REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 FOREIGN
Countless factors have been analyzed by educational researchers to explain why

somestudents perform better on standardized tests or attain higher levels of academic

achievement than other students. As a result, data have been gathered from myriad

sources and analyzed by hundreds of individuals to confirm or refute a relationship

between students’ socioeconomic standing and their subsequent academic

achievement. Although the issue is shrouded in emotion,an informed perspective is

required to debate the matter effectively (Betson& Michael, 1997). A review of relevant

literature related to socioeconomic status will help stakeholders and researchers

understand this complex phenomenon and to be aware of society’s attempts to lessen

and, eventually, eradicate the wide achievement gap separating America’s economically

disadvantaged students from those student not economically disadvantaged.

Historical Perspective of Socioeconomic Status

As is so often the case, society’s most vulnerable citizens frequently bear the brunt of

situations well beyond their locus of control. Although this fact regularly went

unrecognized in this country (as in nearly all others), children suffered most from living

in poverty (Crooks,1995). Some United States citizens, as well as legislators and policy

makers, mistakenly viewedpoverty in a stereotypical way as inner city, minority adults

who refused to work (Crooks).However, looking at the historical perspective of

socioeconomic status in the United States offers an enlightening view.

 Galiher (2006) and Darling (2005), used GPA to measure student performance

because the main focus in the student performance for the particular semester. Some

other researchers used test results or previous year result since they are studying

performance for the specific subject or year (Hijazi and Naqvi, 2006 and Hake, 1998).

Many researchers have discussed the different factors that affect the student academic

performance in their research. There are twotypes of factors that affect the students‘

academic performance. These are internal and external classroom factors and these

factors strongly affect the students‘ performance. Internal classroomfactors includes

students competence in English, class schedules, class size, English text books, class

test results, learning facilities, homework, environment of the class, complexity of the

course material, teachers role in the class, technology used in the class and exams

systems. External classroom factors include extracurricular activities, family problems,

work andfinancial, social and other problems. Research studies shows that students‘

performancedependson many factors such as learning facilities, gender and age

differences, etc. that can affect student performance (Hansen, Joe B., 2000). Harb and

El-Shaarawi (2006) found that the most important factor with positive effect on

students' performance is Parental Involvement.

 In his widely cited paper, Romer (1993) is one of the first few authors to explore

the relationship between student attendance and exam performance. A number of

factors have contributed to declining class attendances around the world in the last 15

years. The major reasons given by students for non-attendance include assessment

pressures, poor delivery of lectures, timing of lectures, and work commitments

(Newman-Ford, Lloyd & Thomas, 2009). In recent times, students have found a need to

seek employment while studying on a part-time basis due to financial constraints. The

numbers of part-time and mature students has also risen sharply. The use of

information technology also means that information that used to be obtained from

sitting through lectures can be obtained at the click of a mouse. Indeed, web-based

learning approaches have become the order of the day. Given all these developments

that either makes it impossible or unnecessary for students to attend classes, the

question that needs to be asked is whether absenteeism affects students‘ academic

performance. Research on this subject seems to provide a consensus that students who

miss classes perform poorly compared to those who attend classes (Devadoss& Foltz,

1996; Durden& Ellis, 1995; Romer, 1993; Park & Kerr, 1990; Schmidt, 1983). Based on

these findings a number of stakeholders have called for mandatory class attendance.

Although the existing evidence points to a strong correlation between attendance and

academic performance, none of the studies cited above demonstrate a causal effect.

The inability of these cross-sectional studies to isolate attendance from a myriad of

confounding student characteristics (e.g. levels of motivation, intelligence, prior

learning, and time-management skills) is a major limiting factor to the utility of these
findings (Rodgers & Rodgers, 2003). Durden and Ellis, (1995) controlled for student

differences in background, ability and motivation, and reported a nonlinear effect of

attendance on learning, that is, a few absences do not lead to poor grades but

excessive absenteeism does.

Educational services are often not tangible and are difficult to measure because

they result in the form of transformation of knowledge, life skills and behavior

modifications of learners (Tsinidou, Gerogiannis, &Fitsilis, 2010). So there is no

commonly agreed upon definition of quality that is applied to education field. The

definition of quality of education varies from culture to culture (Michael, 1998). The

environment and the personal characteristics of learners play an important role in their

academic success. The school personnel, members of the families and communities

provide help and support to students for the quality of their academic performance.

This social assistance has a crucial role for the accomplishment of performance goals of

students at school (Goddard, 2003). Besides the social structure, parents‘ involvefment

in their child‘s education increases the rate of academic success of their

child(Furstenberg & Hughes, 1995).

 Understanding the correlation between socioeconomic status and academic

performance is important in determining education strategies. Most states use

standardized testing in determining proficient school districts. They do not take into

consideration other variables, including socioeconomic status, when evaluating

standardized test scores. Much research shows a correlation between different social

aspects of students and how they academically perform. Educators need to determine

what factors affect educational success and exploit ideas in determining ways to

increase academic achievement. Educational reform has been a widely discussed topic

in the United States for many years. The American Institutes for Research (2005)

showed many concerns on recent studies comparing students in the United States with

those of other countries. The 2001, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation mandated

public school districts to become 100 percent proficient among all students by the year

2014. This has increased pressure on school teachers and administrators to perform on

state standardized tests. The California Executive Board (2001) showed concerns

among school district personnel on whether the grading of Socioeconomic Status 18

standardized tests considers the social background of the students. The diversity among

students should be taken into consideration when determining each student’s

proficiency. The purpose of this study is to find if socioeconomic status has a correlation

with academic performance. It will focus on the effects of such variables in small, rural

and large, urban school districts. It will also look at other social factors that affect

academic success.
 Socialization is the process by which human infants begin to acquire the skills

necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most

influential learning process one can experience. Although cultural variability manifests in

the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups the most fundamental

expression of culture is found at the individual level. This expression can only occur

after an individual has been socialized by his or her parents, family, extended family,

and extended social networks. This reflexive process of both learning and teaching is

how cultural and social characteristics attain continuity (Chao, 2000). This theory

therefore adapted the socialization theory. Socialization theory was developed by

Charles Cooley in 1929 and it refers to the parenting practices that influence children’s

development. Socialization is a lifelong process that involves inheriting and

disseminating norms, customs and ideologies hence providing an individual with the

skills and habits that are necessary for participating within one’s own society.

Socialization therefore is the means through which individuals acquire skills that are

necessary to perform as functional members of their societies and is the most influential

learning process. Although cultural variability manifests in the actions, customs and

behaviors of the whole social groups, the most fundamental expression of culture is

usually found at the individual levels, and this expression is usually socialized by one’s

parents, extended family and extended social networks (Harkness, 1996). Chao (2000)

highlighted that usually it is assumed that cultural models define desirable endpoints for

development that inform socialization goals which define the 11 ideas about parenting

in terms of parenting ethno theories.

  LOCAL

According to Kizlik (2012), study habits are different for everybody. A studying

strategy may be effective for one but entirely of no use to another student. However

the study habit fit for one can help the student in different ways. To name one, with

continuous study habits, study skills develop and they create a more effective

understanding about the topic. Study habits can also improve the learning and

understanding about the subject, and thus, the grades.

In the study “Connections between Learning Experience, Study Behavior and

Academic Performance: A Longitudal Study” conducted by Ning & Downing (2010), the

relationship between learning experience and study behaviour on the students’

performance was studied. The researchers tested their hypothesis by a survey given to

396 students from a university in Hongkong. They tested the students’ study habits in

terms of Concentration, Time Management, Self-testing, Study Aids, Information

Processing, Selecting Main Ideas, Test Strategies, Anxiety, Attitude and Motivation.

From the information obtained, Ning & Downing (2010) discovered a positive

relationship between the variables. Aspects like motivation and study strategies in study

behavior were also discovered to be of importance to the current academic

performance.
 Nonis & Hudson (2010) also conducted a study on performance of college

students-impact of study time and study habits in which they found that some study

habits had a positive direct relationship on student performance but others had a

negative direct relationship.

Because of the importance of study habits and attitudes on academic

performance, some researchers have proposed strategies that will help students

develop effective study habits and attitudes. For example, the study of Demir et al.

(2012), which examined the effect of development of efficient studying skills curriculum

on academic achievements and studying skills of learners, found that students can

acquire efficient studying skills by means of curriculum for developing efficient studying

skills. The students were able to organize the study environment and use specific

methods effectively, such as efficient reading, listening lectures, note-taking, efficient

writing and doing homework. It further revealed that those students where the

curriculum was implemented have increased academic achievement as compared to the

group of students on which the curriculum was not implemented. Mutsotso & Abenga

(2010) also propose a paradigm shift in study methods and suggest strategies for both

lecturers and the students in universities towards improved learning and performance.

It is based on the “distributed learning approach” that adequately cater for individual

differences that exist among the students. The model will address the study space

needs and the efficiency and effectiveness of study methods.The study also found that

there was no significant difference of home environment between boys and girls

studying in science stream of senior secondary school.

 Ford (1957) investigated the factors other than intelligence affecting the

academic performance. Sample of forty-eight achievers with a distribution of half over

and half under achievers were interviewed. All the subjects were of average

intelligence. Over achievers were performing much better whereas underachievers were

performing below than the average performance. No significant differences were found

on the items selected as indicators of social class, occupation of father, education of

father and mother, family size, and schooling expectations of the students. Analysis

indicated that fathers of eight over achievers compared with fathers of four under

achievers were in professional occupations. Family size did not differ across the two

groups, nor did the educational characteristics of fathers or mothers.

The type of intellectual environment in the home will definitely have an impact

on the performance of the student and this intellectual environment in turn is

determined by intellectual level of parents, parent’s education, occupation, income, size

of the family. Adolescents are highly influenced by society, socio-economic status, self-

concept, study habits, emotional maturity, which may enhance their academic

performance or may disturb their academic performance during high school period.

Manchala (1996) reported in a study that there was no significant influence of mother’s

occupation on study habits of students, but father’s occupation had significant influence

on the study habits of students.

 According to the national Statistics Coordination Board (NSCB) published that the

full-time workers in July 2010 recorded a share of 64.3 percent of the total employed

while the part-time workers, 35.0 percent. The number of underemployed persons in

July 2010 was estimated at 6.5 million, placing the current underemployment rate at

17.9 percent. More than half (58.1%) of the total underemployed were reported as

visibly underemployed or working less than 40 hours during the reference week. Those

working for 40 hours or more accounted for 40.4 percent. Most of the underemployed

were working in the agriculture sector (46.7%) and services sector (37.8%). The

underemployed in the industry sector accounted for 15.5 percent.Only half of working

students finish college: CHEDMANILA, Philippines - About 216,000 students in the

country are currently juggling school and work, according to latest data from the

Commission on Higher Education (CHED).The figure is about 8% of the total number of

college students in the country.CHED said working students today are mostly into food

service, entertainment and sales, apart from their usual stints as library and research

assistants."Dahil sa financial crisis, kailangan nila ng extra income," said lawyer Julito

Vitriolo, officer-in-charge at CHED's office of the executive director.Vitriolo added that

these students are forced to work because of higher commodity prices and tuition

fees.Jerry Rontal, who delivers oxygen tanks in a hospital. Rontal is currently taking up

Criminology, and needs to pay a tuition fee of P24,000 for this semester.The amount

does not include expenses for books, uniform and public transport."Gusto kong

umangat sa hirap. Kakayanin po, kailangan po eh. Kung hindi ako kikilos, walang

mangyayari," Rontal said.Despite their efforts, the pressure to balance work and school
is just too much for many working students.The CHED said that only 50% of working

students get to finish college, as many cannot cope and cannot concentrate on their

studies, while some have poor health, while others give up because of insufficient

funds.CHED advised working students to get jobs that are not that demanding, and that

are more closely related to their courses. -- Report from Bernadette Sembrano, ABS-

CBN News.

Mentoring Program. Mentoring programs emerged in many countries as an

effective response to the plight of the youth. Mentoring schemes have expanded rapidly

with increasing number of students, young professionals, as well as, adult volunteers

unselfishly giving their time and effort to help 19 these young people in institutions,

schools, community agencies, and in their own respective localities

(www.danilozuno.tripod.com/FilMentoringInc.htm). On the other hand, “Fil-Mentoring,

Inc.” (Filipino Integrated Learning through Mentoring, Inc.) was formally organized in

1994 as a non-profit and voluntary organization involved in propagating Mentoring

schemes and develops supplemental learning particularly for the Filipino street children.

Composed of mostly young professionals, “Fil-Mentoring, Inc.” was created with a vision

of providing these children with adequate skill in enhancing their God-given talents, at

the same time, monitor and guide their academic progress. “Fil-Mentoring, Inc.” also

seeks to assist other institutions, government and non-government agencies involved

with street children, in setting up Mentoring programs that could result in the

establishment of a national forum for research on effective Mentoring schemes and

programs (www.danilozuno.tripod.com/ FilMentoringInc.htm). Mentoring involves

volunteers who assist in institutions, community agencies, churches, and schools on a

sustained and systematic basis. These mentors act as resource to the coordinator,

director, housemothers, and teachers who usually work individually or with small groups

in helping these street children with their activities and relating them to the "outside

world." (www.danilozuno.tripod.com/FilMentoringInc.htm) A faculty mentor guides

students and ensures their growth through oneon-one consultations. The mentor

enriches learning by helping one acquire and 20 improve one’s orientation and lifelong

learning skills. This often leads to friendship that lasts beyond the corridors and

caserooms. (http://www.aim.edu.ph/students/Mentoring.asp) Mentors are more than

role models. They initiate activities that persuade and motivate these children to value

education and view it as an instrument to alleviate their present economic and social

situation. They inculcate in them the message -- "be as you can be" rather than just "be

as I am" (www.danilozuno.tripod.com/FilMentoring.htm). Mentoring, likewise, involves a

higher level of personal commitment than mere conventional tutoring. Mentoring

programs can take place in schools, community agencies, business establishments,

churches, colleges and universities (www.danilozuno.tripod.com/FilMentoring.htm).

  Findings

A quick glance in most educational journals published from the 1990s forward

would yield at least one study that attempted to confirm or refute a relationship

between student socioeconomic standing and academic achievement as measured by

performance on some high stakes exam. Although the issue of socioeconomic status is

emotionally charged, an informed perspective is required to best prepare educators,

administrators, and policymakers to confront the challenge of meeting the federal

mandate that requires academic success of all students regardless of economic status.

The findings presented as a part of this investigation highlighted an unfortunate truth

that even as society continued to make great strides to lessen the negative impact of

socioeconomic status on a child’s existence, academic achievement continued to be

greatly affected by financial factors well beyond the student’s control. The current

research examined the impact on a variety of standardized tests using quantitative

statistical methods and found that low socioeconomic 70 status (students classified as

economically disadvantaged) negatively influenced academic achievement.