6. UNIT 6.

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING

98
 6.1. Essence and etymology of chemical engineering
LANGUAGE USE

Read this short text and use the most appropriate form of the words in bold.

Chemical engineering is a branch of engineering that applies the natural (or (1) ______ experiment)
sciences (e.g. chemistry and physics) and life sciences (e.g. biology, microbiology and biochemistry)
together with mathematics and (2) ______ economy to produce, transform, transport, and properly
use chemicals, materials and energy. It (3) ______ essence deals with the engineering of chemicals,
energy and the processes that create and/or convert them. Modern chemical engineers are
concerned with processes that convert raw materials or (cheap) chemicals into more useful or (4)
______ value forms. They are also concerned with pioneering valuable materials and related
techniques – which are often essential to related fields such as nanotechnology, fuel cells and
bioengineering.

George E. Davis

George E. Davis, an English (5) ______ consult, was credited for having coined the term chemical
engineering. "Chemical engineering", describing the use of (6) ______ mechanics equipment in the
chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession,
"chemical engineer," was already in common use in Britain and the United States.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering

LISTENING

Watch the following video and then discuss with a partner or in a small group what you liked most
about the way the two students described chemical engineering.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J-fQANmN5zY (what is chemical engineering?)

99
 6.2. History of chemical engineering
LANGUAGE USE

6.2.1. Early history of chemical engineering

Read the text below and decide which answer ( a, b, c or d ) best fits each gap.

Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of unit operations, a fundamental concept of
the discipline chemical engineering. Most authors agree that Davis (1) ____ unit operations if not
substantially developed it. The concept of unit operations was developed to (2) ____ the underlying
unity among seemingly different operations. For example, the principles are the same whether one is
concerned about separating alcohol from water in a fermenter, or separating gasoline from diesel in
a refinery, (3) ____ the basis of separation is generation of a vapor of a different composition from
the liquid. Therefore such separation processes can be studied together as a unit operation (in this
case called distillation).By the early 1920s, unit operations became an (4) ____ aspect of chemical
engineering at MIT and other US universities, as well as at Imperial College London. The American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), established in 1908, played a key role in making chemical
engineering considered an independent science, and unit operations central to chemical engineering.
For instance, it (5) ____ chemical engineering to be a "science of itself, the basis of which is ... unit
operations" in a 1922 report.

Chemical engineering is a discipline that was developed out of those practising "industrial chemistry"
in the late 19th century. Before the Industrial Revolution (18th century), industrial chemicals and
other consumer products such as soap were mainly produced (6) ____ batch processing. Batch
processing is labour-intensive and individuals mix predetermined amounts of ingredients in a vessel,
heat, cool or pressurize the mixture for a predetermined length of time. The product may then be
isolated, purified and tested to achieve a saleable product. Batch processes are (7) ____ performed
today on higher value products, such as pharmaceutical intermediates, speciality and formulated
products such as (8) ____ and paints, or in food manufacture such as pure maple syrups, where a
profit can still be made despite batch methods being slower and (9) ____ in terms of labour and
equipment usage. Due to the application of Chemical Engineering techniques during manufacturing
process development, larger volume chemicals are now produced through a (10) ____ "assembly
line" chemical processes. Today commodity chemicals and petrochemicals are predominantly made
using continuous manufacturing processes whereas speciality chemicals, fine chemicals and
pharmaceuticals are made using batch processes.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering

100
1 a invented b discovered c devised d made up

2 a focus b lay stress on c emphasize d weight

3 a suppose b as long as c now that d whereas

4 a considerable b key c vital d important

5 a determined b defined c identified d regarded

6 a across b during c because of d through

7 a still b yet c already d any longer

8 a aromas b odours c perfumes d scents

9 a incapable b inefficient c wasteful d incompetent

10 a continual b prolonged c unbroken d continuous

The following timeline might be interesting for you regarding the history of chemical engineering.

Chemical Engineering Timeline

1805—John Dalton published Atomic Weights, allowing chemical equations to be balanced and
establishing the basis for chemical engineering mass balances.
1882—a course in “Chemical Technology” is offered at University College, London
1883—Osborne Reynolds defines the dimensionless group for fluid flow, leading to practical
scale-up and understanding of flow, heat and mass transfer
1885—Henry E. Armstrong offers a course in “chemical engineering” at Central College (later
Imperial College, London).
1888—Lewis M. Norton starts a new curriculum at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT):
Course X, Chemical Engineering
1889—Rose Polytechnic Institute awards the first bachelor’s of science in chemical engineering in
the US.
1891—MIT awards a bachelor’s of science in chemical engineering to William Page Bryant and six
other candidates.
1892—A bachelor’s program in chemical engineering is established at the University of
Pennsylvania.
1901—George E. Davis produces the Handbook of Chemical Engineering
1905—the University of Wisconsin awards the first Ph.D. in chemical engineering to Oliver
Patterson Watts.

101
 1908—the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) is founded.
1922—the UK Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) is founded.
1942—Hilda Derrick, first female student member of the IChemE.[3]

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chemical_engineering

SPEAKING

After you have done the multiple choice exercise above, read the text again and discuss with a
partner what you know now about the history of chemical engineering. The following questions and
the timeline above might also help you check your knowledge.

1. Who can be associated with the early years of chemical engineering?

2. What do you know about the Industrial Revolution?

3. What do we mean by unit operations?

4. Have you heard about the so-called batch processes?

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Insert the missing forms of the words in the table. All the words are taken from the text above (Early
history of chemical engineering).

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

fundamental

operation

- seemingly

separation

product

102
 pure -

103
READING

6.2.2. New concepts and innovations

You are going to read a text about new concepts and innovations. Fill the gaps in the text with words
from the box.

application, defined, paved, insufficient, petrochemical industry, experience, synthetic

By the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was ______ in developing chemical reactors.
While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain and the United
States continued until the 1960s, transport phenomena started to ______ greater focus. Along with
other novel concepts, such as process systems engineering (PSE), a "second paradigm" was ______.
Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its
______ elements, such as control system and process design. Developments in chemical engineering
before and after World War II were mainly incited by the ______, however, advances in other fields
were made as well. Advancements in biochemical engineering in the 1940s, for example, found
______ in the pharmaceutical industry, and allowed for the mass production of various antibiotics,
including penicillin and streptomycin. Meanwhile, progress in polymer science in the 1950s ______
way for the "age of plastics".

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering

104
 http://www.waowedu.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/2.jpg

READING

6.2.3. Safety and hazard developments

Read the text below and answer the questions that follow.

Concerns regarding the safety and environmental impact of large-scale chemical manufacturing
facilities were also raised during this period. Silent Spring, published in 1962, alerted its readers to
the harmful effects of DDT, a potent insecticide. The 1974 Flixborough disaster in the United
Kingdom resulted in 28 deaths, as well as damage to a chemical plant and three nearby villages. The
1984 Bhopal disaster in India resulted in almost 4,000 deaths. These incidents, along with other
incidents, affected the reputation of the trade as industrial safety and environmental protection
were given more focus. In response, the IChemE required safety to be part of every degree course
that it accredited after 1982. By the 1970s, legislation and monitoring agencies were instituted in
various countries, such as France, Germany, and the United States.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering

1. What harmful effects might large-scale chemical manufacturing facilities have?

2. What was wrong with DDT?

3. Describe the Flixborough disaster that took place in the UK in 1974.

4. Which was the most serious disaster related to the chemical industry in India in the ’80s?

105
5. How did the new safety and environmental protection measures affect the education at that time?

http://www.safeware-eng.com/Safety%20White%20Papers/hazan87.gif

LANGUAGE USE

6.2.4. Recent progress

You are going to read about recent progress. Some words are missing from the text. Write the missing
words on the lines 1-8 in the gaps. Use only one word in each gap.There is an example at the
beginning.

Advancements in computer science found applications designing and managing plants, simplifying
calculations and drawings that previously had to be done (0) _manually_____. The completion of the
Human Genome Project is also seen as a major development, not only advancing chemical
engineering but genetic engineering and genomics as well. (1) ______ engineering principles were
used to produce DNA sequences in large quantities.

Current sequencing methods rely (2) _____ the discriminatory ability of DNA polymerases, and
therefore can only distinguish four bases. An inosine (created from (3) ______ during RNA editing) is
read as a G, and 5-methyl-cytosine (created from cytosine by DNA methylation) is read as a C. With
current technology, it is difficult to sequence small amounts of DNA, as the signal is too (4) ______
to measure. This is overcome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a laboratory (5) ______ for "amplifying" a specific DNA
sequence. PCR is extremely efficient and sensitive; it can make millions or billions of copies of any

106
specific sequence of DNA, (6) ______ when the sequence is in a complex mixture. Because of this
power, researchers can use it to (7) ______ sequences even if they only have a minute amount of
DNA. A single hair root, or a microscopic blood stain left at a crime scene, for (8) ______ , contains
ample DNA for PCR. This is called a Polymerase Chain Reaction because DNA polymerase catalyzes a
chain reaction of replication.

Kary Mullis (USA) was awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for inventing PCR.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Polymerase_chain_reaction.svg/840
px-Polymerase_chain_reaction.svg.png

107
 6.3. Key concepts
READING

6.3.1. Chemical reaction engineering

Read this text about chemical reaction engineering. Parts of some sentences have been removed from
the text. Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-E) for each gap (1-5) in the text. There is
an example at the beginning.

Chemical reaction engineering (reaction engineering or reactor engineering) is a specialty in chemical

engineering or industrial chemistry (0) _C_____. Frequently the term relates specifically to catalytic
reaction systems where either a homogeneous or heterogeneous catalyst is present in the reactor.
Sometimes a reactor per se is not present by itself, (1) ______ but rather is integrated into a process,
for example in reactive separations vessels, retorts, certain fuel cells, and photocatalytic surfaces.
The issue of solvent effects on reaction kinetics is also considered (2) ______.

Chemical reaction engineering as a discipline started in the early 1950s under the impulse of
researchers at the Shell Amsterdam research center and the university of Delft. The term chemical
reaction engineering was apparently coined by J.C. Vlugter (3) ______ on Chemical Reaction
Engineering which was held in Amsterdam in 1957.

Chemical reaction engineering aims at studying and optimizing chemical reactions (4) ______. Hence,
the interactions of flow phenomena, mass transfer, heat transfer, and reaction kinetics are of prime
importance in order to relate reactor performance to feed composition and operating conditions.
Although originally applied to the petroleum and petrochemical industries, its general methodology
(5) ______ allows to optimize a variety of systems where modeling or engineering of reactions is
needed. Chemical reaction engineering approaches are indeed tailored for the development of new
processes and the improvement of existing technologies.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Concepts

while preparing the 1st European Symposium

A. combining reaction chemistry and chemical engineering concepts

B. dealing with chemical reactors
C. in order to define the best reactor design
D. as an integral part

108
SPEAKING

6.3.2. Plant design

On the basis of this short text below play a roleplay game with your partner(s) in which your main
task is to design a plant. Take into consideration every single factor that might be important in this
respect, for example

financial background
laws, rules and regulations
safety and environmental standards

Chemical engineering design concerns the creation of plans, specification, and economic analyses for
new plants or plant modifications. Design engineers often work in a consulting role, designing plants
to meet clients' needs. Design is limited by a number of factors, including funding, government
regulations and safety standards. These constraints dictate a plant's choice of process, materials and
equipment.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Concepts

Industrial modeling

109
 http://www.prlog.org/10468662-3d-industrial-modeling.jpg

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

6.3.3. Process design

You are going to read about process design. Match the words highlighted in green (1-10) in the text
to their synonyms (a-j).

In chemical engineering, process design is the design of processes for desired physical and/or
chemical transformation of materials. Process design is central to chemical engineering, and it can be
considered to be the summit of that field, bringing together all of the field's components.
Process design can be the design of new facilities or it can be the modification or expansion of
existing facilities. The design starts at a conceptual level and ultimately ends in the form of
fabrication and construction plans.
Process design is distinct from equipment design, which is closer in spirit to the design of unit
operations. Processes often include many unit operations.
Process design documents serve to define the design and they ensure that the design components fit
together. They are useful in communicating ideas and plans to other engineers involved with the
design, to external regulatory agencies, to equipment vendors and to construction contractors.
Process designers also typically write operating manuals on how to start-up, operate and shut-down
the process.
Documents are maintained after construction of the process facility for the operating personnel to
refer to. The documents also are useful when modifications to the facility are planned.
A primary method of developing the process documents is process flowsheeting.
Designs have objectives and constraints, and even a simple process requires a trade-off among such
factors. Objectives that a design may strive to include are throughput rate, process yield,
product purity, whereas constraints include capital cost, available space, safety concerns,
environmental impact and projected effluents and emissions, waste production, operating and
maintenance costs.
Other factors that designers may include are reliability ,redundancy ,flexibility, anticipated variability
in feedstock and allowable variability in product.
Designers usually do not start from scratch, especially for complex projects. Often the engineers have
pilot plant data available or data from full-scale operating facilities. Other sources of information
include proprietary design criteria provided by process licensors, published scientific data, laboratory
experiments, and input.

110
The advent of low cost powerful computers has aided complex mathematical simulation of
processes, and simulation software is often used by design engineers. Simulations can identify
weaknesses in designs and allow engineers to choose better alternatives.
However, engineers still rely on heuristics, intuition, and experience when designing a process.
Human creativity is an element in complex designs.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Concepts

1. transformation a. limitations

2. modification b. supported

3. distinct c. effect

4. equipment d. alteration

5.refer e. particularly

6.constraints f. nevertheless

7.impact g. adjustment

8.especially h. mention

9.aided i. apparent

10. however j. apparatus

111
SPEAKING

The text above gives you some information on process design including process design documents.
Try to figure out what kind of diagrams and specifications they involve.
Here is the extract from the text on process design documents to help you:

Process design documents serve to define the design and they ensure that the design components fit
together. They are useful in communicating ideas and plans to other engineers involved with the
design, to external regulatory agencies, to equipment vendors and to construction contractors.
Process designers also typically write operating manuals on how to start-up, operate and shut-down
the process.
Documents are maintained after construction of the process facility for the operating personnel to
refer to. The documents also are useful when modifications to the facility are planned.
A primary method of developing the process documents is process flowsheeting.

112
http://colemandesigngroup.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/design-process-e1318918558795.png

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

6.3.4. Transport phenomena

You are going to read a text about transport phenomena. Complete the sentences from the text with
parts removed from them.

In engineering, physics and chemistry, the study of transport phenomena concerns the exchange of
mass, energy, and momentum between observed and studied systems. While it draws from fields as
diverse as continuum mechanics and thermodynamics, it places a heavy emphasis on the
commonalities between the topics covered. Mass, momentum, and heat transport all share a very
similar mathematical framework, and the parallels between them are exploited in the study of
transport phenomena to draw deep mathematical connections that often provide very useful tools in
the analysis of one field that are directly derived from the others.

While it draws its theoretical foundation from the principles in a number of fields, most of the
fundamental theory on the topic is a simple restatement of basic conservation laws.

The fundamental analyses in all three subfields of heat, momentum, and mass transport are often
grounded in the simple principle that the sum total of the quantity being studied must be conserved
by the system and its environment. Then, the different phenomena that lead to transport are each
considered individually with the knowledge that the sum of their contributions must equal zero. This
analysis is useful for calculating any number of relevant quantities. For example, in fluid mechanics a
common use of transport analysis is to determine the velocity profile of a fluid flowing through a
rigid volume.

Transport phenomena are ubiquitous throughout the engineering disciplines. Some of the most
common examples of transport analysis in engineering are seen in the fields of process, chemical,
biological, and mechanical engineering, but the subject is a fundamental component of the
curriculum in all disciplines involved in any way with fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and mass
transfer. It is now considered to be a part of the engineering discipline as much as thermodynamics,
mechanics, and electromagnetism.

Transport phenomena actually encompasses all agents of physical change in the universe. Moreover,
it is considered to be a fundamental building block which developed the universe, and which is
responsible for the success of all life on earth. However, the scope here limits the transport
phenomena to its relationship to artificial engineered systems.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Concepts

113
1. __________ are ubiquitous throughout the engineering disciplines.

2. However, the scope here limits the transport phenomena to its relationship to __________.

3. Most of the fundamental theory on the topic is a simple restatement of __________.

4. The study of transport phenomena concerns the exchange of __________ between observed and
studied systems.

5. Transport phenomena actually encompasses all __________ in the universe.

6. This analysis is useful for calculating any number of __________.

7. Mass, momentum, and heat transport all share a very __________.

transport phenomena artificial engineered systems

basic conservation laws mass, energy, and momentum agents of physical change

relevant quantities similar mathematical framework

Transport phenomena

https://str.llnl.gov/str/JulAug05/gifs/Aufderheide2.jpg

114
LANGUAGE USE

6.3.5. Applications and practice

Words can have a number of forms in English depending on what part of speech is used. Use the word
at the end of each gap to form a new word with which to fill the gap.

Two computer flat screens showing a plant process management application

Chemical engineers use computers to manage ______ (automatic) systems in plants.

Chemical engineers "develop economic ways of using materials and energy". Chemical engineers use
chemistry and engineering to turn raw materials into ______ (use) products, such as medicine,
petrochemicals and plastics on a large-scale, industrial setting. They are also involved in waste
management and research. Both applied and research facets could make ______ (extend) use of
computers.

A chemical engineer may be involved in industry or university research where they are tasked in
designing and performing experiments to create new and better ways of ______ (produce),
controlling pollution, conserving resources and making these processes safer. They may be involved
in designing and constructing plants as a project engineer. In this field, the chemical engineer uses
their ______ (know) in selecting plant equipment and the optimum method of production to
minimize costs and increase ______ (profit). After its construction, they may help in upgrading its
equipment. They may also be involved in its ______ (day) operations. Chemical engineers may be
permanently employed at chemical plants to manage operations. Alternatively, they may serve in a
______ (consult) role to troubleshoot problems, manage process changes and otherwise assist plant
operators.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Applications_and_practice

115
7. UNIT 7. GENERAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
CONCEPTS

116
 7.1. General concepts
READING

7.1.1. Chemical engineer

After reading the text below, match the highlighted terms (1-10) in the text to the given definitions
(a-j).

In the field of engineering, a chemical engineer is a professional who works principally in the
chemical industry to convert basic raw materials into a variety of products, and deals with the design
and operation of plants and equipment to perform such work. In general, a chemical engineer is one
who applies and uses principles of chemical engineering in any of its various practical applications;
these often include 1) design, manufacture, and operation of plants and machinery in industrial
chemical and related processes ("chemical process engineers"); 2) development of new or adapted
substances for products ranging from foods and beverages to cosmetics to cleaners to
pharmaceutical ingredients, among many other products ("chemical product engineers"); and 3)
development of new technologies such as fuel cells, hydrogen power and nanotechnology, as well as
working in fields wholly or partially derived from Chemical Engineering such as materials science,
polymer engineering, and biomedical engineering.

Chemical engineers design, construct and operate plants

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#mediaviewer/File:Colonne_distillazione.jpg

117
Historically, the chemical engineer has been primarily concerned with process engineering, which can
generally be divided into two complementary areas: chemical reaction engineering and separation
processes. The modern discipline of chemical engineering, however, encompasses much more than
just process engineering. Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production
of a diverse range of products, as well as in commodity and specialty chemicals. These products
include high performance materials needed for aerospace, automotive, biomedical, electronic,
environmental and military applications. Examples include ultra-strong fibers, fabrics, adhesives and
composites for vehicles, bio-compatible materials for implants and prosthetics, gels for medical
applications, pharmaceuticals, and films with special dielectric, optical or spectroscopic properties for
opto-electronic devices. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and
biomedical engineering. Many chemical engineers work on biological projects such as understanding
biopolymers (proteins) and mapping the human genome.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemical_engineering#General_chemical_engineering_conc
epts

1.raw a. types of solid or liquid that have particular characteristics

materials
2. principles b. substance made of giant molecules formed by the union of simple
molecules (monomers)

3.plants c. substances used in chemistry or produced by chemistry

4.substances d. a chemical change that happens when two or more chemical substances
are mixed together

5.product e. sg related to spectra

6.polymer f. materials such as coal, oil, etc, in their natural state, before being treated
in order to make things

7.chemical reaction g. they are made up of several different things, parts, or substances

8. chemicals h. a new chemical compound produced by chemical action

9.composites i. the general rules on which a skill, science etc is based

10.spectroscopic j. factories or buildings where an industrial process happens

118
LISTENING and SPEAKING

After watching the video about ’Cool careers: Chemical Engineer’ at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_UXwbxM8YfI , discuss with a partner or in a small group what
you have heard about this tempting profession. Focus on the areas you can work in.

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Read the text about chemical engineers again. Complete the sentences from the text with parts
removed from them.

1. A chemical engineer deals with the ________ of plants and equipment to perform such work.

2. These include ________ such as fuel cells and hydrogen power.

3. The chemical engineer has been primarily concerned with _________.

4. Engineers are engaged in the development and production of a _________ of products.

5. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and ________.

biomedical engineering process engineering

diverse range development of new technologies design and operation

119
READING and VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

7.1.2. Chemical reaction

After reading the text below, fill the gaps in the text with words from the box.

reaction rate, electrons, radioactive decays, input, metabolic syntheses, reagents, reaction
mechanism, chemical synthesis, nuclear chemistry,

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to
another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of ______
in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no
change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation. ______ is a
sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements
where both electronic and nuclear changes may occur.

The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or______.
Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more
products, which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a
sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions, and the information on the
precise course of action is part of the ______. Chemical reactions are described with chemical
equations, which graphically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes
intermediate products and reaction conditions.

Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic ______ at a given temperature and chemical

concentration, and rapid reactions are often described as spontaneous, requiring no input of extra
energy other than thermal energy. Non-spontaneous reactions run so slowly that they are
considered to require the ______ of some type of additional energy (such as extra heat, light or
electricity) in order to proceed to completion (chemical equilibrium) at human time scales.

Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during ______ in order to obtain a desired
product. In biochemistry, a similar series of chemical reactions form metabolic pathways. These
reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes. These enzymes increase the rates of biochemical
reactions, so that ______ and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions may be
performed at the temperatures and concentrations present within a cell.

The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to non-chemical reactions between
entities smaller than atoms, including nuclear reactions, ______, and reactions between elementary
particles as described by quantum field theory.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemical_engineering#General_chemical_engineering_conc
epts

120
LANGUAGE USE

7.1.3. Distillation Design

You are going to read a text about distillation design. Use the word at the end of each gap to form a
new word with which to fill the gap.

Distillation Design is a design of industrial distillation columns for the petroleum refining, chemical
and petrochemical plants, natural gas processing, ______ (pharmacy), food and alcohol distilling
industries. It concerns the following concepts:

Vapor–liquid equilibrium(VLE): Vapor–liquid K values, relative ______(volatile), ideal and non-ideal

systems, phase diagrams, calculating bubble points and dew points

Key fractional distillation concepts: ______ (theory) stages, x-y diagrams, multicomponent
distillation, column composition and temperature profiles

Process design and ______ ( optimize): minimum reflux and minimum stages, optimum reflux, short-
cut methods, feed entry location

Rigorous calculation methods: Bubble point method, sum rates method, numerical methods
(Newton-Raphson technique), inside out method, ______(relax) method, other methods

Batch distillation: Simple distillation, constant reflux, varying reflux, time and boilup ______ (require)

Tray design and tray efficiency: tray types, tray capacities, tray hydraulic parameters, tray sizing and
______ (determine) of column diameter, point and tray efficiencies, tray efficiency prediction and
scaleup

Packing design and packing efficiency: packing types, packing hydraulics and capacities,
determination of packing efficiency by transfer unit method and by HETP method, ______ (pack)
column sizing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemical_engineering#General_chemical_engineering_conc
epts

121
READING

7.1.4. Fluid mechanics

Read the text below about fluid mechanics. Parts of some sentences have been removed from the
text. Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-H) for each gap (1-7) in the text. There is an
example at the beginning.

Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics (0) _D_____ and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics can be
divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; fluid kinematics, the study of fluids in motion; and
fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. It is a branch of continuum
mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information (1) ______, that is, it
models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from a microscopic viewpoint. Fluid
mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research (2)______. Fluid mechanics can be
mathematically complex, and can best be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers. A
modern discipline, (3) ______, is devoted to this approach to solving fluid mechanics problems.
Particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid flow, also
takes advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid flow.

Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic assumptions
about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into equations that must be
satisfied (4) ______ .

For example, consider a fluid in three dimensions. The assumption that mass is conserved means that
for any fixed control volume (for example a sphere) – enclosed by a control surface – the rate of
change of the mass contained is equal to the rate at which mass is passing
from outside to inside through the surface, minus the rate (5) ______, from inside to outside. (A
special case would be when the mass inside and the mass outside remain constant). This can be
turned into an equation in integral form over the control volume.

Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following: Conservation of mass,
Conservation of energy, Conservation of momentum, The continuum hypothesis
Further, it is often useful (at subsonic conditions) to assume a fluid is incompressible – that is, (6)
______ .
Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the fluid is inviscid).
Gases can often be assumed to be inviscid. If a fluid is viscous, and its flow contained in some way
(e.g. in a pipe), then the flow at the boundary must have zero velocity. For a viscous fluid, (7) ______
, the shear forces between the fluid and the boundary results also in a zero velocity for the fluid at
the boundary. This is called the no-slip condition. For a porous media otherwise, in the frontier of the
containing vessel, the slip condition is not zero velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous velocity
field between the free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to the Beavers and
Joseph condition).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemical_engineering#General_chemical_engineering_conc
epts

122
if the assumptions are to be held true

A. the density of the fluid does not change

B. called computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
C. that studies fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas)
D. at which mass is passing the other way
E. with many unsolved or partly solved problems
F. that it is made out of atoms
G. if the boundary is not porous

Balance for some integrated fluid quantity in a control volume enclosed by a control surface.

123
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

7.1.5. Heat transfer

You are going to read a text about heat transfer. Match the words (1-8) from the text with their
synonyms (a-h).

Heat transfer describes the exchange of thermal energy, between physical systems depending on the
temperature and pressure, by dissipating heat. Systems which are not isolated may decrease in
entropy. Most objects emit infrared thermal radiation near room temperature. The fundamental
modes of heat transfer are conduction or diffusion, convection, advection and radiation.

The exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems which are at
different temperatures from each other or from their surroundings. Heat transfer always occurs from
a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature. Heat transfer changes the
internal energy of both systems involved according to the First Law of Thermodynamics. The Second
Law of Thermodynamics defines the concept of thermodynamic entropy, by measurable heat
transfer.

Thermal equilibrium is reached when all involved bodies and the surroundings reach the same
temperature. Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a
change in temperature.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemical_engineering#General_chemical_engineering_conc
epts

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/Images/heat.gif

124
1.exchange a. environment

2.decrease b.emission

3.emit c. inner

4.radiation d. idea

5.surroundings e. swap

6.internal f. enlargement

7.concept g.growth

8.expansion h.discharge

READING

Read the text above again and decide if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

1. Systems which are isolated may decrease in entropy.

2. Heat transfer describes the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems.

3. Few objects emit infrared thermal radiation near room temperature.

4. Heat transfer rarely occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower
temperature.

5. Heat transfer changes the internal energy of both systems involved according to the First Law of
Thermodynamics.

125
READING

7.1.6. Mass transfer

Read the following text about mass transfer and then answer the questions that follow.

Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning a stream, phase,
fraction or component, to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption,
evaporation, adsorption, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration, and distillation. Mass transfer is
used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms. The phrase is
commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve diffusive and convective transport
of chemical species within physical systems.

Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a pond to the
atmosphere, the purification of blood in the kidneys and liver, and the distillation of alcohol. In
industrial processes, mass transfer operations include separation of chemical components in
distillation columns, absorbers such as scrubbers, adsorbers such as activated carbon beds, and
liquid-liquid extraction. Mass transfer is often coupled to additional transport processes, for instance
in industrial cooling towers. These towers couple heat transfer to mass transfer by allowing hot
water to flow in contact with hotter air and evaporate as it absorbs heat from the air.

Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems. It is used in reaction
engineering, separations engineering, heat transfer engineering, and many other sub-disciplines of
chemical engineering.

The driving force for mass transfer is typically a difference in chemical potential, when it can be
defined, though other thermodynamic gradients may couple to the flow of mass and drive it as well.
A chemical species moves from areas of high chemical potential to areas of low chemical potential.
Thus, the maximum theoretical extent of a given mass transfer is typically determined by the point at
which the chemical potential is uniform. For single phase-systems, this usually translates to uniform
concentration throughout the phase, while for multiphase systems chemical species will often prefer
one phase over the others and reach a uniform chemical potential only when most of the chemical
species has been absorbed into the preferred phase, as in liquid-liquid extraction.

While thermodynamic equilibrium determines the theoretical extent of a given mass transfer
operation, the actual rate of mass transfer will depend on additional factors including the flow
patterns within the system and the diffusivities of the species in each phase.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemical_engineering#General_chemical_engineering_conc
epts

126
1. How do we define mass transfer?

2. What kind of processes does mass transfer occur in?

3. What common examples can you give of mass transfer processes?

4. What kind of mass transfer operations can you enumerate in industrial processes?

5. How do cooling towers work?

6. Where does mass transfer find extensive application?

7. How does a chemical species move with regard to chemical potential?

8. How is the maximum theoretical extent of a given mass determined?

9. What is typical of single phase-systems and multiphase systems?

10. What additional factors does the actual rate of mass transfer depend on?

http://www.roliv.com/images/mass-transfer-syllabus.jpg

127
READING

Earlier you read a text about mass transfer. Now the paragraphs of this text are mixed up. Put the
paragraphs ( A-E) into the correct order.

A Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems. It is used in reaction
engineering, separations engineering, heat transfer engineering, and many other sub-disciplines of
chemical engineering.

B While thermodynamic equilibrium determines the theoretical extent of a given mass transfer
operation, the actual rate of mass transfer will depend on additional factors including the flow
patterns within the system and the diffusivities of the species in each phase.

C Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a pond to
the atmosphere, the purification of blood in the kidneys and liver, and the distillation of alcohol. In
industrial processes, mass transfer operations include separation of chemical components in
distillation columns, absorbers such as scrubbers, adsorbers such as activated carbon beds, and
liquid-liquid extraction. Mass transfer is often coupled to additional transport processes, for instance
in industrial cooling towers. These towers couple heat transfer to mass transfer by allowing hot
water to flow in contact with hotter air and evaporate as it absorbs heat from the air.

D Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning a stream, phase,
fraction or component, to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption,
evaporation, adsorption, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration, and distillation. Mass transfer is
used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms. The phrase is
commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve diffusive and convective transport
of chemical species within physical systems.

E The driving force for mass transfer is typically a difference in chemical potential, when it can be
defined, though other thermodynamic gradients may couple to the flow of mass and drive it as well.
A chemical species moves from areas of high chemical potential to areas of low chemical potential.
Thus, the maximum theoretical extent of a given mass transfer is typically determined by the point at
which the chemical potential is uniform. For single phase-systems, this usually translates to uniform
concentration throughout the phase, while for multiphase systems chemical species will often prefer
one phase over the others and reach a uniform chemical potential only when most of the chemical
species has been absorbed into the preferred phase, as in liquid-liquid extraction.

128
LANGUAGE USE

The words in the sentences below are jumbled up.Your task is to form the correct sentence. Each
sentence has been removed from the text above .You are given the first word in each case.

1. Mass mechanisms different used scientific is different disciplines for transfer processes by and.

2. Mass problems application transfer extensive chemical finds in engineering.

3. A chemical from potential areas of high low areas moves chemical to chemical of species potential.

http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/27/flashcards/592027/png/core_mass_transfer_operatio
ns1343654373178.png

129
READING

7.1.7. Polymerization
Read this text about polymerization. Parts of some sentences have been removed from the text.
Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-H) for each gap (1-7) in the text. There is an
example at the beginning.

An example of alkene polymerization, in which each styrenemonomer's double bond reforms as a

single bond plus a bond to another styrene monomer. The product is polystyrene.

IUPAC definition

Polymerization: The process of converting a monomer or a mixture of monomers into a polymer.

In chemical compounds, polymerization occurs via a variety of reaction mechanisms (0) _D_____
present in reacting compounds and their inherent steric effects. In more straightforward
polymerization, alkenes, (1) ______ , form polymers through relatively simple radical reactions; in
contrast, more complex reactions such as those that involve substitution at the carbonyl group
require more complex synthesis due to the way (2) ______.

As alkenes can be formed in somewhat straightforward reaction mechanisms, they form useful
compounds such as polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) when undergoing radical reactions, (3)
______ due to their usefulness in manufacturing processes of commercial products, such as piping,
insulation and packaging. In general, polymers such as PVC are referred to as "homopolymers," as
they consist of repeated long chains or structures of the same monomer unit, whereas polymers (4)
______ are referred to as copolymers (or co-polymers).

Other monomer units, such as formaldehyde hydrates or simple aldehydes, are able to polymerize
themselves at quite low temperatures (ca. −80 °C) to form trimers; molecules consisting of 3
monomer units, (5) ______, or undergo further reactions to form tetramers, or 4 monomer-unit
compounds. Further compounds either being referred to as oligomers in smaller molecules.
Generally, because formaldehyde is an exceptionally reactive electrophile it allows nucleophillic
addition of hemiacetal intermediates, (6) ______ that react with other molecules present to form
more stable polymeric compounds.

130
Polymerization (7) ______ can be very hazardous. This phenomenon is known as hazardous
polymerization and can cause fires and explosions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerization

which are in general short-lived and relatively unstable "mid-stage" compounds

A. which can cyclize to form ring cyclic structures

B. in which reacting molecules polymerize
C. that vary in complexity due to functional groups
D. that is not sufficiently moderated and proceeds at a fast rate
E. which are relatively stable due to sigma bonding between carbon atoms
F. which are produced in high tonnages each year
G. that consist of more than one molecule

131
8. UNIT 8. BRANCHES of CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

132
 8.1. Branches of Chemical Engineering
LANGUAGE USE

8.1.1. Biochemical engineering

You are going to read about biochemical engineering. Use the word at the end of each gap to form a
new word with which to fill the gap.

Biochemical engineering is a branch of chemical engineering and ______( biomedicine) engineering

and pharmaceutical engineering that mainly deals with the design and construction of unit processes
that involve biological organisms or molecules, such as bioreactors. A bioreactor may refer to any
manufactured or engineered device or system that supports a ______ (biology) active environment.
In one case, a bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical process is carried out which involves
organisms or biochemically active substances ______ (derive) from such organisms. This process can
either be aerobic or anaerobic. These bioreactors are commonly ______ ( cylinder), ranging in size
from litres to cubic metres, and are often made of stainless steel.

A bioreactor may also refer to a device or system ______ (mean) to grow cells or tissues in the
context of cell culture. These devices are being developed for use in tissue engineering or
biochemical engineering.

Organisms ______ (grow) in bioreactors may be submerged in liquid medium or may be attached to
the surface of a solid medium. Submerged cultures may be suspended or immobilized. Suspension
bioreactors can use a ______ ( wide) variety of organisms, since special ______ ( attach) surfaces
are not needed, and can operate at much larger scale than immobilized cultures. However, in a
______ (continuous) operated process the organisms will be removed from the reactor with the
effluent. Immobilization is a general term describing a wide variety of cell or particle attachment or
entrapment. It can be applied to ______ (base) all types of biocatalysis including enzymes, ______
(cell) organelles, animal and plant cells. Immobilization is useful for continuously operated processes,
since the organisms will not be removed with the reactor effluent, but is limited in scale because the
microbes are only present on the surfaces of the vessel.

Large scale immobilized cell bioreactors are: moving media, also known as Moving Bed Biofilm
Reactor (MBBR), packed bed, ______ (fibre) bed, membran.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_engineering

133
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioreactor#mediaviewer/File:Bioreactor_principle.svg

134
SPEAKING

8.1.2. Biomedical engineering

After watching the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nqZYZ_4Lh5Q and after reading
the short text below, discuss the topic of biomedical engineering with a partner or in a small group.
Focus on the following items:

healthcare purposes
biomedical engineering applications

Biomedical engineering (BME) is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to
medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). This field seeks to
close the gap between engineering and medicine: It combines the design and problem solving skills
of engineering with medical and biological sciences to advance healthcare treatment, including
diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy.

Biomedical engineering has only recently emerged as its own study, compared to many other
engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an
interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, to being considered a field in itself.
Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad
array of subfields. Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of
biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical
equipment to micro-implants, common imaging equipment such as MRIs and EEGs, regenerative
tissue growth, pharmaceutical drugs and therapeutic biologicals.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Prosthetic_eye.png

135
READING

8.1.3. Ceramics
After you have read this text below, answer the questions that follow.

A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.
Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a
glass). Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted to
inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the noncrystalline glasses.

The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects, including 27,000 year old figurines,
made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials, hardened in fire. Later ceramics were
glazed and fired to create a colored, smooth surface. Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and
building products and a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new ceramic materials were
developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering; for example, in semiconductors.

1. How do you define a ceramic?

2. What is typical of its preparation?
3. What is characteristic of its structure?
4. How do you describe the earliest ceramics?
5. What kind of treatment did later ceramics get and why?
6. What do you know about ’contemporary’ ceramics?

http://cdn.phys.org/newman/gfx/news/2013/phasechangem.jpg

136
READING

8.1.3.1. Types of ceramic material

After reading the text below, match the highlighted terms (1-9) in the text to the given definitions (a-
i).

A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material.
Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle,
hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. They withstand chemical erosion that
occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can
withstand very high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800
°F to 3,000 °F). A glass is often not understood as a ceramic because of its amorphous
(noncrystalline) character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the ceramic process and
its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials.

Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent
materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic
materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide.
Both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear
plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine,
electrical and electronics industries.

Crystalline ceramics

Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing
with them tend to fall into one of two categories – either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by
reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid
body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process
called "throwing"), slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, e.g.),
injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations. A few methods use a hybrid between the two
approaches.

Noncrystalline ceramics

Noncrystalline ceramics, being glass, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either
fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing into a
mold. If later heat treatments cause this glass to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is
known as a glass-ceramic, widely used as cook-top and also as a glass composite material for nuclear
waste disposal.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic

137
1. silicon a. a piece of equipment that collects and stores electricity

2. brittle b. a hard metal that is one of the elements (simple substances) used in making
steel

3.amorphous c. resistance to damage caused by friction

4.clay d. one that takes place in its usual place

5.tungsten e. a measure of the resistance to flow that a fluid offers when it is subjected to
shear stress

6.abrasion f. heavy sticky soil that can be used for making pots, bricks, etc.
resistance

7.reaction g. hard but easily broken

in situ

8.capacitors h. a simple substance that is not a metal, andexists naturally in large quantities
combined with other metals, minerals, etc.

9.viscosity i. having no definite shape or features

WRITING

Read the above text again and highlight important information in each paragraph. Then formulate
the highlighted information in your own words. Organize your notes into a summary of the text.
Write 120 words.

138
SPEAKING

8.1.4. Food Engineering

After watching the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehpP7DFWJlk and reading the
short text below, discuss the topic of food engineering with a partner or in a small group.

Food engineering is a very wide field of activities. Prospective major employers for food engineers
include companies involved in food processing, food machinery, packaging, ingredient
manufacturing, instrumentation, and control. Firms that design and build food processing plants,
consulting firms, government agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and health-care firms also hire
food engineers. Among its domain of knowledge and action are:

research and development of new foods, biological and pharmaceutical products

development and operation of manufacturing, packaging and distributing systems for drug/food
products
design and installation of food/biological/pharmaceutical production processes
design and operation of environmentally responsible waste treatment systems
marketing and technical support for manufacturing plants.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_engineering

http://thedoghousediaries.com/dhdcomics/2013-11-4-e32e42a.png

139
LANGUAGE USE

8.1.5. Materials Science

You are going to read a text about materials science. The words in the three sentences below are
jumbled up. Your task is to form the correct sentence. Each sentence has been removed from the text.
You are given the first word in each case.

Materials science, also commonly known as materials science and engineering, is an interdisciplinary
field which deals with the discovery and design of new materials. This relatively new scientific field
involves studying materials through the materials paradigm (synthesis, structure, properties and
performance). It incorporates elements of physics and chemistry, and is at the forefront of
nanoscience and nanotechnology research. In recent years, materials science has become more
widely known as a specific field of science and engineering.

It is an important part of forensic engineering (the investigation of materials, products, structures or

components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to
property) and failure analysis, the latter being the key to understanding, for example, the cause of
various aviation accidents. Many of the most pressing scientific problems that are faced today are
due to the limitations of the materials that are available and, as a result, breakthroughs in this field
are likely to have a significant impact on the future of technology.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science

New materials have been among the greatest achievements of every age and they have been central
to the growth, prosperity, security, and quality of life of humans since the beginning of history. It is
always new materials that open the door to new technologies.

Materials scientists and engineers continue to be at the forefront of all of these and many other
areas of science, too. Materials science and engineering influences our lives each time we buy or use
a new device, machine, or structure. The definition of the academic field of Materials Science &
Engineering stems from a realization concerning the every application of materials: it is the
properties of the material that give it value. A material may be chosen for its strength, its electrical
properties, resistance to heat or corrosion, or a host of other reasons; but they all relate to
properties.

Experience shows that all of the useful properties of a material are intimately related to its structure,
at all levels, including which atoms are present, how the atoms are joined, and how groups of atoms
are arranged throughout the material. Most importantly, we learn how this structure, and the
resulting properties, are controlled by the processing of the material.

Finally materials must perform their tasks in an economical and societally responsible manner.
Understanding the relationships between properties, structure, processing and performance makes
the Materials Engineer the master of the engineering universe.

https://engineering.purdue.edu/MSE/AboutUs/WhatsMaterials/index.html

140
 1. This involves paradigm field studying materials new relatively through scientific materials.

2. It open materials that the new door to new is technologies always.

3. Finally economical an must manner tasks in and societally perform responsible materials
their.

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

It is very useful to know how we can form different parts of speech. Insert the missing forms of the
words in the table. All the words are taken from the text above (Materials Science).

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

- commonly
- scientific
synthesis
operate
failure -
economical
- relatively
central

141
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

8.1.6. Nanotechnology
Read the text about nanotechnology and fill the gaps in the text with words from the box.

size threshold, surface science, doomsday scenarios, macroscale products, energy production,
one dimension, molecular self-assembly, quantum-realm scale

Nanotechnology (sometimes shortened to "nanotech") is the manipulation of matter on an atomic,

molecular, and supramolecular scale. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology
referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for
fabrication of ______, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized
description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology
Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least ______ sized
from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are
important at this ______, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a
research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special
properties of matter that occur below the given ______. It is therefore common to see the plural
form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research
and applications whose common trait is size. Because of the variety of potential applications
(including industrial and military), governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology
research. Through its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the USA has invested 3.7 billion dollars. The
European Union has invested 1.2 billion and Japan 750 million dollars.

Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally very broad, including fields of science as diverse as
______, organic chemistry, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, microfabrication, etc. The
associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional
device physics to completely new approaches based upon ______, from developing new materials
with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.

Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able
to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine,
electronics, biomaterials and ______. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same
issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of
nanomaterials,[5] and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about
various ______. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on
whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology

142
READING

8.1.7. Plastics engineering

Read this text about plastics engineering. Parts of some sentences have been removed from the text.
Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-G) for each gap (1-6) in the text. There is an
example at the beginning.

Plastics engineering encompasses the processing, design, development, and manufacture of plastics
products. A plastic is a polymeric material that is in a semi-liquid state, (0) __C____ . Plastics
engineering encompasses plastics material and plastic machinery. Plastic Machinery is the general
term for all types of machinery and devices (1) ______ . The nature of plastic materials poses unique
challenges to an engineer. Mechanical properties of plastics are often difficult to quantify, and the
plastics engineer has to design a product that meets certain specifications (2) ______. Other
properties that the plastics engineer has to address include outdoor weatherability, thermal
properties such as upper use temperature, electrical properties, barrier properties, and resistance to
chemical attack.

In plastics engineering, as in most engineering disciplines, the economics of a product plays an

important role. The cost of plastic materials ranges from the cheapest commodity plastics (3) ______
to the very expensive, specialty plastics. The cost of a plastic product is measured in different ways,
and the absolute cost of a plastic material is difficult to ascertain. Cost is often measured in price per
pound of material, or price per unit volume of material. In many cases however, it is important for a
product to meet certain specifications, and cost could then be measured in price per unit of a
property. Price with respect to processibility is often important, as some materials need to be
processed at very high temperatures, (4) ______ . In a large production run cooling time is very
expensive.

Some plastics are manufactured from re-cycled materials (5) ______ because the consistency of
formulation and their physical properties tend to be less consistent. Electrical and electronic
equipment and motor vehicle markets together accounted for 58 percent of engineered plastics
demand in 2003. Engineered plastics demand in the US was estimated at $9,702 million in 2007.

A big challenge for plastics engineers is the reduction of the ecological footprints of their products.
First attempts like the Vinyloop process can guarantee that a product's primary energy demand is 46
percent lower (6) ______ . The global warming potential is 39 percent lower.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastics_engineering

143
A but their use in engineering tends to be limited

B while keeping costs to a minimum

C having the property of plasticity and exhibiting flow

D than conventional produced PVC

E used in the plastics processing industry

F used in mass-produced consumer products

G increasing the amount of cooling time a part needs

http://www.lep.net.nz/images/button_industrial_plastics2.png (Picture)

144
READING

8.1.8. Polymer engineering

When you have read the text below, answer the questions that follow.

Polymer engineering is generally an engineering field that designs, analyses, and/or modifies polymer
materials. Polymer engineering covers aspects of petrochemical industry, polymerization, structure
and characterization of polymers, properties of polymers, compounding and processing of polymers
and description of major polymers, structure property relations and applications.

The basic division of polymers into thermoplastics and thermosets helps define their areas of
application. The latter group of materials includes phenolic resins, polyesters and epoxy resins, all of
which are used widely in composite materials when reinforced with stiff fibres such as fibreglass and
aramids. Since crosslinking stabilises the thermosetting matrix of these materials, they have physical
properties more similar to traditional engineering materials like steel. However, their very much
lower densities compared with metals makes them ideal for lightweight structures. In addition, they
suffer less from fatigue, so are ideal for safety-critical parts which are stressed regularly in service.

Thermoplastics have relatively low tensile moduli, but also have low densities and properties such as
transparency which make them ideal for consumer products and medical products. They include
polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, acetal resin, polycarbonate and PET, all of which are widely used
materials.

Elastomers are polymers which have very low moduli and show reversible extension when strained, a
valuable property for vibration absorption and damping. They may either be thermoplastic (in which
case they are known as Thermoplastic elastomers) or crosslinked, as in most conventional rubber
products such as tyres. Typical rubbers used conventionally include natural rubber, nitrile rubber,
polychloroprene, polybutadiene, styrene-butadiene and fluorinated rubbers such as Viton.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_engineering

1. What engineering field is polymer engineering?

2. What aspects does polymer engineering cover?

3. What does the basic division of polymers into thermoplastics and thermosets help in?

4. What do thermosets include?

5. What makes them ideal for lightweight structures?

6. Why are they ideal for safety-critical parts which are stressed regularly in service?

7. How can you describe thermoplastics?

8. What is typical of elastomers?

145
VOVABULARY DEVELOPMENT

8.1.9. Separation processes

After reading the text about separation processes, match the highlighted terms (1-9) in the text to the
given definitions (a-i).

In chemistry and chemical engineering, a separation process, or a separation technique, or simply a

separation, is a method to achieve any mass transfer phenomenon that converts a mixture of
substances into two or more distinct product mixtures, at least one of which is enriched in one or
more of the mixture's constituents. In some cases, a separation may fully divide the mixture into its
pure constituents. Separations are carried out based on differences in chemical properties, or
physical properties such as size, shape, mass, density, or chemical affinity, between the constituents
of a mixture, and are often classified according to the particular differences they use to achieve
separation. In the case that no single difference can be used to accomplish a desired separation,
multiple operations will often be performed in combination to achieve the desired end.

Barring a few exceptions, almost every element or compound is naturally found in an impure state.
Often these impure raw materials must be separated into their purified components before they can
be put to productive use, making separation techniques essential for the modern industrial economy.
In some cases, these separations require total purification, as in the electrolysis refining of bauxite
ore for aluminum metal, but a good example of an incomplete separation technique is oil refining.
Crude oil occurs naturally as a mixture of various hydrocarbons and impurities. The refining process
splits this mixture into other, more valuable mixtures such as natural gas, gasoline and chemical
feedstocks, none of which are pure substances, but each of which must be separated from the raw
crude. In both of these cases, a series of separations is necessary to obtain the desired end products.
In the case of oil refining, crude is subjected to a long series of individual distillation steps, each of
which produces a different product or intermediate.

Here we discuss separation techniques of any scale that completely or partially separate components
of a mixture from each other (which may be referred to as fractions) usually without substantial
chemical modification. The purpose of such a separation may be analytical, i.e. to help analyze
components in the original mixture without any attempt to save the fractions, or may be preparative,
i.e. to "prepare" fractions or samples of the components that can be saved. The separation can be
done on a small scale, effectively a laboratory scale for analytical or preparative purposes, or on a
large scale, effectively an industrial scale for preparative purposes, or on some intermediate scale.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_process

146
1. mixtures a. the process of purifying substances or extracting substances from mixtures

2. constituents b. the process of boiling a liquid and condensing and collecting the vapour

3.affinity c. parts of an almost pure substance that are of a lower quality

4. purification d. a precursor to a desired product

5.refining e. the extent to which a substance or functional group can enter into a chemical
reaction with a given agent

6. impurities f. the portions of a volatile liquid within certain boiling point ranges

7. distillation g. a system of two or more distinct chemical substances

8.intermediate h. a process that removes the dirty or unwanted parts from sg

9.fractions i. one of the parts that combine to form sg

147