Tension Members

Prof. Dr.
Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

Members subjected to axial tensile forces are called
Tension Members.
These members tend to elongate on the application

of load.
Bending due to simultaneous transverse loads and

buckling are significantly reduced and a initially non-
straight member tends to straighten up.
Typical examples are main members of trusses

subjected to tension.
Prof. Dr. Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
However, some secondary members like tie rods

and certain braces may also be subjected to tensile
loads.
In general, the use of single structural shape is
more economical than the built-up section in case
of a tension member. However, built-up members
may be required in the following situations:
a. The tensile capacity of a single rolled section

is not sufficient.
b. The slenderness ratio (KL/r) does not
provide sufficient rigidity.
c. The effect of bending combined with the

tensile behaviour requires a larger lateral
stiffness.
d. Unusual connection details require a
particular cross-section.
e. Aesthetics dictates a particular cross-
sectional shape.
Round Bar
Flat Bar
Double Double Channel Box

Built-up Angle Section
Section
Double Channel
Built-up Section Built-up
I-Section
4-Angle Box Section
GROSS AREA OF CROSS-SECTION (Ag)
It is the total area of cross-section present

throughout the length of the member (AISC – D3.1).
The elements, which are discontinued lengthwise,
are not included.
For example, area of lacing elements and spacer
plates is not included in gross area.
The gross area for rolled steel shapes is directly
available in the properties tables.
NET AREA OF CROSS-SECTION (An)
When tension members have holes punched in

them for rivets or bolts, the minimum reduced area
after the holes are taken out is called the net area.
Failure of a tension member always occurs at the
weakest section where area of cross-section is
minimum.
According to AISC – D3.2, the gross area of a
member is the sum of the products of the thickness
and the net width of each element.
SHEAR LAG FACTOR (U)

Bearing pressure due to bolts acting over smaller
areas and transferring forces only near the weld
produce stress concentrations at some points
within the member cross-section.
Further, eccentricity in connection may produce
extra stresses due to unwanted moments.
Similarly, at a connection, if one part of the section
is connected while the other is left free, all the
forces have to pass only through the connected
part at the joint.
Away from the joint, these stresses spread to give

a uniform stress distribution.
Efficiency of a joint is defined as how well the
stresses are distributed to transfer the applied
forces.
If the joint is not fully efficient, premature failure can
occur reducing the member strength.
This expected reduction is usually applied on the
area of cross-section to get effective net area used
to calculate the reduced member strength.
Shear lag factor (U)

Shear lag factor (U) is the factor by which net area
of a section is reduced for shear lag, stress
concentrations and eccentricity at the joints.
Ae = U An
The approximate values of this factor for various

joining conditions are given below.
a. When tension load is transmitted through

each of the cross-sectional elements by
fasteners or welds, U = 1.0.
b. The preferable expression for U for all

tension members, except plates and HSS,
where load is not transferred by all elements
of the section, is as follows:
U = 1- x
l
x = distance from centroid of element
being connected eccentrically to plane
of load transfer, called connection
eccentricity.
l = length of connection, centre-to-centre
of the outer rivet holes or actual length
of weld.
x
x
gusset plate
c.g of angle
c.g of
equivalent T
c. When tension load is transferred by

transverse welds,
Ae = An U
where, A = area of directly connected
elements
and U = 1.0
d. When two separate plates are connected by

longitudinal welds,
For lw ³ 2 B U = 1.00
For 2 B > lw ³ 1.5B U = 0.87
For 1.5 B > lw ³ B U = 0.75

where, lw = length of weld
B = width of plate equal to distance
between welds
e. For W, M, S, HP or tees with flange

connected with 3 or more fasteners per line in
the direction of loading, the following values
may approximately be considered.
a) bf ³ 2/3 d U = 0.90
b) bf < 2/3 d U = 0.85
f. For W, M, S, HP or tees with web connected

with 4 or more fasteners per line in the
direction of loading, U = 0.70.
g. For single angle section with 4 or more
fasteners per line in the direction of loading,
U = 0.80.
h. For single angle section with 2 or 3 fasteners
per line in the direction of loading, U = 0.60.
i. For double angles, the same value as given
by AISC for single angles may approximately
be used.
CALCULATION OF NET AREA
Reduction In Area For One Fastener
In fabricating structural steel, which is to be

connected with rivets or bolts, the holes are usually
punched larger than the diameter of the rivet or bolt.
Furthermore, the punching of hole is assumed to
damage or even destroy 0.75 mm or more of the
surrounding metal beyond the drilled hole.
The nominal holes for bolts are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Nominal Bolt Hole Dimensions, mm.
Bolt Diameter Standard Hole Oversize

(d) Diameter Diameter
(dh)
15 17 19
18 20 22
20 22 24
22 24 28
25 28 31
28 31 36
30 33 38
³ 35 d+3 d+8
Diameter of holes considered for strength

calculations
= (diameter of the rivet + 1.5 + 1.5) mm
= (diameter of standard bolt hole, dh + 2) mm
The diameter of hole for the rivet is d + 1.5,

whereas another 1.5 mm is to be added because
this extra portion around the hole may be
damaged due to drilling of the hole.
The area of hole to be subtracted from width of

the cross section is rectangular and equals the
diameter of the hole times the thickness of metal.
Reduction in area for one fastener = (d + 3) t
for rivets
= (dh + 2) t for standard bolt holes
Where d = diameter of rivet and
dh = diameter of hole for the bolt.
Reduction In Area For

More Than One Holes
Reduction in area = n (d + 3) t
for rivets
= n (dh + 2) t for standard bolt holes
where n = number of holes in the critical

failure path
d = diameter of fastener, and
t = thickness of plate
An = Ag – n (d + 3) t for vertical failure

planes when rivets are used
Example 2.1: Determine the net area of a 10 x

200 mm plate joined with two 6 x 200 mm plates
as shown in Figure 2.3. The plates are connected
to each other with two lines of 20 mm rivets.
Solution:
10´200 = 2000 mm2
Ag = smaller of
2´6´200 = 2400 mm2
= 2000 mm2
The failure plane is vertical having two holes in its
path, n = 2.
T T
Critical section
10x200 mm plate
T/2
T
T/2
6x200 mm, 2 plates
Figure 2.3. Connection of Three Plates By Rivets.

An = Ag – n (d + 3) t
= 2000 – (2) (20 + 3) (10)
= 1540 mm2
Fastener Spacing
Pitch of fasteners
The centre-to-centre distance of the fasteners along
the longitudinal axis of the member is called pitch
and is denoted by p, as shown in Figure 2.4.
Gage distance of fasteners

The centre-to-centre distance between the
fasteners along the transverse direction is called
gage denoted by g; refer to Figure 2.4.
Stagger of fasteners
The longitudinal distance between two nearest
rivets lying in two adjacent layers of rivets is called
stagger denoted by s and shown in Figure 2.4.
A
B
T C g T
p s
Failure Plane = A – B – C – D
D
Figure 2.4. Fastener Spacing In Various Directions.
Standard gage distances for angles and channels

are given in Figures 2.5 and 2.6.
Leg Dimension (mm) 203 178 152 127 102 89 76 64 51 44 38 35 32 25
g 114 102 89 76 64 51 44 35 29 25 22 22 19 16
g1 76 64 57 51
g2 76 76 64 44
g2
g1
Figure 2.5. Usual Gages For Angles.

Actual flange width g Actual depth g1

bf (mm) (mm) d (mm) (mm)
g1
< 46 25 240-460 64
46-51 29 150-239 57
52-64 33 100-149 51
65-70 38
g
71-81 44
82-90 51
91-100 57
> 100 64
Figure 2.6. Usual Gages For Channels.

Additional Area Due To

Inclined Failure Plane
Just like each hole in the path of failure plane

æ s2 ö
reduces net area, area equal to ç ´ t ÷ is
è 4g ø
added to the net area for each inclined line in the
assumed failure plane.
Total Net Area (An)
æ s2 ö
An = Ag – (d + 3) t + ç å ÷ t for rivets
è 4g ø
s2
or Wn = Wg – n (d + 3) + å 4 g for rivets
Note: The net area must be calculated for all the

possible critical failure planes and the least value
must be taken.
A typical truss connection is shown in Figure 2.7 to

explain the position of gusset plate and the
fasteners.
Gusset plate is a plate to which all the truss
members are connected at a joint.
2LS
Preferably not Gusset Plate

less than 23°
Rivet
Centre-Lines
Gusset Plate
2LS
Gusset plate transversely

placed within the member
Front View End View
Figure 2.7. A Typical Riveted Truss Connection.

Total Net Area For

Welded Connections
In case of welded members, net area and effective
net area are both considered equal to the gross
area with U = 1.
Example - 2.2: Determine the minimum net area of
plate shown in Figure 2.8 where the location of 20
mm diameter fasteners is also indicated.
Solution:
Path AD
An = Ag - n (d + 3) t
= (6)(305) - 2(20 + 3)(6) = 1554 mm2
6mm Thick Plate

54 48 A - 36 Steel
65
A
65 B
T 305 T
100
D C
75
Figure 2.8. Connection Details For Data of Example 2.2.

Path ABD
æ s2 ö
An = Ag - n (d + 3) t + çå ÷ t
è 4g ø
é 54 2 54 2 ù
= (6)(305) - 3(20 + 3)(6) + ê + ú (6)
ë (4)(65) (4)(100) û
= 1527 mm2
Path ABC
é 54 2 482 ù
An = (6)(305) - 3(20 + 3)(6) + ê ( )( ) + ( )( ) ú (6)
ë 4 65 4 100 û
» 1518 mm2 Ü Controls

NET AREA OF STRUCTURAL SHAPES
The structural shapes are assumed to be flattened

out into single plates.
The horizontal plates are rotated until these
become in the same vertical plane (refer to Figure
2.9).
The general procedure may then be used to
calculate the net area in which all possible failure
planes are considered.
A great care is required to use the thickness of

various parts in the formulas, because it may be
double of the actual thickness of that part.
For example, in Figure 2.9, thickness of the
flange is to be considered double in the
analogous section.
tf
Þ tw
d tw d - tf
g - tw/2
ga
2tf
Þ
ga ga + gb - t/2 - t/2
= ga+gb - t Turning Line
gb
Leg is turned through 90°
Figure 2.9. Net Area of Structural Shapes.

Example - 2.3: Determine the net area An for the

angle given in Figure 2.10 if 18 mm diameter
fasteners are used.
L 152´102´12.7
g2=64
g1=57
12.7
g=64 76 76 76
Figure 2.10. Connection Details For Angle Section of Example 2.3.

Solution:
A
64 B
57+ 64 - 12.7 Turning

=108.3 Line
C D
76 76 76
After opening the section, a single plate is

obtained. Calculations for net area can now be
made for various failure planes like AC, ABC and
ABD, etc., and minimum value can be selected
as the final answer (See book for details).
Minimum Spacing Of Bolts In

Line Of Transmitted Force
The distance between the centres of standard,
oversized or slotted holes should be greater than or
equal to 2.67 d, however, a distance of 3 d is
preferred.
Minimum End Distance In
Direction Of Transmitted Force
The prevention of splitting out at the end bolt of a
series of bolts in a line requires a certain minimum
edge distance.
Minimum Edge Distance Using Standard Hole

d (mm) At Sheared Edges At Rolled Edges (mm)
(mm)
12 22 19
15 27 21
18 32 24
20 34 26
22 38 28
25 43 31
28 49 35
30 52 38
32 57 41
35 63 45
Over 35 1.75 d 1.25 d
The distance from the centre of a standard hole to

an edge of a connected part in any direction is
given in Table 2.2.
It is not permitted to be less than the value
evaluated by the following expression (when
deformation at the bolt hole due to service load is
not a design consideration):
Pu Pu
Lc ³ 0.75 ´ 1.2 ´Fu t
and dmin = 0.75 ´ 2.4 ´F t (LRFD)
u
2P 2P
Lc ³ and dmin = 2.4 ´Fu t (ASD)
1.2 ´Fu t
where
Lc = clear distance of end bolt to edge
measured in the line of force,
Pu = factored load on end bolt,
P = service load on end bolt, and
dmin = minimum diameter of the bolt.
For oversized and slotted holes, the correction is

given in AISC Specification.
When deformation at the bolthole due to service
load is a design consideration, the expressions are
modified as under:
Pu Pu
Lc ³ 0.75 ´1.5 ´Fu t
and dmin = 0.75 ´ 3 ´Fu t (LRFD)
2P 2P
Lc ³ and dmin = 3 ´Fu t (ASD)
1.5 ´Fu t
Maximum Edge Distance

The maximum distance from the centre of a bolt to
the nearest edge is smaller of 12t and 150mm,
where t is the thickness of the connected part.
The purpose is to make sure that the painted pieces
cannot have excessive separation with the resulting
corrosion due to entering moisture.
Maximum Longitudinal Spacing

In case of members not subjected to corrosion,
the maximum longitudinal spacing is lesser of the
following:
a) 24 times the thickness of thinner plate
b) 305 mm
In case of members subjected to atmospheric
corrosion, the maximum longitudinal spacing is
lesser of the following:
a) 14 times the thickness of thinner plate
b) 180 mm
MINIMUM CONNECTED LEG WIDTH
Figure 2.10. Various Clearances Required For Fasteners.
bmin @ 3.25d + 26 if bolt is present on

the perpendicular leg,
or 2.5d + 23 if no bolt is present on
the perpendicular leg.
For welded connections bmin should be greater
than or equal to 50 mm.
MAXIMUM SLENDERNESS RATIO

According to AISC – D1, there is no maximum
slenderness limit for design of members in tension.
Even though stability is not a criterion in the design
of tension members, it is still preferable to limit
their length in order to prevent a member from
becoming too flexible both during erection and final
use of the structure.
Two main factors controlling slenderness ratio in
tensions members are:
a) Tension members that are too long may sag
excessively due to their own weight.
b) They may vibrate when subjected to wind
forces or when these are supporting vibrating
equipment such as fans or compressors.
For members whose design is based on tensile
force, the slenderness ratio L/r preferably should
not exceed 300 where L is the actual and not the
effective length.
The above limitation does not apply to rods in
tension where L/r may be kept up to 500. However,
this second value is not an AISC limit.
AISC-D1, means that the Specification is given by
American Institute of Steel Construction, D is the
chapter no. and 1 is the article no. of that chapter.
DESIGN FOR REPEATED

LOADING/FATIGUE STRENGTH
Repeated loading and unloading may result in
failure at a stress level lesser than the yield stress.
The term fatigue means reduction in material
strength and hence failure under cyclic loading.
The effect is more pronounced when repeating
loads have tensile extreme value.
The fatigue strength is mainly governed by three
variables:
a. The number of cycles of loading.

b. The range of variation of service load
stress.
This range is calculated by taking the difference
between the maximum and minimum stress
during the history of loading.
If stress-reversal occurs, the range becomes
equal to the sum of maximum magnitude of
tension and maximum magnitude of compression
in a cycle and the condition becomes more
critical.
c. The presence and initial size of any

microscopic discontinuities or flaws within
the metal structure.
In Appendix-3, AISC Specifications prescribe no

fatigue effect for fewer than 20,000 cycles, which is
approximately two applications a day for 25 years.
Since, most loadings in buildings are in this
category, fatigue is generally not considered.
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS
Tu = factored or ultimate tensile load,

Ta = actual or service tensile load,
ft = resistance factor related with tensile
strength, 0.9 when failure occurs by
yielding and 0.75 when failure occurs
by fracture,
Tn = nominal strength of a tension member,
ftTn = expected strength to be used in LRFD
design, and
Tn/Wt = allowable tensile strength to be used in
design.
Design equation: Tu £ ft Tn (LRFD)

Ta £ Tn/Wt (ASD)
The design strength ftTn or Tn/Wt according to

AISC-D2 is the smaller of that based on:
Yielding in the gross section (Yielding Limit State)
Tn = Fy Ag ft = 0.90 (LRFD) and Wt = 1.67 (ASD)
For LRFD design, Tu = ftTn = ft Fy Ag / 1000
Tu (in kN ) ´ 1000
(A )
g req =
0.9 Fy
Fy Ag
For ASD design, Ta = Tn / Wt =
W t ´ 1000
Ta (in kN ) ´ 1670
(A )
g req =
Fy
Fracture in the net section (Fracture Limit State)
Tn = Fu Ae
= Fu U An
ft = 0.75 (LRFD) and Wt = 2.00 (ASD)
For LRFD design,

Tu = ftTn = ft Fu U R Ag / 1000
Tu (in kN ) ´ 1000
(A )
g req =
0.75 Fu ´ U ´ R
R = assumed ratio of An and Ag
FuURAg
For ASD design, Ta = Tn / Wt =
Wt ´1000
Ta (in kN ) ´ 2000
(A )
g req =
Fu ´ U ´ R
Yielding in the net section is not a failure but
yielding on the gross section is a failure.
The reason is that the net section is limited in
length and hence elongation due to yielding may
not be excessive.
However, gross area is present nearly all along

the length and the elongation limit state may be
exceeded.
TEARING FAILURE AT BOLT HOLES/
BLOCK SHEAR FAILURE MODE
In block shear failure, a part of the failure plane is

transverse subjected to tension while the other part
is longitudinal subjected to shear.
In Figure 2.11 (a), ab part is subjected to shear and
bc part is having tension.
T
a Tension
b c
c Gusset plate
b
Shear
Shaded area may
tear out a d
T
a)Failure by tearing out b)Large tension, small shear
T
b c
a d
c)Large shear, small tension
The failure plane abcd, as shown in Figures 2.11

(b) and (c), consists of a plane subjected to
tension denoted by bc and two planes subjected
to shear shown as ab and dc.
The tearing out failure is either a fracture failure
on both the tension resisting and shear resisting
sections together or shear yielding combined with
tension fracture failure.
The nominal strength for block shear is the lesser
of the following two cases because only that will
cause the final separation of the block from the
member:
Rn = lesser of
1) 0.6 Fu Anv + Ubs Fu Ant
2) 0.6 Fy Agv + Ubs Fu Ant
Nominal tension rupture strength = Ubs Fu Ant
Nominal shear rupture strength = 0.6 Fu Anv
Shear yielding strength = 0.6 Fy Agv
0.6Fy @ yield shear strength = ty

0.6Fu @ ultimate shear strength = tu
f = 0.75 (LRFD) and W = 2.00 (ASD)

Agv = gross area subjected to shear
Anv = net area in shear
Ant = net area in tension
Ubs = tensile rupture strength reduction factor
(subscript ‘bs’ stands for block shear)
= 1.0 when tensile stress is uniform, such as
in all tensile members and gusset plates
and single row beam end connections
= 0.5 when tensile stress is not uniform
such as for multiple row beam end
connections

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Prof. Dr.

Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi

DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

These members tend to elongate on the application

Bending due to simultaneous transverse loads and

Typical examples are main members of trusses

However, some secondary members like tie rods

a. The tensile capacity of a single rolled section

c. The effect of bending combined with the

Double Double Channel Box

GROSS AREA OF CROSS-SECTION (Ag)

It is the total area of cross-section present

NET AREA OF CROSS-SECTION (An)

When tension members have holes punched in

SHEAR LAG FACTOR (U)

Away from the joint, these stresses spread to give

Shear lag factor (U)

The approximate values of this factor for various

a. When tension load is transmitted through

b. The preferable expression for U for all

c. When tension load is transferred by

d. When two separate plates are connected by

For 1.5 B > lw ³ B U = 0.75

e. For W, M, S, HP or tees with flange

f. For W, M, S, HP or tees with web connected

CALCULATION OF NET AREA

Reduction In Area For One Fastener

In fabricating structural steel, which is to be

Table 2.1. Nominal Bolt Hole Dimensions, mm.

Bolt Diameter Standard Hole Oversize

Diameter of holes considered for strength

The diameter of hole for the rivet is d + 1.5,

The area of hole to be subtracted from width of

Reduction In Area For

where n = number of holes in the critical

An = Ag – n (d + 3) t for vertical failure

Example 2.1: Determine the net area of a 10 x

6x200 mm, 2 plates

Figure 2.3. Connection of Three Plates By Rivets.

Gage distance of fasteners

Standard gage distances for angles and channels

Leg Dimension (mm) 203 178 152 127 102 89 76 64 51 44 38 35 32 25

Figure 2.5. Usual Gages For Angles.

Actual flange width g Actual depth g1

Figure 2.6. Usual Gages For Channels.

Additional Area Due To

Just like each hole in the path of failure plane

Note: The net area must be calculated for all the

A typical truss connection is shown in Figure 2.7 to

Preferably not Gusset Plate

Gusset plate transversely

Figure 2.7. A Typical Riveted Truss Connection.

Total Net Area For

6mm Thick Plate

Figure 2.8. Connection Details For Data of Example 2.2.

» 1518 mm2 Ü Controls

NET AREA OF STRUCTURAL SHAPES

The structural shapes are assumed to be flattened

A great care is required to use the thickness of

Leg is turned through 90°

Figure 2.9. Net Area of Structural Shapes.

Example - 2.3: Determine the net area An for the

Figure 2.10. Connection Details For Angle Section of Example 2.3.

57+ 64 - 12.7 Turning