JKAU: Mar. Sci., Vol. 23, No. 1, pp: 77-89 (2012 A.D. / 1433 A.H.

)
DOI : 10.4197/Mar. 23-1.6

Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea

Based on the AVHRR Sea Surface Temperature Data

Abdullah M. Al-Subhi
Faculty of Marine Science, King Abdulaziz University
Jeddah – Saudi Arabia
amalsubnhi@kau.edu.sa

Abstract. Dalton's equation is used to study the evaporation in the

southern Red Sea. Evaporation is estimated for three regions; (A)
Jeddah, (B) Jazan and (C) Hodeidah (Yemen). The annual averages of
evaporation for Jeddah, Jazan and Hodeidah are 2.04, 1.29 and 1.25
m/yr respectively. In Jeddah region, the evaporation rate is higher than
those of Jazan and Hodeidah. Evaporation is higher in Jeddah during
November, December and January, while it is higher in Hodeidah
region in the month of October. In Jazan evaporation rate is higher in
July. The correlation between the humidity gradient (ew-ea) and
monthly average of evaporation is strong in all regions being
approximately 0.8, whereas the correlation between monthly average
of evaporation and wind speed is about 0.5. The main cause of higher
evaporation is the humidity gradient (ew-ea) i.e. higher humidity
gradient. In Jeddah region higher annual average evaporation is
observed during 2000 and 2006 with lower values in 2004 and 2005.
In Jazan evaporation is higher in 1999 and lower in 2002 whereas in
Hodidah the higher values are observed in 2006 and the lower values
in 1999. These variations are related to the changes in humidity and
the wind speed at these locations.
Keywords: Southern Red Sea, Evaporation rate, AVHRR SST.

Introduction
The Red Sea, being geographically located between tropical and
subtropical regions, provides a classic example of the interaction between
Monsoon (seasonal) meteorological conditions at the sea surface and the
thermohaline circulation of the basin. It is a long narrow basin lies
77
78 Abdullah M. Al-Subhi

between latitudes 12oN and 28oN. Its north-south extent is about 2300km
and the average width about 280km. The Red Sea mainly exchanges
water with the Gulf of Aden through the strait of Bab el Mandeb with a
small amount via the Suez Canal.
The Red Sea is characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation
which controls the properties of the Red Sea and the flow exchange
through the Strait of Bab el Mandeb (Thunellet al.,1988; Rohlinget
al.,1998; Siddallet al.,2004 and Arzet al.,2007). The average annual
evaporation is about 2 m/yr (Morcos, 1970; Behairyet al., 1981; Ahmad
and Sultan, 1987, 1989; Al-Barakati, 2005; and Matdoukaset al., 2007).
Osman (1984) estimated the evaporation rate near the coast of Port Sudan
as 2.04 m/yr. The computed annual average evaporation in the Red Sea
presented in Sofianos et al.(2002) and Siddallet al.(2003) is about
2.06±0.22 m/yr.
The air temperature over the Red Sea is usually relatively low in
the northern part (Morcos, 1970 and Edwards, 1987) and increases
southward. The warmest region over the Red Sea is between 20oN and
16oN (Edwards, 1987). The average air temperature during February is
approximately 18oC in the northern part. It increases gradually toward
southern part and reaches about 26oC. In August, the average air
temperature increases from 29oC in the north to 33oC in southern
part(Ahmad and Sultan, 1989). Monthly average sea surface temperature
in the southern Red sea is high compared to the northern part (Morcos,
1970 and Siddallet al., 2004). The amplitude of annual temperature
variation in coastal water is greater than those of open water due to the
impact of the land, and shallow coastal waters (Morcos, 1970). The wind
in southern part of the Red Sea reverses direction with monsoon system
over the Indian Ocean. This system controls the water circulation and the
exchange of water with the Gulf of Aden (Neumann and McGill, 1962;
Phillips, 1966; Siedler, 1969 and Patzert, 1974). The flow of water from
the Gulf of Aden to the Red Sea during winter is greater than that during
summer (Neumann and McGill, 1962 and Rohlinget al., 1998). In winter
along the northeast coast strong wind leads to increase the evaporation
and heat loss (Jiang et al., 2009). The possible maximum extent and
differences associated with these strong flows along the axis of the Red
Sea is associated with a strong decline in limits of relative humidity by
both increase of temperature and reducing specific humidity (Eshel and
Heavens, 2007).
 Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea Based on the … 79

Studies of evaporation process in the southern part of the Red Sea

are scarce in comparison with the northern part of the sea. So, the present
work is one of the few investigations carried out for estimating the
evaporation rate from the southern part of the Red Sea based on
meteorological data taken during the period 1999-2007. In addition, it
compares SST data collected from satellites for Jeddah region with
results obtained in previous studies carried out in the region.

Data and Method of calculation

The standard meteorological measurements such as; air
temperature, relative humidity and wind speed for the study regions A
(Jeddah; 18.50-20°N, 39.70-41.66°E) and B (Jazan; 15-18.50°N, 41.50-
42.90°E) were taken from the Presidency of Meteorology and
Environment (PME) of Saudi Arabia. For region C (Hodeidah; 12-15°N,
41.60-42.60°E) the data were taken from the Civil Aviation and
Meteorological Authority in Yemen. The SST data are from Physical
Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC) on
(URL:http://poet.jpl.nasa.gov). Figure 1 illustrates the locations of the
study areas. The water vapor pressure is estimated from daily
observations of SST and air temperature for the period 1999-2007.
The mean Evaporation is estimated using the bulk aerodynamic
method given by (Dalton, 1802) as follows:
E = K(ew – ea)w (1)
Where;
E = evaporation (mm/day),
K = 10.137×10-2 (Osman, 1984),
w = wind speed (m/sec),
ew = saturated vapor pressure at water temperature (mb), and
ea= water vapor pressure of air (mb)
The saturated vapor pressure at water temperature (ew) and vapor
pressure at air temperature (ea) are calculated from the following
equation (Csanady, 2001):
ew = 6.112 × exp (17.67T/273.15 + T) (2)
80 Abdullah M. Al-Subhi

whereew is the saturation vapor pressure in mb, T is the temperature in

°C. The vapor pressure at air temperature is estimated using the
following equation:
ea=ew × relative humidity (3)

Fig. 1. The southern Red Sea and locations of the study regions A, B, and C.

The plots of monthly SST and meteorological data from 1999 to

2007 for the three regions are shown in Fig. 2 (a to e). The composite
gird of the monthly SST is about (0.043945° × 0.043945°) with spatial
resolution of 4 km.
 Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea Based on the … 81

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Fig. 2. Monthly sea surface temperature and meteorological data along with computed
monthly values of (ew-ea) in Jeddah, Jazan, and Hodeidah for the study period (1999-
2007).

Based on monthly values of SST, air temperature and relative

humidity, the humidity gradient (ew-ea) was calculated and the monthly
values of humidity gradient from 1999 to 2007 for the three regions are
given in Table 1 and plotted in Fig. 2(e). The monthly climatology of
SST, air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and humidity
gradient (ew-ea) for the three regions constructed from monthly values for
eight years (1999 to 2007) are given in Table 2. The computed monthly
82 Abdullah M. Al-Subhi

values of evaporation from 1999-2007 are given in Table 3 also and

plotted in Fig. 3. In addition, the monthly climatology values of the
computed evaporation are given in Table 4 and plotted in Fig. 4.
Table 1. Monthly values of (ew-eain mb) from 1999 to 2007 for Jeddah, Jazan, and
Hodeidah.
Monthly values of (ew-eain mb)
Years Region Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Jeddah 16.83 11.78 15.06 14.32 10.78 14.37 16.25 12.38 12.65 15.44 19.83 18.91
1999 Jazan 9.82 8.56 9.70 10.09 11.73 11.58 13.65 14.32 15.93 17.09 16.65 14.99
Hodeidah 7.83 7.32 6.12 6.93 2.82 4.03 0.23 5.76 11.06 11.07 12.14 10.35
Jeddah 19.67 16.49 14.33 15.37 17.52 14.52 13.64 12.74 14.38 18.34 18.16 19.64
2000 Jazan 10.65 8.58 8.50 11.00 8.65 9.11 14.00 12.97 14.35 16.64 14.74 11.60
Hodeidah 9.52 7.95 5.77 6.72 5.43 4.50 5.41 5.69 9.90 13.14 9.59 10.83
Jeddah 17.35 15.39 13.44 14.79 16.59 16.59 29.56 11.24 13.57 16.45 21.79 17.50
2001 Jazan 10.68 7.37 7.16 9.11 9.67 12.44 14.45 10.85 14.81 17.62 16.82 12.99
Hodeidah 10.81 7.20 5.86 4.82 7.33 7.21 8.25 8.75 11.47 12.84 11.43 10.91
Jeddah 18.21 12.63 14.47 13.72 13.92 12.01 13.54 12.71 12.53 17.37 18.22 20.35
2002 Jazan 9.61 8.25 7.54 8.38 10.84 9.73 9.58 13.90 15.10 18.50 13.69 12.41
Hodeidah 8.55 8.48 5.10 6.76 9.67 9.91 7.86 10.39 15.38 11.15 8.16 6.45
Jeddah 16.54 15.55 14.84 13.73 11.99 11.65 14.46 12.06 11.57 14.19 15.57 15.29
2003 Jazan 10.25 6.94 7.02 9.35 10.84 8.90 14.09 13.38 13.02 16.97 14.04 10.62
Hodeidah 8.44 5.66 6.18 6.16 5.81 5.76 4.63 6.24 10.26 11.53 12.18 9.40
Jeddah 15.13 14.13 11.29 13.44 12.82 11.91 12.53 12.79 10.58 14.47 19.05 16.11
2004 Jazan 9.78 8.62 9.20 10.14 8.56 9.83 13.52 13.10 13.99 15.16 11.80 10.65
Hodeidah 6.98 9.46 7.39 6.35 7.29 8.53 8.17 11.57 13.82 14.80 7.40 10.69
Jeddah 16.28 12.30 11.88 10.11 14.46 10.22 15.63 14.15 14.22 15.78 18.44 18.32
2005 Jazan 8.95 8.13 7.28 9.30 12.28 8.05 11.93 15.96 16.07 18.21 15.06 13.47
Hodeidah 9.52 6.79 3.77 5.50 7.69 5.90 6.82 8.37 11.33 16.87 12.30 10.95
Jeddah 16.65 15.42 15.37 15.50 15.65 11.01 18.41 14.46 11.10 13.98 19.16 21.44
2006 Jazan 9.93 8.92 9.24 11.43 12.60 7.02 11.90 11.93 13.41 17.46 12.88 10.62
Hodeidah 7.23 6.21 6.45 8.57 10.68 9.80 10.89 12.13 16.52 21.16 12.91 10.83
Jeddah 17.42 15.53 14.83 14.25 16.00 14.76 16.45 16.34 13.29 16.61 18.48 16.81
2007 Jazan 9.60 9.01 9.86 11.30 13.52 12.27 16.18 16.67 15.06 18.51 16.60 14.29
Hodeidah 9.15 6.67 7.46 7.80 9.21 3.66 7.11 10.29 9.19 11.69 8.49 10.49

Table 2. Monthly average of Sea Surface temperature (SST),air temperature, wind speed,
humidity gradient (ew-eain mb) and relative humidity for Jeddah, Jazan and
Hodeidah from 1999 to 2007.
SST Air Temperature Wind Speed humidity gradient Relative
Months (oC) (oC) (m/sec) ew-ea (mb) Humidity (%)
Jed Jaz Hod Jed Jaz Hod Jed Jaz Hod Jed Jaz Hod Jed Jaz Hod
Jan 26.61 26.51 25.63 23.11 26.21 24.93 3.87 2.84 4.41 17.1 9.9 8.6 62.69 74.8 76.9
Feb 26.09 26.37 25.56 24.02 27.06 26.33 3.78 2.82 4.57 14.2 8.3 7.4 64.92 74.64 73.96
Mar 26.29 26.97 26.3 25.46 28.44 28.13 4.06 2.98 3.93 13.8 8.4 5.8 62.14 71.7 74.59
Apr 27.4 28.36 27.8 28.14 30.6 30.2 3.76 2.8 4.06 13.9 10 6.5 59.22 66.73 71.87
May 28.76 29.77 29.54 30.53 32.43 31.83 3.89 2.8 3.27 14.2 11 7.1 58.2 65.14 72.64
Jun 28.92 29.99 30.41 31.47 33.47 32.77 4.15 3.11 3.44 12.8 9.9 7.0 58.23 64.4 73.48
Jul 30.32 30.81 30.38 33.08 33.63 33.57 3.7 3.47 3.96 16.7 13.3 6.5 54.56 61.67 70.91
Aug 31.07 31.44 30.8 33.15 33.35 33.12 3.74 3.32 3.9 12.8 13.7 8.6 62.87 65.19 70.74
Sep 31.1 32.02 31.8 31.7 32.89 32.3 3.52 2.84 3.39 12.6 14.63 12.5 68.98 68.28 71.45
Oct 31.25 31.9 30.46 29.91 31.37 29.62 2.93 2.56 3.44 15.7 17.4 14.1 69.75 68.15 70.96
Nov 30.02 29.88 27.96 27.5 29.26 27.6 3.3 2.59 3.99 18.8 14.7 10.8 66.19 70.3 72.98
Dec 28.32 28.1 26.61 24.93 27.24 25.86 3.44 2.72 4.21 18.4 12.4 10.1 64.04 73.35 74.34
Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea Based on the … 83
84 Abdullah M. Al-Subhi

Fig. 3. Monthly values of evaporation(mm/month) in Jeddah, Jazan, and Hodeidah for the
study period (1999-2007).

Fig. 4. Monthly climatology of evaporation(m/year) for Jeddah, Jazan and Hodeidah

regions based on data from 1999 to 2007.
 Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea Based on the … 85

Table 4. Monthly averages of evaporation (m) based on data from1999 to 2007.

Months Jeddah Jazan Hodeidah
Jan 0.2018 0.0889 0.1212
Feb 0.1528 0.0664 0.0973
Mar 0.1759 0.0787 0.0725
Apr 0.1574 0.0854 0.0806
May 0.1742 0.0961 0.0733
Jun 0.158 0.0947 0.0749
Jul 0.1924 0.1463 0.0798
Aug 0.1495 0.1421 0.1058
Sep 0.1327 0.1266 0.1324
Oct 0.1492 0.1393 0.1487
Nov 0.1871 0.116 0.1299
Dec 0.2063 0.1067 0.1343
Annual (m/yr) 2.0373 1.2872 1.2507

The annual average evaporation for the three regions from 1999 to
2007 is given in Fig. 5. Table 5 gives the correlation coefficients between
evaporation and the controlling parameters; wind speed and humidity
gradient.

Fig. 5. Annual averages of evaporation (m/year)for Jeddah, Jazan, and Hodeidah regions
based on data from 1999 to 2007.

Table 5. Correlation coefficients between evaporation, wind speed and humidity gradient
for Jeddah, Jazan and Al-Hodeidah regions.
Jeddah Region Jazan Region Hodeidah Region
Correlation P-value Correlation P-value Correlation P-value
Wind speed 0.494 0.000 0.513 0.000 0.472 0.000
(ew-ea) 0.723 0.000 0.831 0.000 0.847 0.000
86 Abdullah M. Al-Subhi

Results and Discussion

The meteorological measurements over the study area indicated
that, air temperature during winter is less than sea surface temperature in
all regions, while in summer it is higher, the opposite (Fig. 2). The wind
speed varies from one season to another; the highest value of wind speed
is recorded in Hodeidah region. Based on monthly values of SST, air
temperature and relative humidity, the monthly humidity gradient (ew-ea)
was calculated from 1999 to 2007 for the three regions and given in
Table (1) and Fig. 2(e). From the table it was clear that, a gradual
increase in the differences (ew-ea) occurred from Hodeidah to Jeddah
region, as a result of high relative humidity from Jeddah to Hodeidah.
The monthly climatology of SST, air temperature, wind speed, relative
humidity and humidity gradient (ew-ea) for the three regions constructed
from monthly values for eight years (1999 - 2007) are given in Table 2.
The computed monthly values of evaporation from 1999-2007 are
given in Table (3) and Fig. 3. In addition, the monthly climatology values
of the computed evaporation are given in Table (4) and Fig. 4. The
Monthly average of evaporation for the period (1999-2007) in the
southern part of the Red Sea (Fig. 4, Table 4) indicated that evaporation
increases from the Strait of Bab al-Mandab to the north. The highest
evaporation was 2.04 m/yr is near Jeddah region due to comparatively
lower relative humidity, while in Jazan and Hodeidah it was 1.29and 1.25
m/yr respectively as shown in Table 4. The results of present study are
consistent with the result of other researches carried out in Jeddah region
(Morcos, 1970; Ahmad and Sultan, 1987 and 1989 and Al-Barakati,
2005). The lower evaporation towards in the southern Red sea may be
due to the higher relative humidity and lower humidity gradient (ew-ea).
In the northern Red Sea the evaporation is high because of the low
relative humidity as shown in Fig. 2d. This shows consistency with
previous studies carried out by Ahmad and Sultan (1989); Eshel and Naik
(1997); and Eshel and Heavens (2007).
During winter, the monthly averages of evaporation in Jeddah and
Jazan regions are greater than those of Hodeidah, as a result of strong
wind along northeast coast. In Hodeidah the highest value of monthly
average of evaporation is in the transition months (May and October),
whereas in Jazan region the highest value is in the late summer to
December.
 Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea Based on the … 87

Correlation of monthly averages of evaporation with wind speed

and the difference (ew-ea) in all regions is shown in Table 5. The
correlation between the humidity gradient (ew-ea) and monthly
climatology of evaporation is strong in all regions and is approximately
0.8, whereas the correlation between monthly average of evaporation and
wind speed is weak in all regions (~ 0.5).
The annual average evaporation for the three regions from 1999 to
2007 is given in Fig. (5). It shows higher annual averages of evaporation
in 2000 and 2006 with lower values in 2004 and 2005 in the Jeddah
region and is believed to be related to relative humidity. In Jazan region,
the higher value is in 1999 while the lower one is in 2002 and seems to
be due to the variation of wind speed. In Hodeidah, the higher value is in
2006 while the lower is in 1999 and is mainly due to the variations of
relative humidity and wind speed.

Conclusion
Dalton's Equations are used to study the evaporation in the
southern Red Sea. Evaporation is estimated in three regions Jeddah,
Jazan and Hodeidah. In Jeddah region evaporation is greater than Jazan
and Hodeidah. Evaporation is higher in Jeddah region in winter, while in
Hodeidah region it is higher in the transition months. In Jazan it is higher
in the summer months. The correlation between the humidity gradient
(ew-ea) and monthly climatology of evaporation is strong in all regions
and is approximately with a correlation coefficient of 0.8, while the
correlation with the wind speed is about 0.5. Therefore the evaporation
mostly depends on the humidity gradient over the southern part of the
Red Sea and the wind speed.
Acknowledgment
This work has been achieved with the help of Prof. Fazal A.
Chaudhry who gave lots of advices during the preparation of the
manuscript.
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 Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea Based on the … 89


 
         
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