Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Magnetotellurics: Micropulsations. These Signals Are Normally Incident On The Earth's Surface. Above A Frequency
Magnetotellurics: Micropulsations. These Signals Are Normally Incident On The Earth's Surface. Above A Frequency
Martyn Unsworth
Introduction
where σ is the conductivity (S m−1), f is the frequency (Hz), and µ is the magnetic permeability.
The skin depth is inversely related to the frequency and thus low frequencies will penetrate
deeper into the Earth. The impedance of the Earth is defined as
where Ex is the horizontal electric field and Hy is the orthogonal, horizontal, magnetic field. From
this impedance, apparent resistivity can be defined as
and the electric and magnetic field components will have a phase difference
where Φxy is in degrees. Thus, when the apparent resistivity increases with decreasing frequency,
the phase will be less than 45°. Similarly, a decrease in resistivity will correspond to a phase
greater than 45°. At the lowest frequency, the apparent resistivity asymptotically approaches the
true resistivity of the lower layer, and the phase returns to 45°. Note that the phase is sensitive to
changes in subsurface resistivity with depth. For a multilayer model, MT data can reliably
determine the conductance of a layer. Conductance is the vertically integrated conductivity, and
for a uniform layer the conductance is the product of conductivity and thickness. A consequence
of the inverse problem of electrical conductivity is that MT data cannot individually determine
the conductivity and thickness of a layer. Thus layers with differing values of conductivity and
thickness, but the same overall conductance cannot be distinguished with MT.
Figure M168 Propagation of electromagnetic waves from a distant lightning strike to the location
where MT data is recorded. The resistive atmosphere forms a waveguide between the conductive
Earth and ionosphere. The electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) are both orthogonal to the
direction of propagation (k). Note that the electromagnetic energy travels as a wave in the
atmosphere, but diffuses in the Earth. This type of signal propagation occurs above 1 Hz.
Figure M169 Variation of
apparent resistivity and phase
that would be measured at the
surface of a two‐layer Earth
model. Note that the depth
sounding of resistivity is
achieved by varying the
frequency of the signal. The
dip in apparent resistivity
below 10 Ω m at 1 Hz is a
resonance phenomenon.
Early studies analyzed MT data in terms of a one‐dimensional (1D) conductivity model. In this
class of model, conductivity only varies with depth. This approach is sometimes valid in
locations where the geoelectric structure does not change rapidly in the horizontal direction.
However, it is usually necessary to consider at least a two‐dimensional (2D) Earth model. In this
case, the apparent resistivity computed from Ex and Hy will differ from that derived from Ey and
Hx and the application of a 1D MT analysis can give misleading results. For a 2D Earth, Ex is
dependent only on Hy and Hz, and these three field components comprise the transverse electric
(TE) mode with the impedance (Zxy) computed from Ex and Hy. The transverse magnetic (TM)
mode comprises the Hx, Ey, and Ez field components, with the impedance (Zyx) computed from Ey
and Hx (Figure M170). In a 2D Earth with the x‐axis parallel to the geoelectric strike direction,
the impedance tensor can be written as:
Figure M170 Geometry of electromagnetic field components over a two‐dimensional Earth. The
transverse electric (TE) mode is also called the E‐polarization. Similarly, the transverse magnetic
(TM) mode is also called the B‐polarization.
The TE mode is most sensitive to along‐strike conductors. In the TM mode the electric current
flows across the boundaries between regions of differing resistivities, which causes electric
charges to build up on interfaces. Thus the TM mode is more effective than the TE mode at
locating interfaces between regions of differing resistivity.
If the subsurface structure is three‐dimensional (3D) then all four elements of the impedance
tensor are nonzero. Progress has been made in the last decade in 3D MT modeling and inversion.
However, if a single profile of MT stations is available, and 3D effects can be shown to be small,
then a 2D analysis can be used. If the subsurface conductivity structure exhibits electrical
anisotropy, this will influence the measured impedance tensor. However, it can be difficult to
convincingly distinguish heterogeneity from anisotropy in MT data. Small‐scale, near‐surface
bodies can generate electric charges on their boundaries. If the body is small, then insignificant
electromagnetic induction occurs and the only effect is galvanic distortion. This changes the
magnitude of the electric field at the surface and can cause a static shift, which is a
frequency‐independent offset in the apparent resistivity curve (Jones, 1988). The phase curve is
not affected. Static shifts are an example of spatial aliasing. A range of techniques is used to
remove static shifts, and include external measurements of surface resistivity and estimation of
the static shift coefficient in modeling and inversion.
MT data are recorded in the time‐domain, with the electric fields measured using dipoles 50–200
m in length that are connected to the ground with nonpolarizing electrodes.
Audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) data (10 000–1 Hz) typically sample the upper 1–2 km and are
often used in mineral exploration (see EM, industrial uses). Magnetic fields are measured with
induction coils, and in noisy environments the natural signals are supplemented with a
transmitter. This modified technique is termed controlled‐source audio magnetotellurics
(CSAMT). Broadband MT data (1000–0.001 Hz) are used for sounding to midcrustal depths.
Induction coils are generally used and a recording time of one day is required. In the presence of
excessive cultural noise additional recording may be needed. Noise can originate in a wide range
of sources, including power lines, cathodically protected pipelines, railways, water pumps, and
electric fences. Long‐period magnetotelluric (LMT) data measure very low frequencies (1–
0.0001 Hz) and are used for imaging the lower crust and upper mantle. A specialized LMT
instrument is used with a fluxgate magnetometer, solar panels, and low power electronics. MT
data can also be collected on the seafloor.
MT time series data are processed to yield frequency‐domain estimates of apparent resistivity
and phase. Modern processing schemes compute fast Fourier transforms of subsections of the
time series and then utilize robust statistical techniques to average the multiple estimates of the
impedance. The application of robust statistics has dramatically improved the quality of
responses and allowed many types of noise to be effectively suppressed (Jones et al. 1989;
Egbert, 1997). In MT data collection, time series data should be recorded simultaneously at
several locations to allow for the removal of noise at the measurement location through the
remote‐reference method (Gamble et al. 1979). This is important even in locations with minimal
cultural noise (Figure M171). In this example, ground motion from ocean waves caused
oscillations of the magnetic sensors and resulted in the apparent resistivity being artificially low
in the band 3–0.3 Hz. When the data were processed with a remote reference, the bias was
removed.
Figure M171 Estimates of apparent resistivity and phase at an MT station in central California in
1999. The open circles were derived from remote reference processing, while the black circles
were derived from local data only. The MT data are contaminated by magnetic noise due to
ocean wave‐induced ground motion. Note the downward bias in the apparent resistivity in the
frequency band 3–0.3 Hz when local MT data processing is used.
Magnetotelluric data interpretation
Once the dimensionality has been understood, and distortion addressed, MT can be forward
modeled or inverted in 1D, 2D, or 3D to recover a model of subsurface electrical conductivity.
The inverse problem of electrical conductivity is nonunique (Berdichevsky and Dmitriev, 2002),
which implies that a finite set of MT data containing noise can be reproduced by an infinite
number of geoelectric models. To overcome this nonuniqueness and select a preferred model,
additional constraints must be imposed on the solution. One of the most successful methods is to
require that the geoelectric model derived from the inversion satisfies both the MT data and
some additional requirements (regularization). In the absence of any other geoelectric
information, the most common requirement is that the resistivity model should be as spatially
smooth as possible in the horizontal and vertical directions (Constable et al., 1987). Widely used
inversion algorithms for MT data include those of Rodi and Mackie (2001) and Siripunvaraporn
and Egbert (2000). The fit of the model is usually measured in term of the root‐mean‐square
(rms) misfit of the predicted model response to the measured data. An rms misfit significantly
greater than one indicates that the inversion is incapable of fitting the MT data, and usually
indicates excessive noise in the data, or 3D effects that cannot be physically reproduced by a 2D
inversion algorithm. A misfit significantly less than one indicates that either the error bars were
too large or that the data is being over fit. In this second scenario, the resistivity model usually
appears spatially rough, with the appearance of a checkerboard.
The MT method is now routinely used in both commercial exploration and in research.
Commercial applications include exploration for minerals, hydrocarbons, and geothermal
resources (see EM, industrial uses). Researchers use MT to study the structure of the continents
and the dynamics of plate boundaries (Brown, 1994) and also in EM, regional studies. MT
measurements are also made on the seafloor for both commercial and academic investigations
(see EM, marine controlled source).
Cross‐references
Anisotropy, Electrical EM Modeling, Forward EM Modeling, Inverse EM, Industrial Uses EM,
Marine Controlled Source EM, Regional Studies Galvanic Distortion Magnetometers,
Laboratory Periodic External Fields Storms and Substorms, Magnetic Transfer Functions
Bibliography
Bahr, K., 1991. Geological noise in magnetotelluric data: a classification of distortion types.
Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 66: 24–38.
Berdichevsky, M.N., and Dmitriev, V.I., 2002. Magnetotellurics in the Context of the Theory of
Ill‐posed Problems. Tulsa, OK: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
Cagniard, L., 1953. Basic theory of the magnetotelluric method of geophysical prospecting.
Geophysics, 18: 605–635.
Constable, S.C., Parker, R.L., and Constable, C.G., 1987. Occam's inversion: a practical
algorithm for generating smooth models from electromagnetic sounding data. Geophysics, 52:
289–300.
Gamble, T.B., Goubau, W.M., and Clarke, J., 1979. Magnetotellurics with a remote reference.
Geophysics, 44: 53–68.
Groom, R.W., and Bailey, R.C., 1989. Decomposition of magnetotelluric impedance tensors in
the presence of local three‐dimensional galvanic distortion. Journal of Geophysical Research,
94: 1913–1925.
Jones, A.G., 1988. Static shift of MT data and its removal in a sedimentary basin environment.
Geophysics, 53: 967–978.
Jones, A.G., Chave, A.D., Egbert, G.D., Auld, D., and Bahr, K., 1989. A comparison of
techniques for magnetotelluric response function estimates. Journal of Geophysical Research,
94: 14201–14213.
Lezaeta, P., and Haak, V., 2003. Beyond magnetotelluric decomposition: induction, current
channeling, and magnetotelluric phases over 90°. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108,
doi:10.1029/2001JB000990.
Rodi, W., and Mackie, R.L., 2001, Nonlinear conjugate gradients algorithm for 2‐D
magnetotelluric inversion. Geophysics, 66: 174.
Simpson, F., and Bahr, K., 2005. Practical Magnetotellurics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, p. 270.
Siripunvaraporn, W., and Egbert, G.D., 2000. An efficient data‐subspace inversion for
two‐dimensional magnetotelluric data. Geophysics, 65: 791–803.
Tikhonov, A.N., 1950. Determination of the electrical characteristics of the deep strata of the
Earth's crust. Doklady Akademii Nauk, SSSR, 73(2): 295–297.
Vozoff, K., 1991. The Magnetotelluric method. In Nabighian, M.N. (ed.), Electromagnetic
Methods in Applied Geophysics, Vol. 2, Chapter 8. Tulsa, OK: Society of Exploration
Geophysicists.