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NAVIGATION
CPL NAVIGATION
1. The Earth 01
2. Charts 25
3. Relative Velocity 55
4. Solar System & Time 59
5. Navigation Computer 83
6. Plotting 95
THE EARTH
The earth is not a perfect sphere, there is a slight bulge at the Equator and a flattening at the
Poles. The earth's shape is described as an oblate spheroid. The polar diameter is 6860.5
nm which is 23.2 nm shorter than the average equatorial diameter of 6883.7 nm. This gives a
compression ratio of 1/2967 which for all practical purposes can be ignored. Cartographers
and Inertial Navigation systems will take the true shape of the earth into account.
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE
Parallels of Latitude are small circles that are parallel to the Equator. They lie in a 090° and
270° Rhumb Line direction as they cut all Meridians at 90°.
LATITUDE
The Latitude of a point is the arc of a Meridian from the Equator to the point. It is expressed in
degrees and minutes North or South of the Equator. It can be presented in the following
forms.
The Longitude of a point is the shorter arc of the Equator measured East or West from the
Greenwich Meridian. It can be presented in the following forms.
Example 1
Example 2
A Great Circle is a circle drawn on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are those
of the sphere itself. A Great Circle divides the sphere into two halves. The Equator is a Great
Circle dividing the earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. On a flat surface the
shortest distance between TWO points is a straight line. On a sphere the shortest distance
between two points is the shorter arc of a Great Circle drawn through the two points. To fly
from Europe to the West Coast of America the shortest distance is of course a Great Circle
which usually takes the least time and fuel used. A Great Circle cuts all Meridians at different
angles.
A Rhumb Line is a curved line drawn on the surface of the earth which cuts all Meridians at
the same angle. An aircraft steering a constant heading of 065°(T) with zero wind will be
flying a Rhumb Line.
MERIDIANS
Meridians are Great semi-circles that join the North and South Poles. Every Great Circle
passing through the poles forms a Meridian and its Anti-Meridian. All Meridians indicate True
North or 000°(T) and 180°(T). As Meridians have a constant direction they are Rhumb Lines
as well as Great Circles.
EQUATOR
The Equator cuts all Meridians at 90° providing a True East-West or 090°(T) and 270°(T)
erection. As the Equator cuts all Meridians at 90° it is a Rhumb Line as well as a Great Circle.
A Small Circle is a circle drawn on a sphere whose centre and radius are not those of the
sphere itself.
DIRECTION
True North
True Direction
Aircraft Heading or Track is measured clockwise from True North. It is usually expressed in
degrees and decimals of a degree, e.g. 092°(T) 107.25°GC 265.37° RL
Magnetic North
Magnetic North is the direction in the horizontal plane indicated by a freely suspended
magnet influenced by the earth's magnetic field only.
Variation
Variation is the angular difference between True North and Magnetic North
Compass North is the direction indicated by the compass needle in an aircraft. Magnetic
Fields in the aircraft will attract the compass needle away from Magnetic North causing
Compass Deviation.
Deviation
CONVERGENCE
Meridians are Semi Great Circles joining the North and South Poles. They are parallel at the
Equator. As the meridians leave the Equator either Northwards or Southwards they converge
and meet at the Poles.
Considering the two meridians shown above, one at 20°W and the other at 20°E. The
Change of Longitude (Ch. Long) or Difference in Longitude (D Long) between the two
meridians is 40°.
At the Equator (Latitude 0°) they are parallel, the angle of convergence is 0°. At the Poles
(Latitude 90°) they meet, and the angle of convergence is the Difference of Longitude, 40°.
At any intermediate Latitude the angle of inclination between the same two meridians
will between 0° and 40° depending on the Latitude.
This is a sine relationship, convergence varies as Sine of the Mean Latitude. Convergence
also varies as the Change of Longitude between the two meridians. The greater the
Ch. Long, the greater the convergence.
A N 45:25 E 025:36
B N 37:53 E 042:17
N 41:39 Mean Latitude 16:41 Change of Longitude
NOTE Both Mean Latitude and Change of Longitude must be changed into decimal notation.
Conversion Angle (CA) is used to change Great Circle bearings and tracks into Rhumb Line
bearings and tracks or vice versa.
Initial GC track A to B is 080° GC, initial GC track B to A is 300° GC (Conv. angle 20°)
Kilometre (KM.)
A Kilometre is 1/10 000 th. part of the average distance from the Equator to either Pole. It is
generally accepted to equal 3280 feet.
A Nautical Mile is defined as the distance on the surface of the earth of one minute of arc at
the centre of the earth. As the earth is not a perfect sphere the distance is variable.
For navigation purposes the Standard Nautical Mile is 6080 feet (South Africa and UK)
Most navigational electronic calculators use I NM = 6076.1 feet. To answer questions in the
CAA examinations any of the following may be used :-
As one minute of arc is 1 NM, then Great Circle distance along a Meridian can be calculated.
One minute of Latitude is 1 NM and 1Degree of Latitude is 60 NM.
The Great Circle distance from N75:30 E065:45 to N82:15 W114:15 is:-
As W114:15 is the anti-meridian of E065:45 the Great Circle distance is along a Meridian
over the Pole where 1° of Latitude equals 1 nm.
N 75:30 to the Pole = 14°30' change of Latitude (14°=x 60 = 840 nm+30 nm)
= 870nm
Pole to N 82:15 = 7°45' change of Latitude (7° x 60 = 420nm + 45nm)
= 465nm + 870nm
= 1335 nm
Example 2 An aircraft leaves A (E 012:30) and flies along the parallel of S 29:30 in an
Easterly direction. After flying 1050 nm its Longitude is :-
Departure = Ch. Long x cos Lat
1050nm = Ch. Long xcos29°30'
Ch Long = 1050 nm
cos 29.5°
= 1206.4
60
= 20° 06' 24" Easterly
+12° 30'
= E 032° 36' 24"
CPL NAVIGATION FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE
CPL DOC8
Revision 1/1/2001 Version 7
Page 15
Example 3 An aircraft in the Northern Hemisphere flies around the world in an Easterly
direction at an average groundspeed of 515 Kts in 14 hours. The Latitude at
which the aircraft flew was :-
7210
21600 = cos Lat = 70° 30’ N
As a Meridian is a Great Circle, then the arc of Change of Latitude can be converted into
nautical miles.
Example 5 An aircraft departs A (N 25:13 W017:25) and flies a track of 090°(T) at GS 360
for 1 hour 35 minutes. Then the aircraft flies a track of l80° (T) for I hour 55
minutes and arrives at position;
N 25:13
W017:25;
Track 180°
Change of Latitude
Major airports in South Africa have a VDF service, it is usually on the Approach frequency
and will provide radio bearings to aircraft on request. The aircraft transmits on the
appropriate frequency and direction finding equipment at the airport will sense the direction of
the incoming radio wave. The bearing will be passed to the aircraft in Q-code form.
VOR VOR Radials are Magnetic bearings from the VOR = QDR
RMI Readings are Magnetic tracks to the VOR = QDM
ADF Relative bearings are measured from the Fore and Aft axis of the aircraft.
ADF Relative bearings must be converted into True Bearings (QTE) before they can be
plotted on a chart.
(a) 059°
(b) 075°
(c) 083°
(a) 256 °
(b) 262°
(c) 270°
(a) 093°
(b) 096°
(c) 099°
(a) 262°
(b) 266°
(c) 270°
5. The initial great circle track from A (S 30:45 E 045:15) to B(S 30:45 E 062:38) is
(a) 085.6°
(b) 094.4°
(c) 098.9°
(a) W 003:37
(b) E 012:15
(c) E 022:28
8. The Initial Great Circle Track from A (S 27:30 E 017:45) to B (S 27:30 E 029:15)is:
(a) 092.65° GC
(b) 087.35° GC
(c) 095.31° GC
9. A and B are in the Northern Hemisphere. The Great Circle bearing of B from A is
068°.
If Conversion angle is 6° the Great Circle bearing of A from B is :-
(a) 242° GC
(b) 254° GC
(c) 260° GC
10. A and B are in the Southern Hemisphere. The Great Circle bearing of A from B is 245°
If Conversion Angle is 7° the Great Circle bearing of B from A is :-
(a) 079° GC
(b) 065° GC
(c) 051° GC
(a) 105° GC
(b) 100° GC
(c) 095° GC
(a) 077.5° RL
(b) 082.5° RL
(c) 085.0° RL
(a) 141° RL
(b) 145° RL
(c) 147° RL
14. The Latitude where the Convergency between two meridians is twice the value of their
Convergency at 20° N is :-
(a) N 42:45
(b) N 43:10
(c) N 43:16
(a) 075°RL
(b) 080°RL
(c) 085°RL
(a) 294°RL
(b) 298°RL
(c) 302°RL
(a) 090°GC
(b) 100°GC
(c) 105°GC
(a) 086°GC
(b) 090°GC
(c) 094°GC
19. Two positions on the same parallel of Latitude are in the Northern Hemisphere.
A at 171° E and B at 173° W have a 8° angle of Convergency between them.
The Latitude of A is :-
(a) 25°N
(b) 30°N
(c) 35°N
20. The position of A is S 30:00 W 010:00. Position B is on the same parallel of Latitude.
The Initial Great Circle Track from A to B is 256°.
The Longitude of B is :-
(a) 56°W
(b) 61°W
(c) 66°W
21. The position of A is N 42:13 W 158:24. Position B is on the same parallel of Latitude.
The Great Circle bearing of B from A is 278°.
The Longitude of B is :-
(a) E 175:13
(b) E 182:13
(c) E 177:47
(a) 703 nm
(b) 1261 nm
(c) 1452 nm
23. An aircraft departs C (N 45:17 E 025:52) on a track of 270° (T) and arrives at D after a
flight of 456 nm. The Longitude of D is :-
(a) E 015:04
(b) E 016:32
(c) E 017:25
24. An aircraft in the Southern Hemisphere flies around the world in 16 hours 35 minutes
at GS 478. The Latitude at which the aircraft flew was :-
(a) S 68:28
(b) S 68:47
(c) S 69:12
(a) 17:29 Z
(b) 17:44 Z
(c) 17:57 Z
26. An aircraft departed ABU ‘DHABI (N 24:23 E 054:44) at 06:52 Z and arrived at
KARACHI (N 24:23 E 067:11) at 08:17 Z.
27. An aircraft leaves X (N 57:42 E 030:15) on a Rhumb Line track of 270° (T) After
flying 1037 nm the Longitude of the aircraft is :-
(a) W 002:06
(b) W 003:38
(c) W 004:29
28. An aircraft flies 425 nm along the parallel of Latitude N 46:52. The change of
Longitude is
(a) 10°51’
(b) 10°36’
(c) 10°22’
(a) constant
(b) maximum at the poles
(c) maximum at the equator
30. The shortest distance from A (N 75:39 E 123:17) to B(N 78:27 W 056:43) is :-
(a) 1554 nm
(b) 1672 nm
(c) 1739 nm
31. An aircraft leaves X (S 34:58 E 018:24) at 06:30 Z, track 360° (T), GS 300 Kts.
At 07:55 Z the aircraft turns right onto track 090° (T). The longitude of the aircraft at
09:05 is
(a) E 024:30
(b) E 025:00
(c) E 025:30
(a) N 62:08
(b) N 62:31
(c) N 63:03
33. An aircraft leaves P (N 32:27 E 027:56) at 17:30 Z. track 270° (T), GS 390 Kts.
At E 021:00 it flies due South and passes abeam of Q(N 20:20 E 021:56) at 20:12 Z.
The groundspeed on the second leg was :-
34. An aircraft departs X (S 27:34 W 034:15) at 09:00 Z, track 090°(T). GS 455 Kts. At W
015:00 it flies due North at GS 422 Kts. The ETA abeam of Y (S 19:35 W 013:45) is:
(a) 12:23
(b) 12:33
(c) 12:43
35. Aircraft A and aircraft B depart the same position (60ºN 150ºW). Aircraft A flies a
track of 090ºT. Aircraft B flies directly north to the pole then a track of 180ºT so as to
intercept aircraft A. The groundspeeds are the same for A and B. At what longitude
will aircraft A and B intercept each other?
(a) 90E
(b) 30W
(c) 30E
The answer is IT CANNOT BE DONE!! It’s the same as trying to flatten out a Orange peel, it
too cannot be done.
Charts which are produced by conic projections are used widely in aviation – mainly because
conic projections “
Lets now look at the chart projections and properties that we as pilots are interested in:
ORTHOMORPHISM
Orthomorphism means true shape. In theory a cartographer starts with a 'reduced earth'
which is the earth reduced by the required scale. The 'reduced earth' is a true undistorted
representation of the earth. Details, such as Parallels of Latitude, Meridians and
topographical features are 'projected' from the reduced earth onto a cylinder (Mercator's
Projection), a cone (Lambert's Projection) or a flat sheet of paper (Polar Stereographic
Projection). The ideal chart would possess the following features.
If shapes and areas are approximately correct to enable map reading, then slight distortions
can be tolerated.
The 1 nm square of the reduced earth projected onto a cylinder becomes a rectangle.
Bearings are no longer correct. The scale has been expanded in the North/South direction to
a greater degree than the East/West case. To overcome this problem the scale expansion
North/South is reduced mathematically to equal the scale expansion East/West. The
rectangle becomes a square and the diagonal is 45° Bearings are now correct. Meridians and
Parallels of Latitude intersect at 90° Scale is expanded, but by the same amount in all
directions over short distances. Shapes and areas are approximately correct and the chart
is orthomorphic. On the Mercator, Lambert and Polar Stereographic charts the Parallels of
Latitude are adjusted in the above manner. Bearings are correct but the scale is variable.
SCALE
Scale is the ratio of a line drawn on a chart to the corresponding distance on the surface of
the earth.
Usually found on radio facility charts. 1 inch on the chart equals 40 nm.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1_____1_____1_____1_____!_____1_____1_____1_____1______1
1
1000 000 or 1/1 000 000 or 1:1 000 000
SCALE FACTOR
Due to the inherent difficulty of presenting a spherical object (the earth) on a flat sheet of
paper. there is no such thing as a constant scale chart. Scale expansion or contraction will
occur. Usually scale will be correct at a certain Latitude but expands else where. For
example :-
1
_______ x Scale factor 1.3054
1 000 000
Example 1 A chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000. How many nautical miles are represented
by 4 cm on the chart?
Example 2 32 centimetres on a chart represents 468 nm. The scale of the chart is :
CL 32 cms 1
Scale = _________________________ = _______
ED 468 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54 2 710 282
CL 1 CL
Scale = ___ = ________ = __________________________
ED 3 500 000 105 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
The smaller denominator is the larger scale (half a cake is larger than quarter of a cake)
The Lambert's chart was developed from the Simple Conic chart.
Simple Conic
A cone is placed over a reduced earth so it is tangential to a selected parallel of latitude. The
apex of the cone is above the pole. A light source at the centre of the reduced earth projects
details onto the cone. The cone is opened to give a simple conic projection.
The Meridians are straight lines converging on the nearer pole and the value of convergence
is constant throughout the chart.
When the cone is opened, 360° of Longitude is represented by the angular extent of the chart
which is 254.5584°. The angular extent of the chart is controlled by the latitude chosen to be
the parallel of tangency.
Parallel of Tangency 45° Sine 45° = 0.7071 = CCF = Constant of the Cone = 'n' factor
The Lambert's chart is based on the simple conic and is produced mathematically from it.
Firstly, the scale is reduced throughout the chart. Since scale on the simple conic is correct
only on the parallel of tangency and expands either side, the reduction will give two Standard
Parallels (SP) on which scale is correct, one on either side of the simple conic parallel of
tangency which is renamed the Parallel of Origin (// 0). Further mathematical modification is
applied by adjusting the radius of the parallels of latitude to produce an orthomorphic
projection.
The above can be shown be lowering the simple conic cone so that it cuts the earth at the
two Standard Parallels instead of the original parallel of tangency of the simple conic.
Scale variation throughout 1:1 000 000 and 1:500 000 charts is negligible and
can be considered constant if the band of Latitude projected is small and the
Standard Parallels are positioned according to the one sixth rule. That is one
sixth of that Latitude band from the top and bottom of the chart. Charts of the
North Atlantic with a scale of 1:5 600 000 have a marked scale variation and
care must be taken when measuring distances.
RHUMB LINES Curves concave to the Pole and convex to the Equator.
CHART FIT Charts of the same scale and Standard Parallels will fit
N/S and E/W. Charts with different SP will not fit.
The Rhumb Line track is parallel to the mean Great Circle track at the Mid Meridian between
two positions
The difference between the Great Circle and the Rhumb Line is :
Chart Conversion Angle (CCA)
The difference between the Initial Great Circle track and the Final Great Circle track is
Chart Convergence (CC)
Unless otherwise stated in a question, the Great Circle is taken to be the straight line and
Chart Convergence (CC) is used.
4 Where a question asks for 'the most accurate value of the Great Circle' or 'the true
Great Circle' then Earth Convergence (EC) is used.
4 The Parallel of Origin of a Lamberts chart is mid way between the two Standard
Parallels
4 If the Standard Parallels (SP) are 20°S and 40°S, then the Parallel of Origin (// 0) is
30°S
Q1. On a North Hemisphere Lamberts chart (SP 20°N & 40° N) the initial GC track from A
(10°E) to B (42°E) is 065°. The GC track at B is:
CC
16°
A
65° 65°
42E
10E
CC = Ch Long X sin // O
= 32° X sin 30°
= 16°
65° + 16 ° = 81° GC at B
Q2. The Chart Convergency factor of a Lamberts chart is .5. The Great Circle track from
C (20°N 10°E) to D (45°N 30° W) measures 316° at C. The Rhumb Line Track from C
to D is:
GC
RL
Radio bearings are Great Circles. Straight Lines on a Lambert's chart are Great Circles and
plotting radio bearings is simple.
VOR and VDF bearings are determined at the station, that is measured from the Meridian of
the station.
VOR Radial (QDR) Correct for VOR station Variation only and plot from VOR Meridian
VOR RMI reading RMI reading is a QDM VOR Variation 180° = QTE
Plot QTE from VOR Meridian (do not apply compass deviation)
A problem arises with the plotting of ADF bearings due to the bearing being measured at the
aircraft's Meridian and plotted from the NDB's Meridian which differ by the amount of
Convergence between the two positions.
ADF QUJ ± 180 = Bearing to plot from Aircraft Meridian paralleled through NDB
ADF QUJ ± 180 ± CC = Bearing to plot from NDB Meridian
CL 13.75 inches 1
Scale = __ = ________________________________ = ________
ED 20° Ch. Long x 60 x cos 50° x 6080 x 12 4 092 898
(Departure in nm)
Example 2 On a Lambert's chart the Standard Parallel of 35°S measures 58.4 cms.
The other Standard Parallel measures 43.9 cms.
The Latitude of the second Standard Parallel is :-
lat = (.6158)COS-1
lat = 52°S
1. The convergence between the meridians of 37°E and 59°E at 30°S on a Lamberts
chart (Standard Parallels 29°S and 41°S) is :-
(a) 11.0°
(b) 11.8°
(c) 12.6°
2. Chart convergency on a Lamberts chart between the meridians of 10°E and 10°W is
12°. If one standard parallel is S 30:20 the other standard parallel is at :-
(a) S 40:48
(b) S 41:52
(c) S 43:24
3. On a Lamberts chart the standard parallel of 32°N measures 77.5 cms. The other
standard parallel measures 72 cms. The latitude of the second standard parallel is :-
(a) 37°N
(b) 38°N
(c) 39°N
4. A Lamberts chart has standard parallel of 20°S and 40°S. The rhumb line distance
from A (20°S 15°E) to B (20°S 37°E) is 76.62 cms. The scale of the chart at 40°S is :-
5. A Lamberts chart has standard parallels of 25°S and 45°S. The rhumb line distance
from X (45°S 17°W) to Y (45°S 05°E) is 80.5 cms.
(a) 97 cms
(b) 100 cms
(c) 103 cms
(a) W 012:37
(b) W 010:06
(c) W 008:28
(a) 082.5°
(b) 087.2°
(c) 093.8°
(a) 230°
(b) 235 °
(c) 240°
(a) 084°
(b) 092°
(c) 096°
10. A Lambert's chart has a chart convergency of 12.04° between the Meridians of 70°E
and 84°E. If One Standard Parallel is 64°N, the Latitude of the other SP is :-
(a) N59:19
(b) N57:15
(c) N54:38
11. On a Lambert's chart, a straight line from A (45°N 045°E) to B (47°N 035°E) cuts the
40°E Meridian at 75°. Convergency between A and B is 8°. The Rhumb Line track
from A to B is :-
(a) 255°
(b) 270°
(c) 285°
(a) 084 °
(b) 090°
(c) 096°
(a) 063°
(b) 070°
(c) 077°
14. Two Meridians. 175°W and 171°E, in the Northern Hemisphere, have a convergency
of 7° on a Lambert's chart. The GC track from X (169°E) to Y (175°W) is 080°(T) at X.
The Rhumb Line track from Y to X is :-
(a) 256°
(b) 260°
(c) 264°
15. A Northern Hemisphere Lambert's chart has a CCF of 0.75. The straight line from A
(20°E) to C (60 °E) passes through B (044°E). The direction of the track at A is 100°
(T). The Great Circle track at B is :-
(a) 109°
(b) 115 °
(c) 118°
16. A Lambert's chart has Standard Parallels of 24°S and 46°S. Position X (46°S 045°W)
and Y (46°S 025°W) are plotted on the chart. The Great Circle bearing of Y from X
is :-
(a) 095.74°
(b) 096.94°
(c) 097.19°
17. The chart convergency factor of a Lambert's chart is 0.50. A straight line is drawn
from X (20°N 010°E) to Y (40°N 030°W) and measures 305° (T) at X. The RL track
from X to Y is :-
(a) 295°
(b) 305°
(c) 315°
18. An aircraft heading 173° (T) obtains a relative bearing of 313° from a NDB.
Convergency between aircraft and NDB is 14°. What bearings would you plot from the
NDB on a Lambert's chart in:
(a) 074°
(b) 078°
(c) 082°
20. The Standard Parallels on a Lambert's chart are 10°N and 30° N. A straight line is
drawn from Position A (30° N 160°W) to B (10° N 150° E) on a Mercator and a
Lambert's chart. The straight line cuts the 180° Meridian at 244° on the Mercator. The
GC tracks from A to B on the Lambert's chart at 160° W and 170° E are :-.
160° W 170° E
(a) 249.67° (a) 241.41°
(b) 252.55° (b) 242.29°
(c) 254.05° (c) 243.84°
21. Positions X (45° N 010° W) and Y (20° N 060° E) are joined by a straight lines on a
Mercator and Lambert's chart. Lambert's: SPs 20 N and 45 N. Mercator track X to Y is
124° (T) at 40° E. The Longitude that the track on the Lambert's chart equals 124° (T)
is :-
(a) 23°E
(b) 25°E
(c) 27°E
22. On a Northern Hemisphere Lambert's chart the Initial Great Circle track from A to B is
082°(T). An aircraft leaves A steering a constant heading of 082°(T) in zero wind
conditions. The aircraft will pass :-
(a) North of B
(b) Overhead B
(c) South of B
23. A Lambert's chart has Standard Parallels of 15°S and 35°S. The difference between
Chart Convergency and Earth Convergency of Meridians 22° apart at 34°S is :-
(a) 2°
(b) 3°
(c) 4°
24. A Lambert's chart has Standard Parallels of 25°N and 45°N. A straight line is drawn
on the chart from X (42°N 15°W) to Y (43°N 15°E). The true Great Circle between X
and Y will be :-
26. Lambert's charts of the same scale and Standard Parallels will fit :-
27. A Lambert's chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000. The chart length of 1° of Latitude varies
as follows :-
A cylinder is positioned over the reduced earth tangential to the Equator. A light source at
the centre of the reduced earth projects details of the reduced earth onto the cylinder and we
have a Geometric Cylindrical Projection. After adjusting the Parallels of Latitude so that the
scale expansion North/South equals the scale expansion East/West it becomes a Mercator
chart.
CONVERGENCY Constant
Value Zero
Correct at the Equator
GREAT CIRCLES Complex curves towards the nearer Pole Convex to the
Pole, Concave to the Equator
CHART FIT Charts of the same equatorial scale will fit N/S. E/W and
diagonally.
Scale is correct at the Equator and expands North and South as the secant of the Latitude.
Every Parallel of Latitude has its own scale. (SF x cos LAT)
Great care must be taken when measuring distances on a Mercator chart due to the variable
scale. Use the Latitude scale at the mid point between the two positions.
SCALE PROBLEMS
Example 2 The scale of a Mercator chart is 1:3 500 000 at 10°N 10°N = A
At what Latitude is the scale 1:2 500 000? Lat X = B
X = (0.7034)cos -1
CL 2.7 cms
Scale = __ = _______________________________
ED 1° Long x 60 x cos 30 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
Radio bearings are Great Circle bearings. They have to be converted into Rhumb Line
bearings by applying Conversion Angle before they can be plotted.
Both VDF and VOR bearings are measured at the station, thus station variation must be
applied. Conversion angle is also applied where the bearing was measured, that is the VDF
or VOR station.
VOR RMI readings are QDM's. Apply VOR station variation, but not compass deviation.
QDM 100 VAR 10 W QUJ 090 ±180 GC QTE 270 N CA -2 RL QTE 268
QDR 258 VAR 16 W GC QTE 242 S CA +3 RL QTE 245
QDM 113 VAR 15 E QUJ 128 ±180 GC QTE 308 N CA -4 RL QTE 304
QDM 088 VAR 11 W QUJ 077 ±180 GC QTE 257 S CA +2 RL QTE 259
QDR 129 VAR 20 E GC QTE 149 N CA +3 RL QTE 152
QDM 285 VAR 14 W QUJ 271 ±180 GC QTE 091 S CA -4 RL QTE 087
QUJ 131 ±180 GC QTE 311 N CA -1 RL QTE 310
ADF bearings are presented to the pilot by either a RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR (RBI)
or by a RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI).
ADF bearings are measured clockwise from the fore and aft axis of the aircraft and are
termed RELATIVE BEARINGS, that is relative to the aircraft's fore and aft axis. ADF Relative
bearings must be converted into True Bearings (QTE) before they can be plotted on a chart,
NB The GC QUJ must be converted into a RL QUJ before the reciprocal is taken. The
reciprocal of a Rhumb Line can always be taken, never the reciprocal of a Great
Circle
The RMI is a remote gyro compass on which radio bearings (both ADF and VOR) are shown.
As it is a compass, the heading index is heading compass and it may suffer from deviation,
for which a correction must be made to ADF bearings but not VOR bearings. The sharp end
of the pointers are referred to as RMI readings or QDM. The opposite or blunt end of the
needle will be a QDR.
ADF BEARINGS
NB
VOR & VDF APPLY STATION VARIATION
DO NOT APPLY DEVIATION
APPLY CA TO QTE
1. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000 at 20°N. The scale at 50N is:-
(a) N 44:11
(b) N 45:11
(c) N 46:1 I
(a) 263°
(b) 261°
(c) 259°
5. An aircraft obtains a QDM of 275° from a VHF D/F station in the Southern
Hemisphere. Aircraft Variation is 16°W and VHF D/F station Variation is 18°W. lf
Convergency between the aircraft and the VHF D/F station is 6° the bearing to be
plotted on a Mercator chart is :-
(a) 080°
(b) 074°
(c) 071°
(a) 060°
(b) 071°
(c) 075°
8. Two straight lines of equal length are drawn East/West on a Mercator chart. One at
15°S and the other at 45°N.
(a) The line at 15°S represents a greater distance than the line at 45°N
(b) The line at 45°N represents a greater distance than the line at 15°S
(c) Both line represent the same distance
9. Two straight lines representing 200 nm are drawn East/West on a Mercator chart.
One at 22°S and the other at 48°N.
10. The Meridian spacing on a Mercator chart is 3 cms. The Latitude where the scale is
1:2 500 000 is
11. The Meridians on a Mercator chart are 5,75 cms apart. The ratio of nautical miles
to the centimetre at 52°N is :-
(a) 6.42
(b) 7.53
(c) 8.64
RELATIVE VELOCITY
Relative Velocity is the comparison of aircraft speeds or the speed of one aircraft relative to
another.
Aircraft meeting
Aircraft overtaking
Speed adjustment
Meeting
Overtaking
4 4
Aircraft A GS 340 Kts Aircraft B GS 250 Kts
Aircraft A being faster will overtake Aircraft B SPEED OF CLOSING 90 Kts
4 4
Aircraft A GS 220 Kts Aircraft B GS 290 Kts
1150 nm
PY CN
556nm
595nm
X Y
B B A
0750 0800 0800
5 mins @ 350 kts =29 nms
(a) Speed of closing 100 kts (b) Speed of closing 100 kts
Distance to close (55-50) 5 nm Distance to close (55-29) 26 nms
Time to close 3 mins Time to close 16 mins
Reduce speed at 0803Z Reduce speed at 0816
GS 450 Dist 243.75 nm Time 32½ mins ETA 0915 - 32½ mins = 0842½
GS 390 Dist 243.75 nm Time 37½ mins ETA 0920 - 37½ mins = 0842½'
At the point where speed is reduced, the aircraft is 'D nm' from Delta.
QUESTIONS
Q1. An aircraft is at FL 330, at M.85 with IOAT -35ºC W/V 250/45. The aircraft Estimates
overhead PWV at 1011Z, track to PWV is 61ºT the local variation is 21ºE. ATC
requests that the aircraft change GS to 200 so as to arrive overhead PWV at 1020Z.
At what time must the aircraft be slowed down.
a. 1015Z
b. 1005Z
c. 1001Z
d. 1008Z
Q2. Aircraft A is overhead PNV at 1010Z FL 240 enroute to JWV, GS 250kts. Aircraft B is
overhead JWV at 1020Z FL 330 enroute to PNV, GS 420 KTS. Distance PNV to JWV
is 998 NMS. What time will they cross?
a. 11:49Z
b. 11:43Z
c. 11:46Z
d. 11:52Z
Q3. An aircraft flying at FL120, IAS 200 knots, temperature –5° C, wind component +30
knots. At a position 100 nm from the next reporting point the aircraft is ordered to
delay arrival by 5 minutes. The immediate reduction in IAS to comply with this order
is:
a. 50 kt
b. 16 kt
c. 32 kt
d. 41 kt
The measurement of the passage of time is based upon observations of events occurring at
regular intervals. The two repetitive events which most influence life on Earth are the rotation
of the Earth on its axis. Causing day and night, and the movement of the Earth in its orbit
around the Sun, causing the seasons.
The orbit of a planet around the Sun conforms with Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion which
state :-
1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the foci.
2. The line joining the planet to the Sun, known as the radius vector, sweeps out equal
areas in equal in equal intervals of time.
SAX SYC
In the above sketch the planet (P) moves anticlockwise in its orbit and is at its closest position
to the Sun at position A which is called PERIHELION. At Perihelion the Earth is about 91½
million miles from the Sun and occurs on January 4.
At position C the planet is furthest from the Sun and is known as APHELION. At Aphelion the
Earth is about 94½ million miles from the Sun and occurs on July 4.
The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is about 93 million miles.
According to Kepler’s Law the radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of
time. If the area SAX equals the area SYC then as the distance AX is greater than the
distance CY and the orbital speed of the planet is faster at Perihelion than at Aphelion. The
orbital speed of the Earth is variable.
THE SEASONS
One effect of the tilt of the Earth’s axis is the annual cycle of seasons. As the Earth moves
around the Sun, on or near 23rd of December the North Pole is inclined away from the Sun,
which is vertically above Latitude 23½°N. This is known as winter solstice and is midwinter in
the Northern Hemisphere and midsummer in the Southern Hemisphere.
As the Earth travels around its orbit, being a gyro. Its axis will always point in the same
direction relative to space and will reach a point at the summer solstice, on or about 22nd
June, when the Sun is vertically overhead Latitude 23½°N. It is then midsummer in the
Northern Hemisphere and midwinter in the Southern Hemisphere.
Between these dates the Sun. will be overhead the Equator. These events occur on 21st
March which is the spring or vernal equinox, and 23rd September which is the autumn
equinox.
The seasons apply to the Northern Hemisphere and reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.
The rotation of the Earth on its axis is used as a basis for the measurement of the length of a
day. The length of time taken for the Earth to complete one revolution on its axis can be
found by taking the time between two successive transits of a fixed point in space over a
particular meridian.
As stars are at immense distances from the Earth, they can be considered to be at infinity
and rays of light from stars can be considered parallel regardless of the position of the Earth
in its orbit round the Sun. The time interval between two successive transits of a star or a
fixed point in space over a meridian is called a SIDEREAL DAY and is constant at 23 hours
56 minutes and 4 seconds.
The time interval between two successive transits of the True Sun over a meridian is an
Apparent Solar Day.
The Sun and a star are in transit overhead a meridian. After 23 hours 56 minutes and 4
seconds the star is in transit For a second time (a Sidereal Day), rays of light from a star
being parallel. Due to the Earth’s orbital speed (approximately 58 000 Kts) it has moved some
1 400 000 nm along its orbit and the Earth has to rotate ‘X’ degrees before the Sun is in
transit for a second time. This of course takes time thus an Apparent Solar Day is always
longer than a Sidereal Day.
An average of 365 Apparent Solar Days is taken and termed a Mean Solar Day which is 24
hours.
The 24 hour day is based on the Mean Sun. When the Mean Sun is overhead a meridian it is
12:00 Local Mean Time (LMT). Each and every meridian has its own LMT.
The equation of time is the time difference between the apparent solar day and the
mean solar day and is of varying duration.
Because of the relative proximity of the earth to the sun, attempts to measure the
length of the day (one revolution of the earth) are contaminated by the movement of
the earth in its orbit relative to the sun.
To solve this problem, a fixed point in space is chosen which is so enormously distant that the
movement of the earth in its orbit relative to this point is basically zero. This point in space is
called the Siderial point or the first point of Aries.
The Siderial day then, is defined as two successive transits of the Siderial point at the same
meridian. The Siderial day is of constant duration : 23 hours 56 mins 4 seconds.
The Earth rotates on its axis from West to East. It is more convenient to imagine the Earth
stationary with the Sun rising in the East and setting in the West.
ARC TO TIME
The Earth rotates through 360 in 24 hours. 90 in 6 hours, or 15° per hour, there is a direct
relationship between Longitude and LMT. The Conversion of Arc to Time table is available in
the Navigation Tables booklet provided in the examination.
The first six columns are degrees of Longitude on the left with the corresponding time in
hours and minutes on the right.
The right hand column gives the time equivalent for minutes of Longitude.
131º 16'E Arc to Time 131º = 8:44 16’ long = 1 minute 04 seconds 131 º16’ = 08:45:04
UTC is the LMT at the Greenwich Meridian and is used as the standard reference from time
keeping for aviation. UTC is the same as GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).
Longitude East - UTC Least UTC must be an earlier time than LMT
Longitude West - UTC Best UTC must be a later time than LMT
Example 3. If the UTC is 15:30 on the 22nd June GD and the LMT at position X is
09:45 on 22nd June, LD the Longitude of X is :-
15:30 UTC 22nd June
09:45 LMT 22nd June
Example 4. An aircraft departs C (N 45:35 E 010:15) at 15:30 LMT on 15th May LD.
Flight time to D (42:37 E 135:45) is 11 hours 18 minutes.
The ETA in LMT is :-
As every Meridian has a different LMT, LMT is not suitable for civil time keeping. Durban has
a different LMT to Johannesburg. Each country has its own standard time factor which is
applied to UTC to give local standard time. Standard Time tables appear on page 67
onwards. For GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) read UTC.
List 1 Mainly countries with Easterly Longitude (including Spain & Portugal which are
Westerly Long.)
List 2 Countries normally keeping GMT or UTC.
List 3 Countries with Westerly Longitude
Apply Standard Times in the same manner as LMT (Long East - UTC Least & Long West -
UTC Best) or apply as given at the top of each list. Ignore summer time.
The International Date Line roughly follows the 180° E/W meridian, with some divergences to
accommodate certain groups of South Sea Islands and regions of Eastern Siberia.
1. An aircraft departs X(S 23:46E 023:45) at 21:00Z on 3 July and arrives at Y(S 29:13
W 066:30) at 05:58 LMT on 4 July. If the distance from X to Y is 4732 nm the average
groundspeed was :-
(a) 13:00
(b) 13:07
(c) 13:14
4. At 08:15 LMT on 19 th Sept Local Date an aircraft leaves A (N27:00 E 035:15). After a
flight of 7 hours 27 minutes the aircraft arrives at B (N32:00 W 028:45). The LMT of
arrival at B is :-
(a) 11:26
(b) 13:21
(c) 15:16
5. An aircraft leaves Prestwick (N55:00 W 005:00) at 1 115 LMT on 23rd June LD. Flight
time to San Francisco (N37:30 W 122:00) is 11 hours 15 minutes. The LMT of arrival
at San Francisco is :-
(a) 14:02
(b) 14:22
(c) 14:42
6. An aircraft is to fly from Wellington. New Zealand (S 41:10 E 174:45) to Tahiti. The
Standard Time Factor New Zealand is 12 hours) Arrival at Tahiti (S 17:29 W 149:29)
must not be later than Sunset 1823 LMT on 5th March LD. If the flight time is 5 hours,
the latest local mean time and date at which the aircraft must leave Wellington is :-
(a) 10:55 5 th
(b) 11:00 6 th
(c) 11:05 5 th
(a) 135°E
(b) 137°E
(c) 139°E
8. An aircraft flies 1952 kilometres on a track of 270° (T) along a parallel of Latitude. If
the LMT of arrival at the destination is the same as the LMT of departure and the flight
time is two hours, the parallel of Latitude which the aircraft followed was :-
(a) 14:32
(b) 14:42
(c) 14:52
10. An aircraft arrived at A (168°W) at 22:08 Standard Time on 2nd July. Standard Time
Factor 11 Hr. If the flight time from B (174°E) was 7 hours 6 minutes the LMT of
departure from B was :-
(a) 14:26 2 nd
(b) 14:36 2 nd
(c) 13:38 3 rd
11. An aircraft heading 090° (T) crosses the International Date Line at 0600 UTC on 6th
May GD The local date :-
13. An aircraft departs New York at 13:00 LST on 28 th February 1992 on a 8 hour 30
minute flight to Frankfurt, Germany. The LST of arrival at Frankfurt is :-
The time at which the upper limb of the sun is coincident with the horizon. Corrections have
been made for atmospheric refraction.
CIVIL TWILIGHT
The time at which the upper limb of the sun is 6° below the horizon. The degree of
illumination at the beginning of morning and end of evening twilight (in good conditions and in
the absence of other illumination) is such that the brightest stars are just visible, and
terrestrial objects can be easily distinguished.
The rising and setting tables on pages 74 onwards give the UTC at the Greenwich Meridian.
For all places of the same latitude the corresponding phenomena will occur at approximately
the same LMT and this will be approximately the UTC tabulated. since UTC = LMT at
Greenwich. To obtain the UTC of a phenomenon at a particular position the longitude must
be convened into time and applied to the time extracted from the tables. A further correction
for Standard Time Factor must be made for LST (Local Standard Time).
In high latitudes the Sun may be above or below the horizon all day, or civil twilight may last
all night. The following symbols indicate the occurrence of these conditions.
Twilight lasts all night, the Sun is less than 6° below the horizon and it is always lighter
than at the beginning or end of morning or evening civil twilight.
The Standard Time of Sunrise at Amsterdam. Holland (N 52:18 E 005:15) on 27 January is:
January 26 27 28 29
54N 0757 (1) 0756 (2) 0754 (1) 0753
52N 0749 (1) 0748 (2) 0746 (1) 0745
NOTE Making the time difference between dates symmetrical (1 - 2 – 1, 1 - 0 - 1 etc.) will
give a maximum error of 20 seconds which can be ignored.
8 minutes ÷ 2 x 00°18’ (52°18’N – 52°N) = 1 min (to nearest minute) = Sunrise 0749 LMT
1. The Standard Time of Sunrise at Madrid, Spain (N 40:30 W 003:24) on l5 April is:
2. The Standard Time of Sunset at Paris, France (N 48:40 E 002:00) on 7 May is:
3. The duration of morning civil twilight at N 55:45 W 010:15 on 3rd June is:
(a) 38 minutes
(b) 48 minutes
(c) 58 minutes
5. The duration of evening civil twilight at Cape Town (S 33:58 E 018:36) on 6 January
is:
(a) 19 minutes
(b) 29 minutes
(c) 39 minutes
6. Find the ST of sunset at Leningrad Russia CIS (59:46N 030:20E) on local date 22
January.
7. Give the GMT of sunrise at Auckland NZ (36:50S 174:48E) on local date 3 February.
Navigational computer
Navigation plotting is based around the Vector Triangle which comprises of three vectors.
NOTE
The length of each Vector is the value for ONE HOUR. (TAS 240 = 240 nm)(W/V 340/30 = 30
nm)
The AIR VECTOR (TAS & True Heading) has one arrow and is called the AIR PLOT.
The GROUND VECTOR (True Track & Groundspeed) has two arrows and is called the
TRACK PLOT.
The W/V has three arrows. W/V 340/30 is the direction from which the wind blows at 30 Kts.
In the above sketch the Drift angle is 7° Right. The Wind blows from the Air Vector to the
Ground Vector.
The units cannot be interchanged. The Air Vector is TAS and True Heading only (never TAS
& Track)
If four of the six values are known, the other two can be calculated.
CPL NAVIGATION FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE
CPL DOC8
Revision 1/1/2001 Version 7
Page 83
NAVIGATIONAL COMPUTER
Prior to flight the Heading and GS must be known as well as the fuel required for the flight
and the time intervals between enroute points. This can all be found by using simple
calculations from the flight computer or Whiz Wheel.
There are many wide and varied versions of the Whiz Wheel, but basically they can all do the
same thing in the same way. There are two methods of working with the wind side:
The first method can solve all 3 common triangle of velocity problems, method 2 can only
solve 2. Therefore method one will be used in this chapter. In this method the wind is plotted
down from the grommet.
WIND EXAMPLES
Example 1
HDG 330º
TAS 150kts
W/V 040/25
Find:
Track made good
The groundspeed
Solution:
Step1
Plot wind down, then set HDG 330º under index on top.
Step2
Read off the drift 10º left, the TRK is therefore 320º
Step3
Example 2
Step 1
Step 3
Example 3
If TAS is 174kt, Track is 290°, the wind velocity is 240°/40. Find the Heading and GS.
Example 4
You know the following figures, find out the Wind Velocity.
HDG 138°
TAS 120kts
TRK 146°
GS 144kts
Step 1
This side of the computer can do many weird and wonderful calculations, but we are only
concerned with the GS/Dist/Time and the Fuel Qty/Fuel Flow/Time problems.
In order to make things simple we shall use the whiz wheel in the same manner as you would
a electronic calculator, in that we use the following methods for the equations:
DISTANCE
TIME
GS
Fuel
TIME
Fuel
Example 1
If the aircraft has a GS of 154kts, and the Distance for the leg it 77nm, what is the EET for the
leg?
Answer = 30minutes
(found under the Arrow head)
ANSWER 27nm
Example 3
A leg is 25 minutes long, and the fuel flow is 32 lph, what is the fuel burn for this leg of the
flight?
Example 4
If you burn 24 litres per hour, and the duration of the leg is 88minutes, what will be the fuel
burn?
ANSWER = 35 litres
Method:
4 5
Method:
The DOPPLER DRIFT may be given on one heading and the DOPPLER GROUNDSPEED
on another.
In this case the W/V can only be solved by the manual nav computer.
Given: 1000 z Heading 055° (T) TAS 250 Kts Doppler Drift 10° Right
1012 Z Heading 010° (T) Doppler GS 235 Kts
Method
1. Set TAS 250 Kts at CENTRE
2. Set HEADING 055° at TRUE INDEX
3. Draw 10 Right DRIFT LINE
4. Set HEADING 010° at TRUE INDEX
5. Draw arc of GROUNDSPEED 235 Kts
6. Position the intersection of the DRIFT and GROUNDSPEED lines BELOW the
CENTRE CIRCLE.
7. Read off WIND DIRECTION 303° against the TRUE INDEX.
8. Read off WIND SPEED 50 Kts along the CENTRE LINE.
Method:
MEAN W/V
Method:
Select a vacant area on the chart and start from the intersection of a Meridian and Parallel of
Latitude. This can best be done on normal ruled paper using the lines as reference and a
suitable scale.
Join the end (tail) of the third wind vector to the starting point (head) and measure the wind
direction.
Measure the length of the vector and divide by the number of W/V’s to give the wind speed.
The above method is used to calculate the mean W/V at cruising altitude when several W/V
are given for a route.
091º/36.7
Method:
Method:
TAS CALCULATION
Given: RAS 140 Kts. Pressure Altitude 8000 feet. OAT +20°C
Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set pressure Altitude 8000 feet against OAT +20°C
Against RAS 140 on the INSIDE SCALE, read off TAS 164 Kts on the OUTSIDE SCALE.
ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS
Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set Pressure Altitude 20 000 feet against OAT -23°C
Against RAS 320 on the INSIDE SCALE Read off TAS 440 kts on the OUTSIDE SCALE.
RAS 320 and TAS 440 kts are too high due to compressibility, use the correction factor from
the table below.
Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set Pressure Altitude 20 000 feet against OAT -23°C
Against EAS 310.4 on the INSIDE SCALE Read off TAS 427 kts on the OUTSIDE SCALE.
ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS
The chart used for the South African Commercial Pilot's plotting examination is the Lambert's
Conformal Conic of Southern Africa. Scale 1:5 000 000 with Standard Parallels of S 20°:20
and S 33°:40.
The Chart Convergency Factor is 0.45 which is the sine of the Parallel of Origin S 27°:00.
Straight lines drawn on the chart are considered to be GREAT CIRCLES for all practical
purposes, which is the prime advantage of the chart, especially when plotting radio bearings.
The other main advantage of the chart is that Great Circle tracks can be flown which are
shorter than Rhumb Line tracks. This is useful when using Great Circle navigation systems
such as INS, and GPS .
The main disadvantage of the chart is when Rhumb Line navigation is used (flying constant
headings or tracks). This is overcome by splitting the Great Circle track into short segments
of 200 to 300 nautical miles or perhaps 5º of Longitude and using the MID MERIDIAN
technique.
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES
Errors in distance measurement can easily occur. It is suggested that every distance is
measured twice as a check.
Each VOR has a feather indicating Magnetic North. There is a warning on the chart that
these feathers should not be used for plotting purposes due to possible inaccuracies.
Draw the straight line GREAT CIRCLE TRACK from A to B. Select the nearest Meridian to
the mid point along the track, this is the MID MERIDIAN WHERE THE MEAN GREAT
CIRCLE TRACK IS MEASURED.
The usual exam question is -the MEAN MAGNETIC HEADING from A to B is:
Other exam questions are :- the INITIAL or FINAL MAGNETIC TRACK or HEADING from A
to B is:
NAVIGATION LOG
A Navigation Log is supplied for the exam. Its use is optional and it is not inspected by the
examiner. Use of the log does help in answering questions.
SYMBOLS
Several lines drawn on a chart become meaningless after a short while. A Navigation Plot
shows the history of a flight. It is a legal document, even if it is in pencil. Every line must
have ARROWS denoting what the line represents. Every symbol must have a time.
AIR POSITION
The Air Position of the Aircraft at 1320 Z + 1320
DR POSITION
The calculated or assumed position of the aircraft at 1550 Z U 1550
Unfortunately most of the time there is wind (occasionally 200 Kts or more).
Plotting starts from a known point of departure and the initial flight conditions are taken from a
flight plan. Navigation from the point of departure to destination will consist of fixing the
aircraft's position, and if off track, calculating a new heading and ETA for the destination.
TRACK PLOT
An aircraft is to fly from A to B as per flight plan. Some time later, after maintaining a constant
heading a fix is obtained at C.
This is the simple I in 60 rule application that was covered in Navigation General
The procedure is effective and accurate for short range navigation if the angles are small and
no alteration of heading has been made between A and C.
TMG
The Track Error is actually Drift Error when the forecast W/V is in error which is of course
usual. The alteration of heading is made without knowledge of the actual W/V. If the angles
are large then the actual W/V must be found and used to alter heading for B.
W/V
knowing any four of the six values, the other two can be calculated.
Example 1.
TAS 240 Kts Heading 035(T) Track 042(T) GS 275 Kt
The W/V is
By computer WV 260/47 Kts
Example 2.
Sector Track Distance TAS Drift Time
A to B 105°124nm 215 8Rt 31 mins
B to C 157° 102nm 215
Assuming the W/V remains constant the heading to steer and the elapsed time from B to C
is?
Firstly calculate the W V
TAS 215 Kts Heading 097(T) Track 105 GS 240 Kt W/V 333/40
Then B to C Heading 158(T) GS 255 Kt Time 24 min
Example 3.
An aircraft passes overhead VOR PON at 0915 Z maintaining Radial 123 Heading 132(M)
TAS 220 Kt, Variation 18W. At 0935 Z PON DME indicates 85 nm. The W/V is?
Heading 114(T) TAS 220 Kts Track 105(T) GS 255 Kts W/V 243/51 kts
TRACK PLOT
Draw a line from A to the fix (this is the TMG, Track Made Good) and extend for 12 minutes
at GS 240, that is 48 nm to give a DR position at 0957. From the 0957 DR position draw the
new track to B and calculate the new heading and ETA using the W/V found.
With the knowledge of the aircraft's TRUE HEADING, TAS and W/V, an AIR PLOT starting
from the point of departure enables a pilot to calculate the position of the aircraft at any time
regardless of the number of alterations of heading made.
The information required for an Air Plot is readily available. that is TRUE HEADING
and TAS.
Plot the Heading 080°(T) from A using the nearest meridian. This is the AIR VECTOR.
Along the AIR VECTOR plot the AIR DISTANCE flown 120 nm (TAS 240 kts for 30 minutes).
This is the AIR POSITION at 1030, and would be the position of the aircraft in zero
wind conditions.
But the aircraft is overhead B. the reason being the WIND VELOCITY.
Measure the WIND DIRECTION 330° from the nearest meridian. The wind is blowing
from 330°.
Measure the WIND VECTOR 25 nm. the Wind has affected the aircraft for 30 minutes
which gives a WIND SPEED of 50 kts. W/V 330/50.
Plot the 1355 AIR POSITION (TAS 180 kts for 40 minutes = 120 nm)
From the 1355 AIR POSITION plot the new heading 120°(T) using the nearest meridian.
Plot the 1430 AIR POSITION (TAS 180 kts for 35 minutes = 105 nm)
Measure the WIND VECTOR 56 nm in 75 minutes = Wind SPEED 45 kts. W/V 090/45
±180° ±180°
ADF Relative bearings are measured from the Fore and Aft axis of the aircraft.
ADF Relative bearings must be converted into True Bearings (QTE) before they can be
plotted on a chart.
A Position Line at right angles (±80°) to track may be used as a Groundspeed check
Calculate Groundspeed
Measure the distance from the position line to B and calculate time and ETA.
TRACK CHECK
A bearing from a radio facility that the aircraft has overflown or departed from (Back bearing)
is an indication of the aircraft's track or TMG (Track Made Good)
During the 1939 - 1945 war and for some years thereafter most aircraft were equipped with
drift sights. They were optical devices that protruded through the side of the aircraft and had
a grid that could be aligned with objects on the ground tracking below the aircraft. An
accurate drift angle could be measured.
Although drifts sights are obsolete, drift may be given in an exam question.
CP
The drift is applied to the Heading to give a Track Made Good and is used as a position line
to give a Fix at 1335. Note that the drift position line at 1330 is not transferred but extended.
Two or more position lines may be used to construct a fix. The ideal situation is that two
position lines are obtained at the same time, preferably at 90° to each other.
JSV
A position line is usually a bearing of the aircraft from a radio facility. If the radio station were
moved along a track parallel to the aircraft's track and at the same groundspeed. the bearing
of the aircraft from the radio station would remain constant
The aircraft at position A at 0900 Z obtains a QTE of 340° from VDF station X. At 0912 the
aircraft will have flown 48 nm along track to position B. If the VDF station is imagined to
travel from X to Y at the same speed as the aircraft, then XY is equal and parallel to AB and
the line joining Y to B will be an imaginary position line parallel to AX. The distance AB or XY
is known as the run. The line BY drawn through the aircraft's position at 0912 is known as a
transferred position line and has two arrows and no time.
In practice 48 nm is measured forward from where the 0900 position line cuts the track and
the position line redrawn through this point.
The transfer of DME circular position lines is achieved by the track & GS method of moving
the DME station along a line parallel to the aircraft's track at the aircraft's GS and re-plotting
the original range from the transferred DME position.
TIM
As there is no fix from which to start the plot, the 045 track is drawn to cut the three position
lines. It is parallel to the actual track of the aircraft. A groundspeed check cannot be carried
out so the DR groundspeed is used.
This is the normal climb technique used by commercial aircraft. Navigation wise the most
important parameter required for a climb to cruising altitude is the mean climb TAS. This will
occur at the mid-point of the climb in TIME and not ALTITUDE. The mid-point of the climb
occurs at approximately two-thirds of the climb for both piston and turbine aircraft.
Example 1.
Climbing from Sea Level to FL 240 at RAS 175 kts and a mean rate of climb of 800 feet per
minute. Temperature is ISA + 10°C
Example 2.
Climbing from 6000 feet to FL 270 at RAS 225 and a mean rate of climb of 1250 feet/minute.
Temperature Deviation ISA +13C
27 000 feet
6 000 feet
21 000 feet x 2/3 = 14 000 feet
+ 6 000 feet (Initial climb altitude)
20 000 feet Mean Climb Altitude
The above calculations were made with an electronic calculator which corrects for
compressibility. If a manual navigation computer is used the compressibility correction must
be made According to the table below.
A CONSTANT RATE OF DESCENT is normally used. The temperature and W/V at the mid
altitude of the descent are used to calculate TAS and Groundspeed.
Example:
An aircraft cruising at FL 370 at GS 495 obtains a fix at 1000 Z which gives a distance of 230
nm to go to destination.
4 The average WC is the difference between the average TAS and the average GS.
4 The average TAS is calculated by the Total Air Nautical Miles flown divided by the
Total Time.
4 The average GS is calculated by the Total Ground Nautical Miles flown divided by the
Total Time.
GNM ANM
Sector TAS WC GS DIST TIME DIST Average TAS
A to B 150 -10 140 280 2:00 300 780 ANM÷4:50 = 161 Kts
B to C 160 -20 140 210 1:30 240
C to D 180 -30 150 200 1:20 240 Average GS
690 GNM÷4:50=143 Kts
690 4:50 780
Average WC 18 Kt HW
1. An aircraft is flying from A to B, distance 212 nm. After flying 135 nm the aircraft is
9 nm Left of track. The alteration of heading to fly to B is
a) 8 Right
b) 11 Right
c) 14 Right
2. An aircraft is flying from C to D. track 270(T). distance 345 nm. After flying 135 nm
the aircraft is 14 nm Left of track. The new track to D is
a) 274(T)
b) 276(T)
c) 280(T)
3. An aircraft leaves F heading 041(M) in order to maintain a track of 045(M). After flying
220 nm the aircraft is 11 nm Right of track. The heading to steer to return to F is:
a) 257(M)
b) 228(M)
c) 235(M)
a) 257(M)
b) 262(M)
c) 267(M)
5. At 0900 Z an aircraft is heading 137(T) to maintain Radial 151º from VOR CDX. TAS
220 Kts Variation 22W. At 0919 Z DME CDX indicates 78 nm The W/V is
a) WV 184/42
b) WV 261/42
c) WV 004/42
a) 160 Kts
b) 165 Kts
c) 171 Kts
7. An aircraft flies from P to Q. distance 372 nm in 1 hour 50 minutes at TAS 180 Kts. In
order to fly the return trip in 1 hour 45 minutes the TAS should be
a) 215 Kts
b) 225 Kts
c) 235 Kts
a) 130
b) 135
c) 140
a) 119(M)
b) 127(M)
c) 135(M)
10. At 0900 Z an aircraft is overhead NDB NL heading 145(M), TAS 350 Kts.
At 0920 Z the aircraft is overhead NDB CD. 125 nm from NDB NL and the ADF tuned
to NL reads 172 Relative. The W/V is
(a) 025(M)/56
(b) 257(M)/56
(c) 057(M)16
11. An aircraft heading 115(M) TAS 260 Kts. obtains the following readings from a
VOR/DME
0743 Z Radial 253
0748 Z Radial 208 DME 21 nm
0753 Z Radial 163
The W/V is?
a) 022(M)/25 Kts
b) 039(M)/32 Kts
c) 057(M)/16 Kts
12. After flying on a heading of 040(C) for 2 hours at GS 150 Kts. a pilot discovers that he
has not made allowance for Variation 6E and Deviation 2W The aircraft is off track by
a) 20 nm to the right
b) 20 nm to the left
c) 10 nm to the right
d) 10 nm to the left
(a) 1928 Z
(b) 1934 Z
(c) 1940 Z
(a) 1750 Z
(b) 1757 Z
(c) 1804 Z
(a) 0948 Z
(b) 0957 Z
(c) 1008 Z
(a) 1526 Z
(b) 1536 Z
(c) 1546 Z
(a) 8° Right
(b) 13° Right
(c) 19° Right
(a) 9° Right
(b) 15° Right
(c) 22° Right
(a) 137/30
(b) 317/40
(c) 218/43
(a) 332/57
(b) 215/59
(c) 319/53
(a) 337/50
(b) 057/53
(c) 239/63
(a) 1429 Z
(b) 1437 Z
(c) 1445 Z
(a) 2212 Z
(b) 2220 Z
(c) 2227 Z
(a) 1151 Z
(b) 1201 Z
(c) 1211 Z
(a) 1012 Z
(b) 1019 Z
(c) 1427 Z
(a) 2328 Z
(b) 2334 Z
(c) 2342 Z
(a) 1817 Z
(b) 1827 Z
(c) 1837 Z
(a) 1602 Z
(b) 1607 Z
(c) 1612 Z
(a) 0536 Z
(b) 0539 Z
(c) 0544 Z
(a) 1801 Z
(b) 1808 Z
(c) 1817 Z
(a) 1130 Z
(b) 1138 Z
(c) 1146 Z
29. 1605 Z Overhead PORT SHEPSTON EZTZ (S 30:44 E 030:25) TAS 275
kts. On a direct track to PORT ELIZABETH PEV (S 33:59 E 025:37)
1657 Z Overhead BISHO BOV (S 32:55 E 027:16) Reduce TAS 235 kts.
(a) 1721 Z
(b) 1729 Z
(c) 1735 Z
(a) 1839 Z
(b) 1846 Z
(c) 1852 Z
(a) 2221 Z
(b) 2228 Z
(c) 2235 Z
(a) 270/90
(b) 327/70
(c) 352/80
(a) 276/62
(b) 347/40
(c) 008/44
42. The following VOR Radials were obtained from NIEUWOUDTVILLE NVV
(S 31:21 E 019:02). Aircraft track 025° (T), GS 180Kts.
44. The following VOR Radials were obtained from MMABATHO VOR MMV
(S 25:51 E 025:32), Aircraft track 352°(T), GS 350 Kts.
45. The following W/V are forecast for a climb to cruising altitude :-
(a) 250/37
(b) 240/40
(c) 235/33
46. The following W/V are forecast for a climb to cruising altitude :-
(a) 080/38
(b) 085/45
(c) 070/43
(a) 307/44
(b) 330/50
(c) 325/42
48. An aeroplane is overhead FAJS at 6000 ft climbing to FL 190 at a mean rate of climb
of 750 feet per minute. RAS 165 Kts. Temperature deviation ISA +12°C
49. An aeroplane is overhead LANSERIA at 5000 feet climbing to FL 180 at a mean rate
of climb of 600 feet per minute. Temperature deviation ISA +15°C. RAS 172 Kts.
50. An aircraft is overhead FABL at 5500 feet climbing to FL 210 at a mean rate of climb
of 800 feet per minute, RAS 185 Kts, Temperature deviation ISA +13°C.
51. An aircraft is overhead FAKM at 5000 feet climbing to FL 230 at a mean rate of climb
of 1200 feet per minute.
Mean climb TAS 230 Kts, mean climb W/V 225/30, Track 135° (T).
The distance of the TOC position from FAKM is :-
(a) 52 nm
(b) 57 nm
(c) 62 nm
A descent is planned to arrive overhead DURBAN at 4000 feet. Mean rate of descent
750 feet per minute, mean descent GS 195 Kts.
(a) 1331 Z
(b) 1334 Z
(c) 1337 Z
53. 1420 Z Fix JSV Radial 127°, JSV DME 195 nm, FL 330, track 307° (M),
GS 455 Kts
A descent is planned to arrive overhead JSV at FL 100
Mean rate of descent 2000 feet per minute, mean descent GS 425 Kts
(a) 1432 Z
(b) 1435 Z
(c) 1438 Z
The groundspeed is :-
The groundspeed is :-
When the aeroplane is abeam of VICTORIA WEST NDB VW (S 31:23 E 023:08) the
ADF will indicate :-
59. An aircraft is overhead CAPE TOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:36) on a direct track to
PORT ELIZABETH PEV (S 33:57 E 025:35)
The Radial from the VICTORIA WEST VOR VWV (S 31:24 E 023:08) that will be
received when crossing the PORT ELIZABETH FIR BOUNDARY at 24° E is :-
(a) 1130 Z
(b) 1142 Z
(c) 1154 Z
(a) 1704 Z
(b) 1710 Z
(c) 1715 Z
(a) 2314 Z
(b) 2322 Z
(c) 2330 Z
63. 1300 Z Heading 050° (T) Drift 9° Right TAS 200 Kts
1305 Z Heading 120° (T) Drift 2° Left
1310 Z Heading 190° (T) Drift 11° Left
The W/V is :-
(a) 288/41
(b) 310/37
(c) 257/43
From the 1048 Z position alter heading for RICHARDS BAY RB (S 28:46 E 032:05)
The ETA RICHARDS BAY is :-
(a) 1143 Z
(b) 1150 Z
(c) 1157 Z
From the 0950 Z position alter heading for NEW HANOVER VOR NHV (S 29:21
E 030:31) The mean magnetic heading to steer for NEW HANOVER is :-
(a) 1816 Z
(b) 1824 Z
(c) 1832 Z
67. 1200 Z Overhead CAPE TOWN CTV (S 33:58 E 018:36) TAS 360,
Heading 060° (T).
(a) 100/60
(b) 151/60
(c) 085/50
(a) 142/45
(b) 163/55
(c) 185/48
(a) 275/50
(b) 300/55
(c) 330/45
71. An aircraft flying at FL 270, heading 026ºM, drift 10ºR, groundspeed 360 kts. At 1203
the relative bearing of the an island was 330º. At 1209 the relative bearing of the
same island 270º. If the variation is 10ºW, what is the bearing and approximate range
to plot to the island from the aircraft at 1209?
a. 106T – 30nm
b. 286T – 30nm
c. 296T – 36nm
SAMPLE EXAMS
a) 262º
b) 266º
c) 270º
a) W003:37
b) E 012:15
c) E 022:28
a) 1554 nm
b) 1672 nm
c) 1739 nm
4. An aircraft leaves MOCAMEDES (S15:19 E012:10) at 0627 Z. GS 375 Kts. The ETA
at LUSAKA (S15:19 E028:25) is;
a) 08:37 Z
b) 08:47 Z
c) 08:57 Z
5. On a chart a line 58 centimeters in length represents 365 statute miles. On the same
chart a line 13 inches in length would represent:
a) 170 nm
b) 180 nm
c) 190 nm
6. A radio facility chart has a scale of 1:3 750 000. If two reporting points are 17 cms
apart on the chart the actual distance is:
a) 344 nm
b) 364 nm
c) 384 nm
7. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000 at 20ºN. The scale at 50ºN is:
a) 292º
b) 293º
c) 294º
9. On a Lamberts chart the standard parallel of 32ºN measures 77.5 cms. The other
standard parallel measures 72 cms. The latitude of the second standard parallel is;
a) 37ºN
b) 38ºN
c) 39ºN
10. A Lamberts chart has standard parallels of 30ºN and 50ºN. The initial great circle
track from A (32ºN 63ºW) to B (45ºN 15ºW) is 056º (T).
The longitude at which the great circle track becomes 090º (T) is:
a) W 012:37
b) W 010:06
c) W 008:28
11. An aircraft heading 112º (T) in the Southern Hemisphere receives an ADF bearing of
156º relative. If chart convergency between the aircraft and the NDB is 4º the bearing
to plot from the NDB on a Lamberts Chart is:
a) 084º
b) 092º
c) 096º
If both aircraft are following the same route B will overtake A at:
a) 1212 Z
b) 1222 Z
c) 1232 Z
a) 0750 Z
b) 0755 Z
c) 0800 Z
15. A to B distance 413 nm, FL 150, OAT +5ºC, tailwind 35 Kts. The required RAS to fly
from A to B in 1 hour 32 Minutes is:
a) 180 Kts
b) 190 Kts
c) 200 Kts.
16. An aircraft flies from A to B 372 nm in 1 hour 50 mins at TAS 180 Kts. In order to fly
from B to A in 1 hour 45 mins the TAS should be;
a) 205 Kts
b) 220 Kts
c) 235 Kts
17. An aircraft is heading 072º (M) in order to maintain a track of 062º (T) Variation 20ºW.
The heading to fly the reciprocal track is:
a) 252º (M)
b) 262º (M)
c) 272º (M)
18. An aircraft is flying from A to B, distance 266 nm. At 111 nm from A, a fix is obtained
13 nm left of track. The alteration of heading to arrive overhead B is:
a) 9º right
b) 12º right
c) 15º right
19. At 1015 Z an aircraft is overhead VOR CAR heading 195º (T) to maintain the radial
208º outbound, variation 21ºW, TAS 245 Kts. At 1032 Z the CAR DME indicates 78
nm. The W/V is:
a) 321/47
b) 347/53
c) 012/38
20. The duration of morning civil twilight at N47:45 E015:37 on May 18th is:
a) 32 mins
b) 37 mins
c) 42 mins
a) 1857
b) 1957
c) 2057
22. TAS 200 Kts Heading 095º (T) W/V 010/45 Kts
The groundspeed is:
a) 191 kts
b) 201 kts
c) 211 kts
23. An aircraft is overhead FAJS at 6500 ft climbing to FL 230 at a mean rate of climb of
850 ft/min. RAS 175 kts, Temperature deviation ISA +13ºC. The mean climb TAS is:
a) 223 kts
b) 228 kts
c) 233 kts
a) 1840
b) 1845
c) 1850
25. 1127 Overhead UPINGTON UPV (S 28:25 E 021:16) TAS 195 kts, on a direct
track to BISHP BOV (S 32:55 E 027:16)
a) 1335
a) 1342
b) 1351
26. 1508 Overhead CAPE TOWN CTV ( S33:58 E 018:35) Heading 031º (T) TAS
240 kts, W/V 260/55
1553 Alter heading 115º (T)
1637 The mean heading magnetic to steer to reach PORT ELIZABETH (S 33:58
E 025:37) is:
a) 184º (M)
b) 194º (M)
c) 204º (M)
a) S27:00 E030:04
b) S27:28 E029:58
c) S26:39 E030:09
28. 1115 Overhead EAST LONDON ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53) Heading 032º (M), TAS
260KT
a) 265/55
b) 317/48
c) 003/60
29. 1315 Overhead ALEXANDER BAY ABV (S 28:34 E 016:30) on a direct track to
LANSERIA (S 25:58 E 027:55) TAS 180 kts, W/V 230/45
a) 1554
b) 1604
c) 1614
30. The following VOR radials were obtained from Nieuwoudtville NVV, (S 31:21,
E 019:0E). Aircraft track 025°(T), GS 180kts.
1. The initial great circle track from A to B is 067º. The initial great circle track from B to
A is 263º. The rhumb line track from A to B is:
a) 059º
b) 075º
c) 083º
a) E 177:47
b) W 182:31
c) W 177:47
3. An aircraft departs from C (S 23:07 W 005:13) on a track of 090º (T) RL and arrives at
D (S 23:07) after a flight of 378 nm. The Longitude of D is:
a) E 000:33
b) E 001:38
c) W000:18
a) 176 Kts
b) 186 Kts
c) 196 Kts
5. The latitude where the value of convergency is half the value of convergency at 60ºN
is:
a) 30º 00’N
b) 27º 52’N
c) 25º 39’N
6. A Mercator chart has a scale of 1:2 000 000 at 20ºN. The latitude where the scale
would be 1:1 500 000 is:
a) N44:11
b) N45:11
c) N46:11
a) S 40:48
b) S 41:52
c) S 43:24
8. Aircraft A is overhead NDB DN at 0900 Z enroute to NDB PY, GS 245 Kts. Aircraft B
is overhead NDB PY at 0920 Z enroute to NDB DN, GS 305 Kts. If the distance
between DN and PY is 485 nm the aircraft will pass each other at:
a) 0942 Z
b) 0953 Z
c) 1004 Z
a) 218º
b) 222º
c) 224º
10. A bearing obtained from a NDB is 273º relative. Aircraft heading 330º (T), d.long
between aircraft and NDB is 14º, mean Latitude 26ºS, Parallel of Origin 30ºS. The
bearing to plot on a Lambert’s chart is:
a) 063º
b) 070º
c) 077º
11. A Lambert’s chart has Standard Parallels of 30ºS and 50ºS. The Rhumb Line
distance from A (50ºS 010ºE) to B (50ºS 010ºW) is 13.75 inches. The scale at 30ºS
is:
12. Aircraft A, GS 240 Kts is 262 nm from BT at 0915 Z. Aircraft B, GS 285 Kts is 298 nm
from BT at 0922 Z. In order to ensure a 50 nm separation at BT, aircraft B must
reduce its groundspeed to 240 Kts at:
a) 0934 Z
b) 0937 Z
c) 0941 Z
a) 141/30
b) 177/30
c) 213/30
15. What distance in cms would two fixes taken 20 minutes apart appear on a chart
whose scale is 1:1 000 000 if the GS is 180 Kts?
a) 11.12 cms
b) 12.12 cms
c) 13.67 cms
16. An aircraft leaves Tokyo (N36:00 E139:45) at 2100 Standard time on Oct 12
(Standard time factor Japan 9 hours). After a 11 hour flight it arrives at San Francisco
(N 37:30 W 122:00) The LMT of arrival at San Francisco is:
a) 1615 LMT
b) 1537 LMT
c) 1452 LMT
17. The standard time of sunrise at Amsterdam (N 52:15 E 005:15) on 27 June is:
a) 0320
b) 0420
c) 0520
18. Aircraft heading 115º (T) TAS 185 KTS W/V 200/40
The groundspeed is:
a) 186 Kts
b) 177 Kts
c) 196 Kts
a) 1005
b) 1011
c) 1017
20. 0915 Overhead Sutherland SLV (S 32:24 E 020:40) TAS 265 kts, W/V 240/50,
Heading 010º (M).
a) 1034
b) 1044
c) 1054
21. 1310 Overhead Victoria West VWV (S 31:24 E 023:09) Heading 355º (T), TAS 310,
a) 190/42
b) 170/32
c) 220/55
a) 5º left
b) 11º left
c) 17º left
23. The following W/V are forecast for a climb to cruising altitude:
180/30 225/45 260/60
The mean climb W/V is:
a) 220/47
b) 252/50
c) 233/40
a) 2225
b) 2228
c) 2231
25. An aircraft flying at GS 240 kts along track 204º (T) obtains the following bearings
from Maputo VOR VMA (S 25:56 E 032:34);
a) S26:20 E031:22
b) S26:35 E030:42
c) S26:45 E030:11
26. 2115 Overhead Port St Johns PJ (S 31:38 E 029:32) Heading 286º (M), TAS
250 kts.
2243 Overhead Victoria West VWV (S 31:23 E 023:08)
a) 337/57
b) 262/48
c) 225/41
27. 1715 Overhead East London ELV (S 33:02 E 027:53) on a direct track to Maputo
VMA (S25:56 E032:34), Heading 023º (T), GS 310 kts.
1752 Durban VOR/DME DNV (S 29:55 E 031:00) Range 65 nm.
1811 Durban VOR/DME DNV Range 65 nm.
a) S29:10 E030:05
b) S28:52 E030:44
b) S28:50 E031:15
a) 2047
b) 2057
c) 2116
(a) 070/65
(b) 080/45
(c) 090/45
TAS 230kts
Hdg 195° Drift 7° right
Hdg 257° Drift 6° right
Hdg 332° Drift 2° left
(a) 135/30
(b) 144/24
(c) 125/25
1 B 14 B 27 A
2 C 15 C 28 C
3 A 16 A 29 B
4 B 17 A 30 A
5 B 18 A 31 B
6 C 19 B 32 C
7 C 20 C 33 C
8 A 21 C 34 A
9 C 22 B 35 B
10 A 23 A
11 A 24 A
12 A 25 A
13 A 26 B
10.
11.
12.
13.
15
16
17.
19.
20.
21
7926.8333
_________ = 0.367 = cos 68°28'
360° x 60
26.
1037 = Ch long
cos 57:42
= 1941 mins Long
= 32°21 West of E 030:15
= W 002:06
425 nm
_________ = 622 mins Long = 10° 22' Change of Longitude
cos 46:52
33.
34.
Mercator Questions
1 A 4 C 7 A 10 C 13 A
2 B 5 B 8 A 11 A 14 B
3 B 6 C 9 B 12 B 15 C
DETAILED ANSWERS
2.
ABBA A 20N Scale 1:2 000 000 B Scale 1:1 500 000
3.
CL 2.7 cms
S = __ = ___________________________ = 1.3 453 802
ED 1 x 60 x cos 33 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
CL 156 millimetres
S = __ = ___________________________ = 1:3 022 286
ED 5° x 60 x cos 32 x 6080 x 12 x 25.4
( Departure )
10. CL 1 3cm
S = ___ __________ = _____________________________
ED 2500000 1° x 60 x cos Lat x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
( Departure )
1 C 6 B 11 C 16 A 20 B 25 C
2 C 7 A 12 C 17 A 21 B 26 C
3 B 8 C 13 B 18(1) C 22 A 27 A
4 A 9 B 14 C 18(2) A 23 B
5 C 10 C 15 C 19 A 24 A
DETAILED ANSWERS
2. CC = Ch.Long x sin//O
12 = 20 x sin//O SP 30° 20°
12 Change of Latitude 6°32'
= 0.6 = sin 36° 52 Parallel of Origin 36° 52'
20 SP 30 20' Change of Latitude 6° 32'
Change of Lat 6 32" SP 43=24'
4. 76.62 cms 1
Scale = _______________________________ = ________ at 20° & 40°S
22° x 60 x cos 20 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54 3 000 103
5. 80.5 cms CL
_______________ = Scale = ______________ CL = 103.2 cms
Ch. Long x cos 45 Ch. Long x cos 25
12.
15.
17.
18.
20.
21. On a Lambert's chart the Great Circle and Rhumb Line tracks are parallel at the mid
meridian between any two positions.
The mid meridian between 10°W and 60°E is 25°E where the track is 124°RL And
124°GC
24. The True Great Circle between two positions on the Parallel of Origin is a straight line.
The True Great Circle between two positions North of the Parallel of Origin will be a
slight curve concave to the Parallel of Origin or North of the straight line
CHAPTER 3
RELATIVE VELOCITY
Q1 B
Q2 C
Q3 D
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. A
DETAILED ANSWERS
1. April 14 15 16 17
45N 0518 0516 0515 0513
40N 0525 0523 0522 0520
Time difference 7 minutes ÷ 5 x 00°30’ = 1 minute = 0522 LMT
Sunrise 05:22:00 LMT
W 003:24 Arc/Time 13:36
Sunrise 05:35:36 UTC
Spain ST Factor +1
Sunrise 06:35:36 LST
2.
May 6 7 8 9
50N 1924 1926 1927 1929
45N 1910 1911 1912 1913
3.
Twilight N 55:45
June 1 2 3 4
56N Sunrise 0323 0320
Twilight 0225 0221
Difference 58 58 59 59
54N Sunrise 0335 0333
Twilight 0244 0241
Difference 51 51 52 52
Time difference 7 minutes ÷ 2° x 1°45’ = +6 minutes
58 minutes twilight
4
Sunset S 10:00 W 063:45
February 24 26 27 28
10S 1823 1823 1822 1822
6. 20 22 23
N60 1543 1548 1550
N59:46 1550
N58 1556 1600 1602
1550 LMT
-0201 30:20E
1349 UTC
+0300
1649 ST
7. 1 3 4
S35 0519 0521 0522
S36:50 0517
S40 0508 0511 0512
3 FEB 0517
-1139 174:48E
2 FEB 1738 UTC
Time Questions
1 A 3 B 5 C 7 A 9 C 11 A
2 C 4 A 6 B 8 B 10 C 12 C
13 A
DETAILED ANSWERS
11. See sketch on page 4. An aircraft flying heading 090°(T) is passing from Easterly
Longitude to Westerly Longitude. The local date will change from the 6th to the 5th
whilst the Greenwich date will remain the 6th
1 A 4 B 7 A
2 A 5 B 8 C
3 A 6 A 9 C
1 B 23 C 45 C 67 B
2 B 24 C 46 A 68 A
3 A 25 C 47 C 69 A
4 C 26 C 48 B 70 C
5 B 27 B 49 C 71 B
6 A 28 B 50 C
7 B 29 B 51 B
8 C 30 A 52 A
9 C 31 B 53 B
10 A 32 A 54 B
11 C 33 B 55 B
12 A 34 B 56 C
13 A 35 A 57 A
14 A 36 C 58 C
15 C 37 A 59 C
16 B 38 C 60 C
17 A 39 C 61 A
18 C 40 A 62 C
19 A 41 C 63 A
20 B 42 B 64 B
21 B 43 C 65 B
22 B 44 A 66 C
Detailed Answers
1.
Method:
W/V 268/90
Question 38
W/V 008/44
Question 39
GS 305
19 000 feet
6 000 feet
_________
13 000 feet x 2/3 = 8 667 feet
+6 000 feet
14 667 feet mean climb altitude
Question 49
18 000 feet
5 000 feet
13 000 feet x 2/3 = 8 66 7 feet
+ 5 000 feet
13 667 feet mean climb altitude
21000 feet
5500 feet
15 500 feet x 2/3 = 10 333 feet
+ 5 500 feet
15 833 feet mean climb altitude
Altitude 15 833 feet OAT - 4° C RAS 185 kts TAS 240 kts
Question 51
Question 52
Question 53
GS 339 kts
Select W/V
Enter HDG 120°
Enter Wind Direction 045° as CRS
Enter TAS 350 kts
Enter Wind Speed 60 kts as GS
Question 55
GS 414 kts
Select W/V
Enter HDG 270°
Enter Wind Direction 190° as CRS
Enter TAS 420 kts
Enter Wind Speed 75 kts as GS
Question 56
Question 57
Question 58
The QTE of the point along track at 24° E is 164°, VWV Variation 21°W, Radial 185°
Question 60
SL – KMV TAS 260 kts Wind Component 44 kts Tailwind GS 304 kts
KMV – SL TAS 260 kts Wind Component 44 kts Headwind GS 216 kts
Question 61
GGV-VWV TAS 180 kts Wind Component 19 kts Headwind GS 161 kts’
VWV – GGV TAS 180 kts Wind Component 19kts Tailwind GS 199 kts
Question 62
ELV - DNV TAS 220 kts Wind Component 26 kts Tailwind GS 246 to
DNV – ELV TAS 220 kts Wind Component 26 kts Headwind GS 194 kts
DNV – ELV GS 194 kts Distance 246 nm Time 1:16 ETA 23:30 Z
Question 63
If an aeroplane, in zero wind conditions, flies a heading of 040°(T) for one hour, and
then flies the reciprocal heading 220°(T) for one hour at the same TAS it will return at
its point of departure.
This question involves a strong wind, but with an Air Plot the Air Position will be
overhead GEORGE at 1800 Z. The W/V is calculated by the multiple drift method.
Heading 040° (T) Drift 12 Right Heading 220° (T) Drift 10° Left
W/V 333/40 kts
The aeroplane will be 2 hours of the W/V 333/40 DOWNWIND from GEORGE. That
is on a bearing of 153° (T) at a distance of 80 nm from GEORGE.
TAS 190 kts WC 40 kts HW GS 150 kts Distance 80 nm Time 0:32 ETA1832Z
Question 67
1200 Z Heading 060° (T) for I hour at TAS 360 kts. The Air Position is 360 nm from
CTV.
1300 Z Heading 240° (T) for I hour 20 minutes. The Air Position is 480 nm on a
bearing of 240° from the 1200 Air Position, that is 120 nm on a bearing of 240° from
CTV and is the Wind Vector.
Question 68
same as numbers 37 38
W/V 100/60
11.
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C
5. B 6. A 7. A 8. A
29. B 30. B
1. B 17. B
2. A 18. A
3. B 19. A
4. C 20. B
5. C 21. A
6. B 22. B
7. C 23. C
8. C 24. A
9. A 25. B
10. B 26. C
11. A 27. B
12. C 28. C
13. B 29. C
14. C 30. A
15. A
16. C