Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain

Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

Binary operation: So, G is group under multiplication or (G,.).

A binary operation on a non-empty set A is just a Example 3:
function ∗: 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴. Which is denoted by ∗. Let, G  {1, ,  2 } is complex cube root of unity.
Group: Solution: To show that G is group we have,
A non-empty set G is said to be group if it said to be
following properties,
1) Closure law holds in G. . 1  2
2) Associative law holds in G such that 1 1  2
a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c forall a, b, c  G   2 1
3) Identity holds in G,
a  e  e  a  a forall a  G  2

2
1 
4) Inverse exist in G, i). G is closed under multiplication.
a  a 1  a 1  a  e forall a  G ii). 1, ,  2  G,
Note: If commutative law holds in G. Then G is said 1.(. 2 )  (1. ). 2  1
to be abelion group. associative law holds.
Examples 1: iii). Identity holds.
1) Z the set of integers is group under addition. iv). Inverse exist,
2) R the set of real numbers is also group under inverse of 1 is 1.
addition. inverse of  is  2 .
3) Q the set of rational numbers is group under inverse of  2 is  .
addition. So, all the properties satisfied, Hence, G is group
4) G  {1,1, i,i} is group under multiplication or under multiplication or (G,.).
(G,.). Example 4:
5) G  {1,  i,  j,  k} is also group under C4  {1,1, i,i}
multiplication or (G,.). where, (i) 1  i & (i) 1  i.
Idempotent: Solution:
The elment x  G is said to be idempotent if, C 4 is fourth root of unity to prove group we have,
x 2  x for all x  G
. 1 1 i i
Theorem 1:
The only idempotent element in a group G is the 1 1 1 i i
identity element. 1 1 1 i i
Proof: i i i 1 1
Let x  G be an idempotent element, then by the i i i 1 1
definition,
i). C 4 is closed under multiplication.
x2  x
ii). Associative law holds.
x 1.x 2  x 1.x
iii). Identity of every element exist.
( x 1.x).x  e iv). Inverse exist,
e.x  e Inverse of 1 is 1.
xe Inverse of -1 is -1.
Hence proved. Inverse of i is  i .
Example 2: Inverse of  i is i .
G  {1,1} So, C 4 is group under multiplication.
Solution: To show that G is group we have Example 5:
following properties, Q  {0} =Set of all non-zero rational numbers.
(i). G is closed under multiplication. R  {0} =Set of all non-zero real numbers.
(ii). G have many real numbers between -1 and 1 so
C  {0} =Set of all non-zero complex numbers.
the associative law holds.
(iii). Identity element also exist. are group under multiplication.
(iv). Inverse exist.

1
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

Example 6: Example 9:
G  {1,  i,  j,  k} Show that G  {0, 1, 2, 3 , 4} is agroup of non-zero
where i. j  k ; j.k  i; k.i  j residue class of modulo 5.
j.i  k ; k. j  i; i.k   j Solution:
i  j  k  1
2 2 2
. 0 1 2 3 4
Solution: 0 0 1 2 3 4
All the properties of the group is satisfied, So, G is
1 1 2 3 4 0
the group under multiplication. But not abelion group
because, 2 2 3 4 0 1
j.i  k  i. j 3 3 4 0 1 2
k. j  i  j.k 4 4 0 1 2 3
i.k   j  k.i
i). G is closed under addition.
Example 7: ii). Associative law holds, for all 2, 3, 4  G
A22  {Set of all 2  2 non - singular real matrices}
2  ( 3  4)  2  2  4
under the usual multiplication is a group. e.g.,
( 2  3)  4  0  4  4
1 0 1 2 iii). Identity of every element of G is exist.
A  &B   iv). Inverse of every element of G exist.
2 1 0 1 Inverse of 0̅ is 0̅
are group under multiplication because A & B have Inverse of 1̅ is 4̅
their inverses(Non-singular). Inverse of 2̅ is 3̅.
But not abelion because,
Inverse of 3̅ is 2̅.
AB  BA
Inverse of 4̅ is 1̅.
Example 8: Hence all the properties of group satisfied. So, G is
Show that G  {1, 2, 3 , 4} is agroup of non-zero group under addition or (G,) .
residue class of modulo 5. Properties of group:
Solution: Theorem 2: (Cancellation laws)
. 1 2 3 4 For any element a, b, c in a group G.
1 1 2 3 4 i): ab  ac  b  c (Left cancellation law)
2 2 4 1 3 ii): ba  ca  b  c (Right cancellation law)
3 3 1 4 2 Proof:
For all a, b, c  G
4 4 3 2 1
i): ab  ac
i). G is closed under multiplication.
multiplying both sides by a 1 .
ii). Associative law holds, for all 2, 3, 4  G
a 1.(a.b)  a 1.(a.c)
2.( 3 .4)  2.2  4
(a 1 .a).b  ( a 1 .a).c (By associative law)
( 2. 3).4  1 .4  4 e.b  e.c
iii). Identity of every element of G is exist. bc
iv). Inverse of every element of G exist. Hence proved.
Inverse of 1̅ is 1̅ ii): ba  ca
Inverse of 2̅ is 3̅.
Inverse of 3̅ is 2̅. multiplying both sides by a 1 on right side .
Inverse of 4̅ is 4̅. (b.a).a 1  (c.a).a 1
Hence all the properties of group satisfied. So, G is b.(a.a 1 )  c.(a.a 1 ) (By associative law)
group under multiplication or (G,.) . b.e  c.e
bc
Hence proved.

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Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

Theorem 3: (Solution of linear equation) Proof:

For any two elements a, b  G, the equations (i). a  G,
ax  b & xa  b. a0  e  1
Proof: a1  a 0 .a
For any two elements a, b  G, a 2  a.a
ax  b a 3  a.a.a
Multiplying both sides by a 1 on left side . ................
a 1.(a.x)  a 1.b a m  a.a.a....a(m factors 
(a 1.a).x  a 1.b (By associative law) Hence, proved.
e.x  a 1.b ii). (a 1 ) m  a 1.a 1.a 1...a 1 (m factors 
x  a 1.b By (i),
Hence, x  a 1.b is the solution for ax  b. (a 1 ) m  a  m
Now, to check the unique solution we have, Hence, proved.
x1 , x2  G iii). a m .a n  a mn
ax1  b  x1  a 1.b Case I. We have proved by induction method,
ax2  b  x2  a 1.b for n  1,
From above relation, a m .a1  a m1  m  Z 
x1  x2 true for n  1,
Hence, the solution of ax  b is unique. Similarly now, for n  k ,
xa  b also unique solution. a m .a k  a mk
Theorem 4: also true for n  k ,
For any a, b  G
now for n  k  1,
(ab) 1  b 1a 1
a m . a k1  a mk1
Proof:
Given that, a m . a k1  a mk . a 1
(ab) 1  b 1a 1 a m . a k1  a mk1
Consider, Also true for n  k  1, Hence true for all values of
(ab).(b 1.a 1 )  (ab).b 1a 1 n Z .
(ab).(b 1.a 1 )  a(b.b 1 )a 1 So, a m .a n  a mn .
Case II.
(ab).(b 1.a 1 )  a(e)a 1
When m  0 & n  0,
ab. b 1 . a 1   a. a 1 Let m   p & n  q,
ab. b 1 . a 1   e i a m .a n  a  p a  q
Now, a m .a n  a  p  q
(ab).(ab) 1  e (ii )
a m . a n  a p q
From (i) & (ii) by (ii),
(ab) 1  b 1a 1 a m .a n  (a 1 ) pq
Hence, proved.
Again, a  p a  q  a m .a n
Theorem 5: Hence, true.
For any element a of a group G, the following Case III.
exponential rule holds, if m  0 & n  0,
i). a m  a.a.a....a(m factors  or n  0 & m  0,
ii). (a 1 ) m  a  m a m .a n  a 0 .a n  a n
iii). a m .a n  a mn similarly,
iv). (a m ) n  a mn a m .a n  a m .a 0  a m

3
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com
So, true. let, n   p,
Case IV. (a m )  p  ((a m ) 1 ) p
for m  0 & n  0  m  n  0,
(a m )  p  (a  m ) p by (i)
and  m  n  0,
So, true.
a  mn .a m  a  mnm  a  n (1) Case III.
a mn  a mn .e for n  0,
a mn  a mn .(a  n .a n ) (a m ) 0  e  a 0  a m ( 0 )
a mn  a mn .(a  mn .a m ).a n Hence, (a m ) n  a mn  m, n  Z .
by (1), Order of a group:
a mn  (a mn .a  mn ).a m .a n The number of element in a group G is called order
a mn  e.a m .a n of G. Which is denoted by | G | .
a mn  a m .a n Note:
So, true. (i). A Group G is said to be finite if G is consist of
Case V. finite number of elements.
for m  0 & n  0  m  n ? 0, (ii). A Group G is said to be infinite if G is consist of
infinite number of elements.
a m .a  n  a m .a 1.a 1.a 1...a 1 (n factor 
Order of elements of group:
by (i), Let (G,) be a group and a  G if there exist
a mn  a mn .e
smallest positive integer n such that, a n  e . Then n
a mn  a mn .(a  n .a n ) is called order of element n in G.
a mn  a mn .(a  mn .a m ).a n Theorem 6:
by (1), Let G be a group. Let a  G have order n then for
a mn  (a mn .a  mn ).a m .a n any integer k , a k  e iff k  qn , where k is
a mn  e.a m .a n any integer.
a mn  a m .a n Proof:
So, true. Suppose that a  G and order of a is n then,
Hence proved for all values of m, n  Z , so, an  e
a mn  a m .a n . Now, by division algorithm,
iv). (a m ) n  a mn k  qn  r; 0  r  n (1)
Case I. we have to prove by induction method, Where r and q are any integers,
for n  1, as given,
(a m )1  a m  m  Z  a k  e; k  Z
true for n  1, From (1),
now, for n  k , a k  a qnr
a k  (a n ) q .a r
(a m ) k  a mk
since order of a is n, so,
also true for n  k ,
now for n  k  1, e  (e) q .a r
Hence,
(a m ) k 1  a mk m
ar  e
(a m ) k 1  a ( mk ) .a1 Proved.
(a m ) k 1  a m( k 1) Conversely, suppose that k  qn then we have to
Also true for n  k  1, Hence true for all values of prove that order of a is k ,
n Z . k  qn
So, (a m ) n  a mn . a k  a qn  (a n ) q
Case II. since order of a is n, so,
for n  0, a k  eq  e

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Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

a k  e for k  Z ab.ab.ab...ab(m factors )  e

Hence, proved. multiplying left sides by a 1 and right side by a,
Example 10: a 1.ab.ab.ab...ab.a(m factors )  a 1.e.a
Show that G  {1, 3, 5, 7} is group under ba.ba.ba....ba(m factors )  e.a 1.a
multiplication of modulo 8. Find the order of each ba.ba.ba....ba(m factors )  e.e
element of G.
ba.ba.ba....ba(m factors )  e
Solution: Also we can write by using the theorem,
. 1 3 5 7 (ba) m  e (3)
1 1 3 5 7 from (3) and (4),
3 3 1 7 5 (ab) m  (ba) m
5 5 7 1 3 which shows that order of ab and ba are same.
iii). Let a  G and order of a is m.
7 7 5 3 1
a m  e (5)
From teh Caley's table. multiplying left sides by b  m and right side by b m ,
The order of 1 is 1. b  m a m b m  b  m eb m
The order of 3 is 2.  3 2  1 (b 1 ab) m  b  m b m
The order of 5 is 2.  5 2  1 (b 1 ab) m  e (6)
The order of 7 is 2.  7 2  1 from (5) and (6),
Example 11: a m  (b 1 ab) m
Let G be group and a, b  G, then show that, Which shows that order of a and b 1ab are equal.
i). The order of a and a 1 are equal. Example 12:
ii). The order of ba and ab are equal. In a group of even order, prove that there is at least
iii). The order of a and b 1ab are equal. one element of order 2.
Proof: Proof:
(i). Let a  G, and order of a is n then, Let G be a group of even order then there is a non-
identity element in G are the odd in number.
a n  e, (1) Because G is group then the inverse of every element
Where n is the smallest positive integer. exist.
Because G is the group so inverse of every element Suppose,
exist, Let a 1  G, e  G  e 1  e (1)
and order of a 1 is m, then, Let a  G be the fnon- identity elemnet, then by (1),
(a 1 ) m  e a 1  a
a m  e multiplying both sides by a,
mulpying boths ides by a m a.a 1  a.a  e  a 2
a m .a  m  a m .e Which shows that order of a is 2.
Hence, proved.
e  a m (2)
Example 13:
where m is smallest positive integer, Let G be a group and a be an element of odd
from (1) and (2), number in G. Then, there exist an element b in G
an  am  m  n such that, b 2  a.
Hence proved. Proof:
ii). Let a, b  G the order of ab is m such that, Let a  G, and n be the positive integer, given that
(ab)  e (3)
m
order of a is odd number, then,
As we know that, a 2 n1  e (1)
(ab) m  ab.ab.ab...ab(m factor) a 2n .a n  e
by (3) a.a 2 .a 3 ...a n , a m1..a 2m  G

5
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

b  a m1  b 2  a 2m2 identity exist.

b 2  a 2m1.a1 4). e, a  H  e.a 1  H
by (1), a 1  H
b 2  e.a Inverse exist.
b2  a Hence, all the properties of group satisfied so, (G,)
Hence, proved. is group.
Subgroup: Theorem 8:
Let (G,) be a group and H be a non-empty subset The intersection of any collection of subgroups of a
of G. Then H is said to be subgroup of G. If itself a group G is subgroup of G.
group under the same binary operation  with the Proof:
following axioms of group. Let, H  {H i ; i  I }
Examples 14-16: where {H i ; i  I } is the family of subgroups of
( Z ,) set of all integers is subgroup of (Q,). group G.
(Q,) set of rational is subgroup of ( R,). Let, i  I , a, b  H i  ab 1  H i (By previuos
The set of cube root of unity is subgroup of complex
theorem)
numbers without zero. e.g. C  {0}.
so, ab 1  {H i ; i  I }  H
Trivial and non-trivial subgroups: Hence, H is subgroup of G.
Every group G has at least two subgroups namely, G
itself and {e} . These subgroups are called trivial Theorem 9:
Let G be a group H be the subgroup of G. Then the
subgroups.
Any other subgroups of G are called non-trivial set aHa 1  {aha 1 ; h  H } is a subgroup of G.
subgroups. Proof:
Theorem 7: Suppose that, x  aHa 1 and y  aHa 1 then,
Let (G,) be a group. Then a non-empty subset H xy 1  (ah1a 1 ).(ah2 a 1 ) 1
of G is subgroup of G iff  a, b  H  ab 1  H . xy 1  ah1 (a 1.a)h21a 1
Proof: xy 1  ah1 (e)h21a 1
Suppose that H is the subgroup of G. Then we have
xy 1  ah1h21a 1
to prove that  a, b  G  ab 1  H .
xy 1  (ah1 ).(a.h2 ) 1
Let, a  H and b  H .
Since H is the subgroup of G then by the definition here h1 , h2  H  h1h21  H .
H itself a group so the every element of H has So,
inverse. Hence, xy 1  (ah1 ).(a.h2 ) 1  aHa 1.
b  H  b 1  H , Hence, aHa 1 is a subgroup of G.
S0, Theorem 10:
 a, b  H  ab 1  H . The union H  K of two subgroups H and K of a
Conversely suppose that, group G is the subgroup of G if and only if H  K
 a, b  H  ab 1  H . or K  H .
then we have to prove that G is group. Proof:
To prove G is group we satisfy the following axioms Let H and K are two subgroups of group G. Then we
(properties). have to prove that H  K is subgroup of G.
1). Since  a, b  H  ab 1  H so G is closed. Then,
H  K  H or H  K  K
2). a, b, c  H  a.(bc) 1  H Hence, H and K aare subgroups of G. So, H  K
a.c 1b 1  H (Since H is subgroup so every element also subgroup of G.
have inverse) Conversely suppose that H  K is subgroup of G
Associative law holds. then we have to show that H  K or K  H .
3). a, H  a.a 1  H Contrary, suppose that H  K or K   H.
eH Let a  H / K or b  K / H

6
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

butt there, a, b  H or a, b  K , then, {e, a},{e, b},{e, c} are non-trivial subgroups.

a, ab  H  a 1 .(ab)  H  b  H Example 20:
b, ab  K  (ab).b 1  K  a  K Let C  {0} be the group of all non-zero complex
which is contradiction, because, numbers under multiplication, prove that
H / K   and K / H   H  {a  ib  C  {0}; a 2  b 2  1} is subgroup.
Hence, H  K or K  H . Proof:
Note: Suppose that,
Let H and K be the two subgroups of group G. Then a1  ib1 , a 2  ib2  H
there is not need to be subgroup of G. e.g. a1  ib1
 (a1  ib1 )(a 2  ib2 ) 1  a2  ib2  aa22 ibib22
G  {1, 3, 5, 7} modulo 8.
(By theorem)
H  {1, 3} ; K  {1, 5} ( a1a2 b1b2 )i ( a2b1 a1b2 )
(a1  ib1 )(a2  ib2 ) 1 
H  K  1 , 3 , 5  a22 b22

3 . 5  7 or 5 . 3  7  H  K (a1  ib1 )(a2  ib2 ) 1  (a1a2  b1b2 )  i(a2b1  a1b2 )  H

So, H  K is not closed. Hence, H  K is not where, a22  b22  1
Now,
subgroup of G.
(a1a 2  b1b2 ) 2  (a 2 b1  a1b2 ) 2  a12 a 22  b12 b22
Example 18:
Find the subgroups of group G  {0, 1, 2, 3} with  2a1a 2 b1b2  a 22 b12  a12 b22  2a1a 2 b1b2
the following table. (a1a 2  b1b2 ) 2  (a 2 b1  a1b2 ) 2  a12 a 22  b12 b22
+ 0 1 2 3  a 22 b12  a12 b22
0 0 1 2 3 (a1a 2  b1b2 ) 2  (a 2 b1  a1b2 ) 2  a12 (a 22  b22 )
1 1 2 3 0  b12 (b22  a 22 )
2 2 3 0 1 (a1a 2  b1b2 ) 2  (a 2 b1  a1b2 ) 2
3 3 0 1 2  (a12  b12 ).(a 22  b22 )
Solution: (a1a2  b1b2 ) 2  (a2b1  a1b2 ) 2  1.1
Given table shows that operation is addition with
modulo 4. In which, subgroups are, (a1a2  b1b2 ) 2  (a2b1  a1b2 ) 2  1
H1  {0}, H 2  {0, 1, 2, 3}  G Hence, H is subgroup.
H 3  {0, 2} Cyclic group:
A group G is said to be cyclic if every element of G
where, H 1 and H 2 are trivial subgroups and H3 is power of one, and same element say a  G.
non-trivial subgroup of G. These elements are called generator of G.
Example 18: If there at least positive integer n such that a n  e
Find the subgroups of group G  {e, a, b, c} with the then G is said to be finite cyclic group and written as,
following table. G  a; a n  e 
. e a b c (Read as G is cyclic of order n).
Theorem 11:
e e a b c Every subgroup of cyclic group is cyclic.
a a e c b Proof:
b b c e a Suppose that G be a cyclic group and generated by
c c b a e
a . Let H be the subgroup of G. Suppose that k  G
such that, a k  e  H . We have to show that every
Solution: element of H is power of k.
The given table show Klein's four group,
For these let a m  H .
a 2  b2  c2  e
By division algorithm,
ab  c; ac  b
m  qk  r; 0  r  k
The subgroups are,
a m  a qkr

7
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

a m  (a k ) q .a r xy  yx
Hence, G is abelion cyclic group.
(a k )  q .a m  .a r  H ; r  k
Which is contradiction because r  0.
Example 21:
If G is cyclic group of even order then prove that
Then,
there is only one subgroup of order 2 in G.
m  qk
Proof:
a m  (a k ) q Let, G be a cyclic group of even order such that,
Hence, H is cyclic. G  a; a 2n  e 
Theorem 12: 2n show that the order of G is even.
Let G be a cyclic group of order n generated by a. (By using the theorem "If a positive integer d divides
Then for each positive divisor d of n, there is unique the order of G (|G|) then G has exactly one subgroup
subgroup (of G) of order d. of order d.")
Proof: Now,
Let, G  a; a n  e  | G | 2n
Let d is the positive divisor of n then there is integer where 2 divides 2n. So, G has only one subgroup of
q such that, order 2.
n  dq Example 22:
consider, Find all subgroups of a cyclic subgroup of order 12.
b  aq Proof:
b d  a dq The divisor of 12 are,
bd  a n 1,2,3,4,6,12.
bd  e subgroup of order 1  {e}
So, subgroup of order 12  G itself.
H  b; b d  e  subgroup of order 2  (a 6 ) 2  {a 6 , a12  e}
is required subgroup. subgroup of order 3  (a 4 ) 3  {a 4 , a 8 , a12  e}
To show that H is unique suppose that K is another
subgroup of order 4  (a 3 ) 4  {a 3 , a 6 , a 9 , a12  e}
subgroup of G of order then K is generated by single
subgroup of order
element c  a k . Where k is least positive integer.
6  (a )  {a , a , a , a , a , a  e}
2 6 2 4 6 8 10 12
c  ak
c d  a dq Cosets:
cd  an
Let H be the subgroup of G and a  G . Then the set,
aH  {ah; h  H } Left coset
cd  e
Ha  {ha; h  H } Right coset
where, dk  n  k  dn  q,
is said to coset of H in G.
Hence,
Note: The left or right cosets of H in G with identity
b  aq  ak  c element is H itself.
bc
eH  eh;h  H  H
So, H is unique.
Theorem 13: He  he;h  H  H
Every cyclic group is abelion. If the binary operation is “+” then the coset can be
Proof: written as,
Let G be a cyclic group generated by a single element a  H  {a  h; h  H }
a. Example 23:
Let, x, y  G, then there is positive integers m and G  {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be the group of residue classes
k such that, modolu 6. Then, H  {0, 2, 4} is subgroup G. There
x  ak ; y  am are only two left cosets of H in Gand these are
xy  a k .a m 0  H  H and 1  H  {1, 3, 5}.
xy  a k m  a mk
xy  a m .a k

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Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

Example 24: contradiction because we have

G  {1, 3, 5, 7} be the group of residue classes aH  bH  
therefore  shows the partition of G.
modulo 8. Find the cosets.
Solution: Index H in G: [G:H]
The number of distinct left or right cosets of
. 1 3 5 7 subgroup H in G is called the index H in G and
1 1 3 5 7 denoted by, [G:H].
3 3 1 7 5 Example 25:
Find the distnict right (left) cosets of
5 5 7 1 3
E  {0,2,4,.....}  {2n; n  Z} in a group ( Z ,).
7 7 5 3 1 Solution:
Here proper subgroups are, There are two right cosets of E in Z .
H1  {1, 3}, H 2  {1, 5}, H 3  {1, 7} Which are 0 and 1,
The cosets are, 0  E  {0  2n; n  Z}  E
1 .H1  {1, 3}  H1 1  E  {2n  1; n  Z}  O (odd numbers)
5 . H1  {5, 7} Now,
(0  E)  (1  E)  E  O  Z (set of integers)
7.H1  {7, 5}
(0  E)  (1  E)  
Partition:
Therefore index of E in Z is 2.
The collection of subsets is known as the partition of
sets. Theorem 15: (Lagrange's theorem)
The partition of set A is, The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the
{ Ai ; i  I } of the set A  { Ai ; i  I } and order of group.
Proof:
Ai  A j    i, j  I and i  j.
Let G be the group and H be the subgroup of G.
Theorem 14: Suppose that the order of G is n and the order of H is
Let H be the subgroup of group G. Then the set of all m. Then by the definition,
left or right cosets of H in G define the partition of G. | H | m and | G | n
Proof: Since, the order of G is finite, So, the set of all distnict
Suppose,   {ah; a  G; h  H } be the collection of left cosets of H in G are also finite.
all the left cosets of H in G. (By the previous theorem, "Let H be the subgroup of
Now, a  G  ae  H (Because H is subgroup of G then the all left (right) cosets of H in G define the
G so identity exist.) partition in G.")
k
So, So, G   ai H (1)
G   i 1

wherer   is the collection of the subsets where, ai H  a j H   for i  j.

contained in G. let we define a mapping,
Hence, G  .  : H  ai H
consider aH and bH are the cosets of H in G, then,
(h)  ai h; h  H
x  aH  bH  x  ah1  bh2 for some
 is onto, also,
h1 , h2  H .
(h1 )  (h2 ); h1 , h2  H
 a  bh2 h11  bh3 (1)
ai h1  ai h2
where, h2 h11  h3  H h1  h2 (By left cancellation law)
Since H si subgroup thus a  bH Hence,  is one-to-one. So, the numbers of H and
From (1). a i H are the same.
ah  bh3 h also an element of bH .
From (1),
Hence, aH  bH or bH  aH k
which shows, G   ai H
i 1
aH  bH n  m  m  m  ...  m ( k times)

9
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

n  km on X. Hence, S n is closed under composition.

| G | k | H | ii). Let f, g and h be the mappings on X, then,
| H | \|G| (( fog )oh)( x)  fog (h( x)); x  X
Hence, proved. (( fog )oh)( x)  f ( g (h( x))); x  X
Corollary: (( fog )oh)( x)  f ( goh( x)); x  X
The index of an element of finite group divides the (( fog )oh)( x)  fo( goh)( x); x  X
order of group. ( fog )oh)  fo( goh)
Proof: Associative law holds.
By the Lagrange's theorem, iii). Let I be the identity on X,
| G | k | H | (1) I : X X
k being the numbers of the distnict left(right) cosets I ( x)  x; x  X
of H in G,
So, foI ( x)  f ( I ( x)); x  X
From (1) k divodes the ordder of G. But
k  [G : H ], foI ( x)  f ( x); x  X
k \ | G |  [G : H ]\ | G | foI  f
Hence, proved. So, identity exist.
Corollary: iv): Let f 1 : X  X
A group G whose order is prime number is f ( x)  y  f 1 ( y)  x
necessarily cyclic. ( f 1of )( x)  f 1 ( f ( x)); x  X
Proof: ( f 1of )( x)  f 1 ( f ( x)); x  X
Let G be a group of prime order p.
| G | p ( f 1of )( x)  f 1 ( y); x  X
Let a  G be the non-identity element of G. Let H ( f 1of )( x)  x; x  X
be the cyclic gro\up of order k. Now,
|H|=k ( fof 1 )( y)  f ( f 1 ( y)); x  X
By the Lagrange's theorem ( fof 1 )( y)  f ( x); x  X
k \ p (Order of H divides the order of G)
( f 1of )( y)  y; x  X
since p is prime number and the divisor of p is 1 and
p itself. But we choose already H is non-identity Inverse exist.
element so, Hence, all the properties of group satisfied.
kp So, S n is group under composition.
Hence, order of H and G are same. Note:
By this equality, H is cyclic so G also cyclic. i). The group S n is called the symmetric group of
Permutation: degree n.
Let X be a non-empty set. A bijective mapping
f : X  X is called permutation on X. The set of ii). Every element of S n is permutation of n objects
takes n-time. There are n! permutations.
all permutation on X is denoted by S x .
Hence the order of S n is n! .
Theorem 16:
Example 26:
The set S n of all permutation on a set X with n-
Find the permutations, if, X  {1, 2, 3}
elements is a group under operation of composition
of permutation.
Solution:
n  3 so the order of S 3 is 3! 6. (means 6
Proof:
to show group we have following axioms, permutations)
i). Let f and g be two mappings on X, I  (1 2 3) ; f1  (2 3 1) ; f 2  (3 1 2)
f : X  X and g : X  X f 3  (1 3 2) ; f 4  (3 2 1) ; f 5  (2 1 3)
fog ( x)  f ( g ( x)); x  X S3  {I , f1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 , f 5 }
Since the composition of bijective mapping also To calculate the permutations we have,
bijective mapping. So, the fog also the permutation

10
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

1 2 3  1 2 3 1 2 3 Which show that,

I   ; f1   ; f 2    fog  gof
1 2 3  2 3 1 3 1 2 
1 2 3  1 2 3 1 2 3 Example 28:
f 3   ; f 4   ; f 5    Find the composition of the permutation,
1 3 2  3 2 1 2 1 3 
To find the composition, f 5 of1 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
   ;    
( f 5of1 )(1)  f 5 ( f1 (1))  f 5 (2)  1 5 3 2 6 4 1 3 4 1 2 6 5
( f 5of1 )(2)  f 5 ( f1 (2))  f 5 (3)  3  1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6 
    
( f 5 of1 )(3)  f 5 ( f1 (3))  f 5 (1)  2  5 3 2 6 4 1  3 4 1 2 6 5 
1 2 3  1 2 3 4 5 6
So, f 5of1     f 3    
1 3 2   6 1 4 5 2 3
Similarly, Similarly,
 1 2 3  1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6 
f1of 5     f 4     
 3 2 1  3 4 1 2 6 5  5 3 2 6 4 1 
Hence, f 5 of1  f1of 5 1 2 3 4 5 6
   
So, S 3 is non-abelion.  2 6 5 3 1 4
Consider, f1  a; f 5  b Hence,    .
then, f 2  a 2 , f 4  ab Cycles:
a 3  b 2  (ab) 2  I Let a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . , a k where a k  1, 2, 3, . . , k.
ba  f 3  a 2b A permutation   S n is called a cycle of length k
using this relation we construct the Caley's table,
and x  x,  x  1, 2, 3, . . , k. We can write a
o I a a2 b ab a2 b cycle as { a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . a k } and say that  acts on {
I I a a2 b ab a2 b a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . a k } e.g.
a a a2 I ab a2 b b 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 2 
a a I a a b b ab 2 3 4 5 6 1
2 2
b b a b ab I a a we can write these cycles as,
ab ab b a2 b a I a2 123456
a2 b a2 b ab b a2 a I
one cycle of length 6.
Example 27: so,
Find fog and gof , if,  1 2 3 4 5 6
 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
f   ; g    Note:
 2 3 4 1  2 1 4 3 The composition of two cyclic permutations need not
 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4  be cyclic permutaions.
fog     e.g.
 2 3 4 1  2 1 4 3 
1 2 3 4  1 2 5 2 1 4 5 6
fog   
1 4 3 2 
1 2 3 4 5 6
 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4   1 2 5 
gof     2 5 3 4 1 6
 2 1 4 3  2 3 4 1  Let,
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6
gof      2 1 4 5 6   
3 2 1 4  4 1 3 5 6 2

11
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
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Hence,     

1 2 52 1 4 5 6 b1  b2 , b2  b3 ....b p1  b p , b p  b1 ; 1  i  p

Hence, the given permutation is injective mappings.
 1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6 
    So, effect of part  on cyclic permutation is,
 2 5 3 4 1 6  4 1 3 5 6 2   2  (b1 , b2 ,..., b p )
1 2 52 1 4 5 6 So, we have two  cyclic permutations, if n+p=k,
1 2 3 4 5 6  then  is the composition of two cycles  1 and  2 .
  
1 6 3 5 4 2  If n  p  k then the process repeated again.
1 2 52 1 4 5 6  2 64 5 Every time process extracting the cycles. After the
finite number of each because k is finite. Thus there
Disjoint cycles:
is a natural number q, such that,
Two or more than two cycles which have no common
elements are called mutually disjoint cycles. e.g.  q  (c1 , c2 ,..., cq ) (1)
2 6 and 4 5 are disjoint cycles. Where, ci 's occurs between a i 's and bi 's.
1 5 2 and 5 2 are not disjoint cycles. Where each  acts as mutually disjoint subset of X
and are uniquely determined. Since, any two
Example 29:
  1 2 3;   4 5 6
permutations acting on mutually disjoint sets
commute. So, the part from the order in which  i 's
 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 
     are taken. The expression (1) for  is unique.
 2 3 1 4 5 6 1 2 3 5 6 4  Transposition:
1 2 3 4 5 6 A cycled of length 2 is called a transposition e.g.
    (1)
 2 3 1 5 6 4 a b
   
1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6  b a
    
a and b are interchanging in this permutation and
1 2 3 5 6 4  2 3 1 4 5 6 
other element remain fixed is a transposition.
1 2 3 4 5 6
    (2) Theorem 18:
 2 3 1 5 6 4 Every cyclic permutation can be expression as a
From (1) and (2), product of transposition.
   Proof:
So,  and  are mutually disjoint cycles. Suppose, 1  (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) be the cyclic permutation.
Theorem 17: Consider,
Every permutation of degree n can be written as a    a1 a2 a1 a3 ...a1 ak  (1)
product of cycles acting on mutually disjoint cycles. which shows that,
Proof:     
a1  a2 , a2  a3 ....ak 1  ak , ak  a1
Let S n be the set of all cycles of n-elements, and 
Hence, the effect of  and   are same. So,    
be the permutation of n-degree. Let  has only one
is the product of transposition.
element in which  acts. Suppose,
     Now, a bb a   I be the number such pair of
a1  a2 , a2  a3 ....ak 1  ak , ak  a1 transposition can be inserted between the pairs
since k is the finite then there is a number n such that, a1 ai , ai ai1  involved in  . Hence,  be

an  a1 the expressed as the product of transpositions.
Possibly in infinitely many ways.
 is the cyclic permutation so, the  is the part of
cyclic permutation.
Theorem 19:
Every permutation of degree n can be expressed as a
1  (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) product of transposition.
Now put n=k then   1 is the required cyclic Proof:
decomposition of  as cyclic permutation. As we know that the every permutation can be as a
Now, if n  k then b, is different from (a1 , a2 ,..., an ). product of dis joint cycles. Conversely, every cycle
can be expressed as a product of transposition in

12
Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com
infinitely many ways. (By the above theorem). So, A permutation  is called odd if it can be expressed
any element of S n can be expressed as a product of as a product of odd number of transpositions.
transposition in infinitely many ways. e.g.
Theorem 20:  1 2 3 4
   
Let a permutation  in S n be written as a product  2 1 4 3
of m transpositions and as a product of p   1 23 4
transpositions. Then m-p is a multiple of 2. This  Shows that even permutations.
implies that both m and p are even or both of them Similarly,
are odd.  1 2 3 4
OR    
Let  be the permutation as a product of 2 3 4 1
transposition,  m  p ( mod 2 ).   1 2 3 4
Proof:  shows odd permutation.
Suppose the product of transpositions, Theorem 21:
n i). The product of even or odd permutations is an
p   ( xi  x j ) even permutations.
i j

p  ( x1  x2 )( x1  x3 )...( x1  xn ) ii). The product of an even permutation and odd

( x2  x3 )( x2  x4 )...( x2  xn )
.......................( xn1  xn )
n
p  ( x(i ) a  x( j ) q )
i j
Now for any transpositions,
  (k , l ) in S n . Where k  l.
n
( p)  ( x(i )t  x( j )t )
i j
every factors of p that contains neither x k nor x l
remain unchanged in  ( p) . The factor ( xk  xl ) of
p becomes  ( xl  xk ) in  ( p). those factors of p
which contain either x k of x l But not both x k and
xl .
 ( xm  xk ) ( xm  xl ) where m  k ,l.
Such the product remain unchanged in  ( p). Thus
it follows that,  ( p)   p,
By successive applications of transpositions in  ,
in both cases,
( p)  ( p)12 ...m  (1) m p (1)
( p)  ( p)1  2 .. m  (1) p p (2)
From (1) and (2),
(1) m p  (1) p p
p  (1) pm p
p  m is multiple of 2.
 2 \ p  m  m  p (mod 2).
Even and odd permutation:
A permutation  is called even if it can be expressed
as a product of even number of transpositions.
permutation is an odd permutation.
Proof:
Let  1 and  2 be the permutations of n degree. Let
 1 and  2 can be expressed as a product of m1 and
m2 transposition respectively.
So, the product of 1 2 contained m1  m2  2k
where k is 0 or k  N transpositions, possible if 2k
is cancelled of simplify.
i). if  1 and  2 are the even permutations in which
case both m1 and m2 are even, or both  1 and  2 are
the odd permutations in which case both m1 and m2
are odd, hence, m1  m2  2k is also an even integer.
So, 1 2 are even permutations.
ii). Consider one of the permutation  1 is even and
other  2 is odd then m1  m2  2k is also an odd
integer. So, 1 2 are odd permutations.
Corollary:
Let  be any permutation of degree n and  a
transposition then  or  is an even or odd
according as  is even or odd.
Proof:
If  is an even permutation then  or  is an
odd permutation.
Theorem 22:
Let n  2, the number of even permutation in S n is
equal to the number of odd permutation is S n .
Proof:
Let,
1 , 2 ,..., k (1)
be all even permutations and

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Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

1 ,  2 ,..,  m (2)  n  I.
are odd permutations in S n , So, k  m  n! . e.g.
Let  be the transposition. then, S 3  {I , a, a 2 , b, ab, a 2 b}
1 , 2 ,.., k (3) where,
are all odd. (By corollary) 1 2 3   1 2 3 2  1 2 3 
I   ; a   ; a   
1 ,  2 ,..,  k (4) 1 2 3   2 3 1 3 1 2
are all even. 1 2 3 
From (1) and (4), a 3     I
1 2 3 
mk
Hence, order of S 3 is 3.
From (2) and (3),
km a b
Let,    
So, m  k  n2! is required proof. b a
Note: a b
 2     I
All even permutation in S n are denoted by An . From a b
the above theorem the number of element in An are So, the order of transposition  is 2.
n!
2 . Theorem 24:
Theorem 23: The order of cyclic permutation of length m is m.
The set An of all even permutation in S n forms a Proof:
Suppose,
subgroup of S n .
  (a1 , a2 ,.., am )
Proof: be a cyclic permutation of length m. Then under the
Suppose, 1 , 2  An then we have to prove that, action,
1 21  An (1)  2 : a1  a2 , a2  a4 ,.., am  a2
By the theorem (if 1 2 is in even permutations)  3 : a1  a3 , a2  a5 ,.., am  a3
Since, the inverse of transposition also transposition. .......................................................
Then the inverse of even transposition is even  m : a1  a1 , a2  a2 ,.., am  am
transposition. So, (1) satisfied and An is subgroup in So, that,
Sn . m  I
Example 30: also for no-smaller power of k of  ,
Find all the subgroups of S 3 . k  I
Hence, order of  is m.
Solution:
As we know that, Note:
S 3  {I , a, a 2 , b, ab, a 2 b} i). To find the order of permutation, convert  into
cyclic permutation, 1 , 2 ,..., k of length
where,
1 2 3   1 2 3 2  1 2 3 m1 , m2 ,.., mk respectively. Ignore the cycle of length
I   ; a   ; a   
2 
1.
1 2 3   2 3 1 3 1 ii). The order of  can be find by taking least
1 2 3   1 2 3 2 1 2 3 common multiple (L.C.M) of lengths of cycle.
b   ; ab   ; a b   
1 3 2   3 2 1 2 1 3  Example 31:
Here, a  b  (ab)  I
3 2 2 Find the order of
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 
So, the subgroups of S 3 are,    
{I },{I , a, a 2 },{I , b},{I , ab},{I , a 2 b} and S 3 .  2 3 4 1 7 9 6 5 8 12 11 10 
  1 2 3 45 7 6 9 810 12
Order of permutation:
Let  be the permutation in S n then the order of  Cycles  1 ,  2 and  3 have length 4,5 and 2.
is at least positive integer n such that, L.C.M=20
So,  20  I

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Group theory By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain
Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com

Hence, order of  is 20.

By: Muhammad Fiaz Hussain1

Applied & Analytic Mathematics Research Center
fiaz.hussain24@yahoo.com
Contact # 0333-6639466
0300-5041173

1
M.sc, M.Phil. in Applied & Analytic Mathematics
Comsats Institute of Information Technology Islamabad.

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