.[130]

Recommended dietary intake

The WHO recommends that both adults and children reduce the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of
total energy intake, and suggests a reduction to below 5%. "Free sugars" include monosaccharides and
disaccharides added to foods, and sugars found in fruit juice and concentrates, as well as in honey and
syrups. According to the WHO, "[t]hese recommendations were based on the totality of available evidence
reviewed regarding the relationship between free sugars intake and body weight (low and moderate quality
evidence) and dental caries (very low and moderate quality evidence)."[2]

On 20 May 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced changes to the Nutrition Facts panel
displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list "added
sugars" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to
indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be
exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is
equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the WHO.[132] To put this in
context, most 355 mL (12 US fl oz) cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a
government survey on food consumption in 2013–2014 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and
older, the average total sugar intakes—naturally occurring in foods and added—were, respectively, 125 and
99 g/day.[133]
Measurements
Various culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture.

Domino Sugar gives the following weight to volume conversions (in United States customary units):[134]

Firmly packed brown sugar 1 lb = 2.5 cups (or 1.3 L per kg, 0.77 kg/L)
Granulated sugar 1 lb = 2.25 cups (or 1.17 L per kg, 0.85 kg/L)
Unsifted confectioner's sugar 1 lb = 3.75 cups (or 2.0 L per kg, 0.5 kg/L)

The "Engineering Resources – Bulk Density Chart" published in Powder and Bulk gives different values
for the bulk densities:[135]

Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL

Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( = 620 kg/m^3)
Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL

Society and culture

Manufacturers of sugary products, such as soft drinks and candy, and the Sugar Research Foundation have
been accused of trying to influence consumers and medical associations in the 1960s and 1970s by creating
doubt about the potential health hazards of sucrose overconsumption, while promoting saturated fat as the
main dietary risk factor in cardiovascular diseases.[110] In 2016, the criticism led to recommendations that
diet policymakers emphasize the need for high-quality research that accounts for multiple biomarkers on
development of cardiovascular diseases.[110]

Gallery


Brown sugar Whole date sugar Whole cane sugar Whole cane sugar
crystals (grey), vacuum-dried (brown), vacuum-
dried

Raw crystals of
unrefined,
unbleached sugar

See also
Barley sugar
Holing cane
List of unrefined sweeteners
Powdered sugar
Rare sugar
Sugar plantations in the Caribbean
Sugar substitute
Glycomics

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Further reading
Barrett, Duncan; Calvi, Nuala (2012). The Sugar Girls. Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-744847-0.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sugar"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A
6dia_Britannica/Sugar). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Frankopan, Peter, The Silk Roads: A New History of the World, 2016, Bloomsbury,
ISBN 9781408839997
Saulo, Aurora A. (March 2005). "Sugars and Sweeteners in Foods" (http://www.ctahr.hawaii.
edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/FST-16.pdf) (PDF). College of Tropical Agriculture and Human
Resources.
Strong, Roy (2002), Feast: A History of Grand Eating, Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0224061380

External links
Sugar (https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/how-does-sugar-in-our-diet-affect-our-health/) at
the National Health Service

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