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Composite Materials 2 Marks All 5 Units PDF
Composite Materials 2 Marks All 5 Units PDF
ME 2029
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
Prepared By
Prof. T. Varun Kumar M.E., (Phd).
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION
1. What is a composite?
A composite is structural materials that consist of two or more combined
constituents that are combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other.
One constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the one in which it is embedded is called
the matrix. The reinforcing phase material may be in the form of fibres, particles, or flakes.
The matrix phase materials are generally continuous. Examples of composite systems
include concrete reinforced with steel and epoxy reinforced with graphite fibres, etc.
2. What are advanced composites?
Advanced composite materials are manmade composite materials. They
include as resin, metal or ceramic matrix composite systems reinforced with high strength,
high modulus continuous or discontinuous forms (such as continuous fibres, chopped fibres,
whiskers or particles). The resultant material exhibits entirely distinct, but superior properties
which are not exhibited by the constituting elements. Advanced composites are composite
materials that are traditionally used in the aerospace industries. Theses composites have
high performance reinforcements of a thin diameter in a matrix material such as epoxy and
aluminum.
3. What are natural composites? Give examples.
The composite material that exists in nature is regarded as natural
composites. Examples of such composites include, wood (composed of cellulose and lignin),
human or animal body (composed of bones and tissues) or even rocks and materials. Bones
themselves are composites made of two components, the organic and inorganic. The
organic component consists largely of carbohydrates, fats and proteins imparting pliability to
the bones. The organic component is calcium phosphate which provides rigidity and strength
to the bones. Sea shells and elephant tusk are also natural layered composites.
4. What are the common types of composites?
The most typical types of composites consist of an addictive or reinforcement
such as fibres or particles embedded in a supporting material called matrix. Usually these
are structural materials but they can also be special materials such as electrical conductors.
Some composites have no matrix and are composed of one or more constituent forms
consisting of two or more different materials. Laminates, for example, are composed entirely
of layers which taken together, give the composite its form. Plywood with multiple plies with
different orientation of fibres is a typical laminate composite. Sandwiches which are
composed of a thick and light core material bonded on either side by a thin strong facing are
also regards as composites. Many felts and fabrics have no body matrix but consist entirely
of fibres of several compositions with or without bonding force.
5. What is a reinforced composite?
A reinforced composite is one in which the primary purpose of the insert is to
improve the mechanical properties of the composite. The insert is called reinforcement. The
composite is formed is called reinforced composite.
6. What is Filled composite? Give some examples of fillers commonly used in
composites.
A filled composite consists of an insert whose main function is to alter the
physical property other than the mechanical properties. Such an insert is called filler.
Addition of filler also reduces the cost of composite. Commonly used fillers include carbon
black, calcium carbonate, mica, talc, barium carbonate, calcium sulphate, china clay and
glass beads (also called spheres of glass).
7. What are the general requirements of all composite materials?
All the composite materials must meet the following requirement
The reinforcing phase must be distributed uniformly throughout the matrix
and the reinforced particles and fibres must not be in direct contact with
one another.
The reinforcing phase must not react with the matrix at the service
temperature as this will affect the interfacial bond with the matrix.
The reinforcing phase must not lose its strength and should be well
bonded to the matrix.
Matrix must have lower modulus of elasticity as compared to the
reinforcing phase.
8. List the various functions that a matrix phase performs in a composite material.
A matrix phase performs the following main functions:
It binds the reinforcement in place in the structure and protects it from
mechanical and chemical damage that might occur by abrasion of their
surface or by chemical attack or some extraneous source.
It separates the individual fibres and particles and deflects brittle crack
that otherwise can pass across the entire cross section of the composite.
The matrix takes the load and transfers it to the reinforcement in case of
fibre reinforced or particle reinforced composites.
The matrix also gives shape to the composite.
In some instances the matrix controls the electrical and chemical
properties of the composite.
9. What is the role of a coupling agent present in the interface between
reinforcement and matrix?
A matrix-reinforcement interface plays an important role in a composite as
the load is transferred from matrix to the fibres through this interface. The eventual
properties of a composite are greatly dependent on the nature of the interface. The desired
characteristics of the interface are controlled by a third material called the coupling agent or
compatilizer. The coupling agent can overcome the weak interaction between the matrix and
the reinforcement. The matrix and the reinforcement differ in their chemical nature and
surface characteristics but the addition of coupling agent results in their association, leading
to improve strength of the resultant composite.
10. Differentiate between dispersion strengthened and particle strengthened
composites.
Dispersion strengthened composites contain particles upto about 15% by
volume having size in the range 0.01µm to 0.1µm whereas the matrix of particle reinforced
composites contains particles in amounts from 15% to 40% by volume with size greater than
1.0µm. in special cases, particle content may be as high as 94%. In particulate composites
both the matrix and particles share the load equally whereas the matrix carries the major
load in dispersion strengthened composites.
11. What is the basic principle used in the fibre reinforced composites?
The basic principle used in fibre reinforced composites is that the materials
are generally stronger in fibre form than in bulk form. This is due to the alignment of
molecules along the fibre axis. This preferred alignment makes the strength and modulus of
both natural and synthetic fibres superior to those of the same material in the randomly
oriented bulk form. That is why major part of the load is carried by the fibres and not by the
bulk matrix. As fibres are to carry the major portion of the applied load they should be much
stronger and stiffer than the matrix. This property is also desirable for preventing the fibres
from buckling under compressive stresses.
12. What are ‘whiskers’? Name some whiskers that are currently available.
Whiskers are very fine single crystal materials with diameters of the order of
submicron. Their length may range from a fraction of a millimeter to several centimeters. The
aspect ratio (i.e. the length to diameter ratio) of whiskers generally ranges from 50 to 10000.
Due to verifying diameter they contain very few or no dislocations and their strength
approaches that of an ideal or perfect crystal (i.e. the theoretically achievable limit). Their
resistance against temperature and strain to failure are very much higher than high
performance fibres. The elastic strain to fracture may be as high as 5%. However, they
suffer from the problem of brittleness and are difficult process. Metals, oxides, carbides,
halides and organic compounds have been grown in whisker form. SiC, Si 3N4, carbon, α-
alumina and K2O.6TiO2 whiskers are currently available. Among these, SiC whiskers seem
to be the best suited for metal-matrix composite reinforcement.
13. Define Flake Composites.
Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal
flakes that are in close contact with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or
heat, while mica flakes and glass can resist both. Flakes are not expensive to produce and
usually cost less than fibers. Flake composites have a higher theoretical modulus of
elasticity than fiber reinforced composites. They are relatively cheaper to produce and be
handled in small quantities.
14. Name the various grades of glass fibres used as reinforcement in glass fibre
reinforcement plastic (GRP).
There are three grades of glass fibres available for reinforcement in glass
fibres reinforced plastics. They are,
E-glass (or electrical glass),
C-glass and
S-glass.
15. List the types of fibres used as reinforcements in composites.
Organic fibres such as nylon and aramid; inorganic fibres of glass, graphite
and ceramics; and stainless steel fibres and wires of tungsten are some typical fibre
materials used as reinforcement in composites.
16. Give some of the characteristics of C-fibers.
C-glass (or chemical glass), is similar to E-glass in composition and provides
excellent resistance to chemical, especially acids. When combined with E-glass
reinforcement, this glass is very useful for surfacing mats for many applications that require
corrosion resistance.
17. What are the disadvantages of glass fibres?
The disadvantages of glass fibres are low modulus self abrasiveness which
frequently decreases the potential strength, relatively low fatigue resistance and poor
adhesion to matrix resins. This means that they do not impregnate the matrix well and
uniformly. Therefore, these fibres are never used for high performance composites. Through
this adhesively can be improved by sizing on the surface, this may provide a path for
absorption of moisture and create undesirable internal stresses.
18. Define Solid Microspheres.
Solid Microspheres have relatively low density, and therefore, influence the
commercial value and weight of the finished product. Studies have indicated that their
inherent strength is carried over to the finished molded part of which they form a constituent.
Solid glass Microspheres, manufactured from glass are most suitable for plastics. Solid glass
Microspheres are coated with a binding agent which bonds itself as well as the sphere‟s
surface to the resin. This increases the bonding strength and basically removes absorption
of liquids into the separations around the spheres.
19. What are the disadvantages of carbon fibres?
In spite of highly desirable characteristics, carbon fibres have certain
disadvantages. They have low impact toughness and high electrical conductivity. The later
property may cause „shortening‟ in unprotected electrical machinery. Another disadvantage
of carbon fibres is their high cost. Due to high cost they are sometimes used in hybrid
composites, along with relatively cheaper fibres such as glass.
20. Define Microspheres.
Microspheres are considered to be some of the most useful fillers. Their
specific gravity, stable particle size, strength and controlled density to modify products
without compromising on profitability or physical properties are it‟s their most-sought after
assets. They are of two types of microspheres they are solid microspheres and hollow
microspheres.
21. What are Kevlar fibres? What are the applications for which these fibres were
developed originally?
Kevlar is the trade name of aramid fibres developed at Du Pont Company.
The two varieties of Kevlar that are most common include „Kevlar 49‟ and „Kevlar 29‟. These
fibres were originally developed to replace steel wire used in radial tyres. Kevlar is about five
times stronger than steel on weight to weight basis.
22. Define Filled Composites.
Filled composites result from addition of filler materials to plastic matrices to
replace a portion of the matrix, enhance or change the properties of the composites. The
fillers also enhance strength and reduce weight. Fillers may be the main ingredient or an
additional one in a composite. The filler particles may be irregular structures, or have precise
geometrical shapes like polyhedrons, short fibers or spheres.
23. What is a carbon-carbon composites produced?
A carbon-carbon composite material consists of a carbonaceous matrix
reinforced with carbon fibres in the form of continuous filament yarns, cloth, chopped fibres
or three dimensional woven reinforcement.
24. What are aramid fibres?
Aramid is the generic term for fibres produced from „aromatic polyamides‟.
Polyamides are long chain polymers containing aromatic rings or so called as benzene rings.
These rings recur repeatedly in the structure of aramid fibres.
25. How is carbon fibres produced?
Carbon fibres are produced by pyrolysis of suitable carbonaceous products
such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch and staple rayon fibres called precursors. The process
involved three stages, namely, stabilization, carbonization and graphitization.
26. List some typical ceramic matrix composite systems.
Typical ceramic matrix composite systems include carbon-carbon composite,
molybdenum disulphide, Sic matrix/ carbon fibre composite, lithium alumino silicate matrix/
Nicalon (SiC) fibre, and ceramic matrix/ glass fibre composite.
27. What are the advantages of thermo plastic matrices?
Superior toughness.
Short moulding cycle.
Capability of fusion bonding.
Infinite Prepreg shelf life.
Easy repairability.
Reusability of scrap.
28. List the disadvantages of thermoplastic matrices.
Higher temperature of processing.
Relatively low heat resistance.
Sensitivity to solvents.
29. What are the most common advanced composites?
The most common advanced composites are polymer matrix composites
(PMCs) consisting of a polymer (e.g., epoxy, polyester, urethane) reinforced by thin diameter
fibres (e.g., graphite, aramid, boron). The reasons why they are the most common
composites include their low cost, high strength, and simple manufacturing principles.
30. What are hollow microspheres?
Hollow microspheres are essentially silicate based, made at controlled
specific gravity. They are larger than solid glass spheres used in polymers and commercially
supplied in a wider range of particle sizes. Commercially, silicate-based hollow microspheres
with different compositions using organic compounds are also available.
31. What are the drawbacks of polymer matrix composites?
The main drawbacks of PMCs include low operating temperatures, high
coefficient of thermal and moisture expansion, and low elastic properties in certain
directions.
32. What are the principal fibers used in commercial applications?
The principal fibers in commercial use are various types of glass and carbons
as well as Kevlar 49.Other fibers, such as boron, silicon carbide, and aluminium oxide, are
used in limited quantities.
33. What are the influences of fiber in a composite laminates?
Density.
Tensile strength and modulus.
Compressive strength and modulus.
Fatigue strength as well as fatigue failure mechanisms.
Electrical and thermal conductivities.
34. What are the principal advantages of glass fibers?
Low cost.
High tensile strength.
High chemical resistance.
Excellent insulating properties.
35. Define the term ‘wettability’.
The adhesion between the reinforcing fiber and the matrix in composite
materials plays an important role in the final mechanical properties of the material. It is called
as wettability.
36. Define Cermets/Ceramal.
The Cermets is an abbreviation for the "'ceramic" and "metal." A Cermets is a
composite material composed of ceramic (Cer) and metallic (Met) materials. Cermets are
ideally designed to have the optimal properties of both a ceramic, such as high temperature
resistance and hardness, and those of a metal, such as the ability to undergo plastic
deformation. The metal is used as a binder for an oxide, boride, carbide, or alumina.
Generally, the metallic elements used are nickel, molybdenum, and cobalt. Depending on
the physical structure of the material, cermets can also be metal matrix composites, but
cermets are usually less than 20% metal by volume. It is used in the manufacture of
resistors (especially potentiometers), capacitors, and other electronic components which
may experience high temperatures.
37. What are fiber metal laminates?
Fiber-reinforced polymer laminas can also be combined with thin aluminium
or other metallic sheets to form metal-composite hybrids, commonly known as fiber metal
laminates (FML).
38. What are coupling and coating agents?
Coupling agents and coatings are applied on the fibers to improve their
wetting with the matrix as well as to promote bonding across the fiber – matrix interface.
Both in turn promote a better load transfer between the fibers and the matrix.
39. What are the roles of matrix in FRP?
To keep the fibers in place.
To transfer stress between the fibers.
To provide a barrier against an adverse environment, such as chemicals
and moisture.
To protect the surface of the fibers from mechanical degradation.
40. What are the classifications of polymers?
Thermoplastics
Thermosets.
41. What will happen when load applied to FRP at glass transition temperature?
When an external load is applied, it exhibits an instantaneous elastic
deformation followed by a slow viscous deformation followed by a slow viscous
deformation. With increasing temperature, the polymer changes into a rubber like solid
capable of undergoing large, elastic deformations under external loads.
42. What is Interface?
The bonding between the fiber and the resin is called interface. It is a region
where coating and matrix diffused into each other‟s domain and form a flexible, three-
dimensional polymer network.
43. Define the terms filament, strand, yarn.
Filament is defined as any fibre whose aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio)
is for all practical purposes, infinity. Filament is thus a continuous fibre. The untwisted form
of glass fibers is called as strand. A group of 200 or more fibers are called as strand. Strand
is a primary bundle of continuous filaments combined in a single compact unit without twist.
Yarn is a generic term used for strands of fiber or filaments in a form suitable for weaving.
44. What is roving?
A roving is a group of untwisted parallel strands wound on a cylindrical
forming package. Roving‟s are used in continuous moulding operations, such as filament
winding and pultrusion.
UNIT 2
REINFORCEMENT AND MATRICES
1. Define the term fibres.
Polymers which can be drawn into long filament like materials having length
to dimension ratio (i.e. aspect ratio) of at least 100 are called fibres. Some of the examples
of fibres are nylon, Terylene, cellulose, Kevlar, etc.
2. Define the term resin.
The polymeric molecules in the form of flakes, granules pallets or viscous
liquid are termed as resins. Resins can be subsequently shaped into usable and product.
3. What are liquid resins?
If polymers are used as adhesives, potting compounds, sealants, etc. In liquid
form, they are preferred to as „liquid resin‟, e.g. polyester resins, epoxy resins, phenolic
resins, etc.
4. List various factors affecting polymer materials properties.
Additives.
Branching.
Copolymerization.
Cross-linking.
Degree of crystallinity.
Glass transition temperature.
Molecular weight and molecular weight distribution.
Plasticizers.
Polymer structure and shape.
5. List the kind of structures commonly formed in polymers.
Three types of structures are commonly formed in polymers. They are,
Linear.
Branched.
Network.
6. What do you mean by branching?
Branching is the process of bifurcation of long polymer chain into two
branches at some point along its length. The formation and extent of side chains depends on
the operating conditions of polymerization such as temperature, pressure and catalyst type.
7. Give examples of various filler materials used in plastics.
Wood flour, chopped fabrics, asbestos, carbon black, talc, mica, gypsum, and
milled glass are examples of fillers.
8. What is cross-linking?
Cross-linking is the process of introducing a primary covalent type link
between polymer chains or their segments using a chemical reagent (such as sulphur or
oxygen in vulcanization process). Physical means such as irradiation can also be used to
introduce cross-links.
9. What are plasticizers? What is the purpose of adding them in a polymer? Name
some common plasticizers.
Plasticizers are low molecular weight monomeric liquids that possess low
volatility. They are added to a polymer to impart plasticity and flexibility and thus improve
processibility. Vegetable oils, low molecular weight polyesters and various phthalates are
commonly used as plasticizers.
10. What are fillers and what function do they impart?
Fillers are materials used to provide bulk and modify certain properties such
as strength, impact resistance, heat resistance and other similar properties. They are
generally chemically inert and do not react with resin during processing.
11. What are additives?
Additives are substance added to a polymer to modify or control its properties
and reduce the cost. Various additives includes stabilizers, colorants, catalysts, lubricants,
flame retardants, etc. Sometimes fillers and plasticizers are also included in the category of
additives.
12. Define the term polymer.
Polymers are high molecular weight organic materials made up of long chain
molecules containing principally hydrogen and carbon and may also contain atoms of N, Cl,
O and S. These are complex and giant molecules with molecular weight in the range of 10 4-
107 and formed by many chemically bonded parts or units. Due to their high molecular
weight, these polymers are also called high polymers.
13. What for catalysts added to a polymer?
Catalysts are added to control the rate and extent of polymerization process
in the resin. Catalysts are not used up in the reaction of polymerization. A catalyst may serve
the following reactions:
Promote the polymerization.
Permit specific orientation reaction to occur.
Give the added benefits of initiating the reactions.
Catalysts also affect the shelf life of the polymer. Metallic as well as organic
compounds are used as catalysts. A well known catalyst system is Ziegler-Natta catalyst.
14. Why are lubricants added to polymer?
Many plastics when heated during processing they become sticky. To
overcome this problem lubricants are added to the plastics.
15. Define the term thermoplastics. Give some examples
Thermoplastics are the materials which can be reshaped or reformed
into a new form even after moulding. In words, thermoplastics can be subjected to
temperature and pressure again for forming a new design product. Some common examples
are:
Nylon.
Polyethylene (PE).
Polystyrene (PS).
Polypropylene (PP).
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA).
Polyetherketone (PEK), etc.
16. What are thermosetting plastics? Give some examples.
The plastics which are once moulded cannot be reformed or shaped into new
form are called thermosetting plastics or simply thermosets. Once moulded cannot be
reshaped even by subjected to heat and pressure due to the non-softening characteristic of
plastic. An example includes phenolic resin (Bakelite), epoxy resins, etc.
17. Which polymers are called naturally occurring polymers?
Polymers which are derived from plants and animals are called naturally
occurring polymers.
18. Name some of the naturally occurring and some synthetic polymers.
Cellulose.
Casein.
Silk.
Natural rubber.
Cotton.
Leather.
Resins.
Wood.
Tar.
Shellac are some naturally occurring polymers.
While plastics and elastomers (except natural rubber) are examples of
synthetic or man-made polymers.
19. Define the term plastics.
There is no standard definition for the term plastics since there is no general
agreement to any definition. In the simplest form plastics may be defined as a polymer which
can be shaped into hard and tough usable articles through the application of heat and
pressure. Examples of plastics are PVC, PE, PS, etc.
20. List the various advantages of plastics.
Articles of intricate shape can be fabricated with ease and can be
produced in large quantity at low cost.
They are lighter (low density) than metals.
They have good electric and thermal insulating properties.
Due to poor thermal conductivity they are very suitable for making
handles of cooking utensils, electric iron box, steering wheel, etc.
They are resistant to corrosion and for rust.
They can be obtained in variety of colours and shades.
They show good dampering properties.
21. List the disadvantages of plastics.
They are dimensionally unstable and tend to warp or creep.
They are also thermally unstable
Some plastics give unpleasant odour.
Most of the plastics deteriorate when exposed to air and sunlight.
Most of the plastics can be easily scratched.
Good plastic parts are expensive, particularly in small lots.
Non-biodegradable.
22. Name various categories of thermoplastics.
Commodity thermoplastics
Transition thermoplastics
Engineering thermoplastics
High performance thermoplastics
Thermoplastic elastomers.
23. What is polypropylene and what is its repeated structural unit.
If on every second carbon atom on the main chain of polyethylene (PP) a
hydrogen atom is replaced by a methyl group then the resulting polymer is called
polypropylene. The repeat structural unit is:
24. What is ‘PEEK’?
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK). It is a semi crystalline polymer with a
maximum achievable crystallinity of 48% when it is cooled slowly from its melt.
25. What is the advantage of cynate ester resin?
Cynate ester resin has a high glass transition temperature (Tg 265◦C), lower
moisture absorption than epoxies, good chemical resistance, and good dimensional stability.
Its mechanical properties are similar to those of epoxies.
26. What is APC?
Continuous carbon fiber-reinforced PEEK composites are known in the
industry as aromatic polymer composite or APC.
27. What is the function of fiber surface treatment?
The primary function of a fiber surface treatment is to improve the fiber
surface wettability with the matrix and to create a strong bond at the fiber-matrix interface.
28. Why the coupling agents are used with glass fiber?
Chemical coupling agents are used with glass fibers to (1) improve the fiber-
matrix interfacial strength through physical and chemical bonds and (2) protect the fiber
surface from moisture and reactive fluids.
29. Why silane is preferred as coupling agent with glass fibers?
The interfacial bond created by silanes allows a better load stress transfer
between fibers and matrix, which in turn improves the tensile strength as well as the
interlaminar shear strength of the composite.
30. Why the fillers are added to the polymeric materials?
Fillers are added to a polymer matrix for one or more of the following reasons:
Reduce cost.
Increase modulus.
Stiffness.
Reduce mold shrinkage.
Control viscosity.
Produce smoother surface.
31. Write down some filler materials?
The most filler for polyester and vinyl ester resins is calcium carbonate
(CaCo3), which is used to reduce cost as well as mold shrinkage. Examples of other fillers
are clay, mica, and glass micro spheres.
32. What is fiber architecture?
Fiber architecture is defined as the arrangement of fibers in a composite,
which not only influences the properties of the composite, but also its processing.
33. List various ceramic matrices.
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3).
Carbon, silicon carbide (SiC).
Silicon nitride (Si3N4).
34. Why coupling agents are added with composites?
Coupling agents are added to improve the wetting of fiber and promote
bonding.
35. What are acrylics?
Most acrylics are based on polymers of methyl methacrylate, that is, they are
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) which may be modified by copolymerization or blending
with other monomers. Acrylics monomers MMA is a clear liquid made from acetone and
sodium cyanide. On polymerization, they normally become clear. They can also be obtained
by opaque varieties including fluorescent shades.
36. What are nylons and where does the name comes from?
The popular groups of Polyamides (PA) resins are known as nylons. They are
produced by the condensation reaction of diamine with dibasic acids or their derivatives.
Depending on the number of carbon atoms on the amines or the acid components, various
nylon designations are available. Examples are nylon 6, nylon 6/6, nylon6/10, etc.
37. Write the applications of nylons.
Nylons are used great variety of household and industrial goods. Unbreakable
cups and saucers, bowls and tumblers are made in ivory luster nylons. Combs will not
become toothless age, zip fasteners that is unaffected by dry cleaning and doctors syringe
are made of nylons. The typical industrial applications include unlubricated gears, cams,
sleeve bearing, driving belts, valves, automobile speedometer, textile machinery, etc.
38. What are polyesters? In what way they can be compared and contrasted with
Polyamides?
Polyesters are the products obtained by the condensation of adipic acid and
bifunctional alcohols with removal of water. It is similar to polyamides in both condensation
products and has the common monomers „acid molecules‟. However the other monomer is
alcohol instead of amines. Like nylon, polyester can be made in the form of unbranched
thread like molecules (thermoplastics).
39. In what form is PET thermoplastic available?
PET thermoplastic is available as film, fibre and blow moulded products. The
processing to these forms leads to orientation or crystallization of molecular chain resulting
in high strength properties.
40. Give some uses of PET thermoplastics.
PET thermoplastic is widely used to make the popular polyester thread also
known as Terylene or Dacron used for sewing. Biaxially oriented film, also known as myler is
used as photo film, magnetic tapes, capacitors, cooking bags, food container packing and
coatings.
41. Write some applications of PEEK.
PEEK is used as a coating and insulating material for high performance
wiring, particularly required for aviation and computer industries. PEEK filaments may be
used for making cloths for hot filtration purposes.
42. What are ladder polymers?
Ladder polymers are double stranded polymer in which aromatic rings are
fused together or interconnected by links around which rotation cannot occurs except by
bond breaking. If the structure of ladder polymers is perfect, the chain could be broken only if
at least two bond on the same rings were broken. Thus, ladder polymers exhibits great
thermal stability.
43. List the three classes of commercial polyesters.
Saturated or thermoplastic polyesters
Unsaturated or thermosetting polyester resins
The liquid polyester resins called simply polyesters.
44. What are unsaturated polyesters?
Unsaturated polyesters are thermosets composed of linear polyester polymer
cross-linked with other monomers such as styrene. These are usually produced as solid
moulding compounds and are called alkyds.
45. What are liquid polyester resins?
Liquid polyester resins are converted into solid plastics by simply adding an
organic peroxide catalyst for polymerization or curing takes place. During the curing and
before hardening, fillers and reinforcements are added.
46. In what way epoxy are similar to unsaturated polyesters?
Epoxy resins are similar unsaturated polyesters in that they are mixed with a
cross linking agent which makes them set by forming a molecular network structure.
47. In what forms epoxy are available?
Epoxies are available in both liquid and solid forms. To produce solid forms,
the epoxy resins cured by using cross linking agents and catalyst or with hardeners
containing active hydrogen to develop the desired properties.
48. What properties make epoxies suitable for coatings?
Toughness.
Flexibility.
Adhesion.
Chemical resistance.
49. What are coatings?
The coatings are provided to the fiber surface to protect the fibers from
mechanical damage and environmental damage and also to enhance bonding of fiber to
matrix.
50. Give some applications of epoxies as coatings.
Process equipments,
tank and drum linings,
can coatings,
pipe linings,
protective coatings for the food industry
wire coatings
UNIT 3
MANUFACTURING OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES
1. Draw the flowchart for composite laminate part fabrication?
The fatigue properties of a material represent its response to cyclic loading, which is
a common occurrence in many applications.
The cycle to failure depends on a number of variables, such as Stress level, stress
state, mode of cycling, process history, material Composition and environmental
conditions.
The number of cycles to failure increases continually as the stress level is reduced.
5. What is the common practice of specifying the fatigue strength of the material?
It is common practice to specify the fatigue strength of the material at very high
cycles, say, 100 or 107 cycles.
The maximum fatigue stress can be estimated using the following relation,
S= mlog (N) + b
Where S = Maximum fatigue stress
N = Number of cycles to fail
a,b = constants.
9. What will be the effect of lower fatigue strength in flexure?
(a) Fiber breakage at high stress levels and (b) Matrix micro cracks followed by
debonding at low stress levels.
12. Why strain-controlled test is expected produce a higher fatigue life than stress –
controlled test?
Factors (bonded joints): the ratio of lap length to substrate thickness, modulus of
adhesives.
Fiber-reinforced polymers are not isotropic, nor do they exhibit gross yielding. Thus,
failure theories developed for metals or other isotropic materials are not applicable to
composite materials.
According to the maximum strain theory, failure occurs when any strain in the
principal material directions is equal to or greater than the corresponding ultimate
strain.
17. What are the basic joints of composites?
For composite laminates, the basic joints are either mechanical or bonded.
1. Require no holes.
2. Add very little weight to the structure.
The simplest and most widely used bonded joint is a single-lap joint.
23. What are the basic bonded joints used in composite laminates?
Basic bonded joint configurations: (a) single-lap joint, (b) double-lap joint, (c) single
and double-strap joints, (d) stepped lap joint, and (e) scarf joint.
1. Increasing the ratio of lap length to substrate thickness h improves the joint
strength significantly at small L/h ratios, the improvement is marginal.
2. Tapering the substrate ends at the ends of the overlap reduces the high normal
stresses at these locations.
PREPARED AND PUBLISHED BY:
Prof. T. Varun Kumar M.E., (Phd).
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
P.A.College of Engineering and Technology,
Pollachi, Coimbatore - 642 002.