Types of piles

Classification of the piles is done on the basis of function as follows :

1) Compaction pile :
This type of pile are driven in loose sand in order to increase its density as well as the
bearing capacity. Such type of piles are provided in the areas which are prone to
liquefaction such as near the sea and water bodies.
2) Tension/Uplift pile :
This type of piles are used to anchor the structure subject to uplift pressure caused by
swelling of the soil such as black cotton soil, bentonite or the soil which contains large
amount of montmorillonite
3) Fander pile :
This type of piles are used to anchor the structure subjected to tidal waves caused by
seismic activities or ship action. This type of pile are used to support marine structures.
4) Batter pile :
This type of piles are driven in inclined in inclined direction to prevent the horizontal thrust
and inclined forces.
5) Sheet pile :
This type of pile are used to retain earth mass and also used below the hydraulic structure
so that piping failure can be minimized.
6) Franky pile :
This type piles possess enlarged base at the bottom. These piles are essentially cast-in situ
piles.
7) Vibro pile :
In this type of piles soil is extracted and pile is driven downwards by tamping blows
simultaneously
8) Raymond pile :
The pile having tapered cross section with large diameter at top and smaller diameter at the
bottom.
9) Mac-Arthur pile :
Pile having uniform cross section throughout its length.
 10) Under-reamed piles :
Under-reamed piles are used in expansive soils ( soil having high swelling shrinkage such
as black cotton soil, containing large amount of montmorillonite which is usually found in
Maharashtra region ). To prevent the uplift pressure by the action of swelling.
Under-reamed piles can not be driven as the have large base at the bottom therefore these
are essentially cast in-situ bored piles. The depth at which bulb should be placed must be
situated in a stable zone. It means there should be no fluctuation in water table. Due to
presence of the bulb base resistance increases because the compacted soil below the bulb
acts as per the end bearing pile. The bulb diameter should be two to three times the shaft
diameter.
In multi bulb under-reamed pile skin friction resistance also increases and minimum center
to center spacing should be at least 1.5 times the bulb diameter.

Assumptions in Boussinesq’s theory

1) The general assumptions of homogeneity of soil and isotropy of material is valid for this
theory.
2) Area of the soil below footing is considered as extending infinitely where as the depth of
the soil is limited.
3) Stress is directly proportional to strain upto proportionality limit that is there is no change
in modulus of elasticity of soil.
4) The soil under consideration possess negligible mass.
5) Volumetric change of soil due to application of load is neglected that is poisson’s ratio of
soil approaches to half.
6) Top surface of the soil is subjected to point load only.
7) Distribution of the stress about the vertical axis is symmetrical.

IS Code guideline to calculate the stiffness of Soil spring

1)The total allowable load on pile must be taken equal to fifty percent of ultimate load at
which net settlement of the pile is equal to ten percent of its diameter.
 2) The total allowable load on pile must be taken equal to two third of ultimate load at
which net settlement of the pile is equal to 12mm.
3) The total allowable load on pile must be taken equal to two third of ultimate load at
which net plastic settlement of the pile is equal to 6mm

CODAL PROVISIONS FOR PILE FOUNDATION

 Designer analysis of pile foundation is done as per IS2911-2010

 IS2911-2010 states about various piles that is anchor pile (IT resists full as well as uplift
force), batter pile (This type of piles are casted at an angle to the vertical, they can be
temporary as well as permanent). Temporary batter piles comes with temporary casing, it
can also be called as permanent liner.
 Batter piles are essentially classified as under raker pile.
 Equipments and accessories used for casting piles are stated as below:
o Dolly is a cushion of some desirable material or tough wood.
o Top of the casing is the place where dolly is placed. It is the portion of the pile
where the blows of the hammer are applied at a suitable interval.
o Drop hammer which is also called as monkey is rasied by a suitable height by a
means of wench and then it is allowed to free fall under the action of gravity.
o Single acting hammer is operated by the means of steam( air which is compressed)
or by the means of internal combustion. The energy required for single acting
hammer is not only derived from the gravity but also from a motive force.
o Hydraulic hammer mainly derives its strength from the hydraulic energy by means
of a suitable fluid this also helps advantageously to increase the energy of the blows.
 o There is some dead weight which is used for application of force on a pile, which
is also called as kenthledge.
o There is a movable steel structure for assembling piles in the appropriate positions
and creating suitable alignment by provision of hammers operating in a reference
frame is called as pile rig.
 Structural Capacity
If the pile is entirely embedded in the sub soil strata that is the undrained shear strength is
more than 0.01 N/sq.mm then its load carrying capacity along the axis must not be
considered by its strength and also not as a long column. If in case piles are installed
through very weak soil that is the undrained shear strength is not more than 0.01 N/sq.mm,
some of the special considerations are to be made whether if the pile in the CPRF
foundation would behave like a short column or a long column. If there is a need some
reduction factor shall be applied for the computation of its structural strength which must
cover all the structural principles of buckling phenomenon, as in case of RCC piles would
behave like RC column and provisions are made as per IS 456 2000. Whereas in case of
steel piles it will behave like a steel column and provisions are made as per IS 800:2007.
If in case the fully completed pile projects well above the top surface of the soil and it does
not secure any strength against buckling by the means of sufficient bracings then the
effective length criteria is decided by the length of fixity imposed on it. The depth below
the top of sub soil to the lower point of inflection shows variation as per the soil conditions.

If the soil is good enough lower point of inflection can be considered at a depth of 1 m
below the top surface of the soil provided that it is subjected to at least three multiplied by
the diameter of the pile. Whereas in weak compressible soil, saturated soil, where the water
table has rose upto the top surface of the raft in rainy season, soft silt or soft clay whose
undrained shear strength is not more than 0.01N/sq.mm. The point inflection may be taken
at fifty percent the depth of embedment into the weak stratum but it shall not be more than
3m or ten times the diameter of the pile, consider the greater value from above two criteria.
The amount of fixation of the pile and its inclination must be braced or restrained by any
sort of bracing and must be under the accepted criteria of all the structural principles.
Lateral load capacity of pile raft foundation system:
Piles which are casted along with the combine pile raft foundation may be subjected to
several lateral forces such as
1. Wind pressure acting on the building or structure whose combine pile raft foundation is
under consideration.
2. Forces induced because of earthquake acting on the building or structure whose combine
pile raft foundation is under consideration.
3. In case of hydraulic structures the pile raft system may be subjected to lateral forces
which are induced as a result of water currents.
4. Combined pile raft foundation associated with earth retaining structures like retaining
wall, bridge abutment etc. will be subjected to lateral earth pressure.
5. Pile raft foundation system which are caste along with the bridge foundation system will
be subjected to lateral load which are coming as a result of moving vehicles, wind pressure
on the bridge as well as the centrifugal force.
6. In case of combined pile raft foundation system associated with docks ad harbors will
be subjected to horizontal load coming as a result of the impulse force from the hauling
ships.
The lateral load carrying capacity of an individual pile is dependent not only on the lateral
subgrade modulus of the adjoining soil but also depends upon the structural strength of pile
as a whole against the bending mechanism.
As there is very less information available on lateral subgrade modulus of soil some
standard refinements in the theoretical analysis are suggested for the adequacy of a design.
Moreover all the parameters should be checked by suitable field tests using model and
prototype system. In a zone which is highly prone to liquefaction of the soil that is loose
saturated sand due to seismic disturbance (earthquake or dynamic loading) the volume of
soil decreases hence pore water pressure becomes positive, due to high pore pressure
sudden decrease in effective stress and decrease in shear strength is recorded, consequently
large settlement of foundation suddenly occurs along with vertical flow of muddy soil or
water such phenomenon is called liquefaction of soil . Where there is excessive dissipation
of pore water pressure as per the Terzaghi’s theory the horizontal resistance of the soil
which is under consideration must not be essentially considered.
Boundary Condition for pile
Whenever the number of piles is more than three or equal to three a pile must be connected
to the adjoining piles by means of rigid jointed pile caps. As a result of which the rigid end
of the pile cap must be considered as fixed headed. All the pile caps of this group must be
inter connected to each other by beams spanning in two directions. In case of only two piles
if the piles are connected by horizontal beam having a common axis which is embedded in
the pile cap shall also be considered as fixed. In all other conditions the pile must be taken
with free headed conditions.
Analysis of pile groups
In order to calculate or evaluate the load carrying capacity of pile groups several number
of equations which are effective in designing the efficiency are implemented and given a
special focus. However, it is extremely difficult to setup these equations of efficiencies to
the utmost accuracy as the behavior of group of pile is dynamic in nature and is highly
dependent on several complex issues. Hence, it is essential to consider each case separately
and treat it on the basis of merit.
The ultimate load carrying capacity of group of piles may be equal to or may be not more
than the ultimate load carrying capacity of a single pile considered at a time when being
multiplied by the number of piles in a particular group. The above statement holds correct
wherein friction piles are driven into progressively stiffer strata or in case of piles deriving
their strength from the end tips. For the particular piles which are driven in lose soils for
e.g. sandy soil the capacity of group as a whole can even be on the upper end due to the
effect compaction. In case if the piles are taking their support as a result of friction and are
rigidly connected by means of pile cap or raft as far as the scope of this thesis is concerned.
The group can be perceived as a block of piles entirely embedded within the sub soil strata.
The ultimate load carrying capacity of the group may then be determined by considering
the capacity nearly due to friction along the periphery of the block as well as the end
bearing action which comes at the bottom of the block taken as a whole considering the
basic principles of geotechnical engineering.
When raft foundation or the raft panel or as per the scope of project we may consider it as
pile cap if casted directly on essentially rigid and firm stratum which eventually supports
the piles will contribute to the ultimate load carrying capacity of the group as a whole. If
the pile is under the action of moment or twist due to the action of super structural load or
raised as an effect of inaccuracy in the installation process. The adequacy of the pile group
in the above case must be checked for the applied moment. If at all the pile is subjected to
moments or torsion which arises due to horizontal loads or loads coming due to
eccentricity, rigid beams must be provided connecting top of each pile, embedded in the
pile cap to provide restrains from rotational as well as lateral movement.
Factor of safety
Factor of safety must be selected after giving consideration to the following factors:
1)Unity – Risk of the evaluated value for ultimate load carrying capacity of pile
2)Type of the super structure along with its loading.
3)Total as well as differential settlement of the structure under consideration.
When the ultimate load carrying capacity is determined from dynamic as well as static
formula the margin of safety would directly depend on the reliability of the equation and
reliability of the soil strata used in the evaluation. If we consider the static formula factor
of safety shall be taken as 2.5.
Highest value of factor of safety for the purpose of determining the safe load on piles can
be adopted as per following criteria:
1) To avoid unequal settlement or to restrict the settlement to certain limit
2) To incorporate dynamic loading or large impulse.
3) To consider the deterioration of several properties of soil.

Transient Loading

If the building associated with the pile raft foundation is being subjected to wind action
then the safe load must be increased by 25 percent. Incase the foundation system is
subjected to excessive loads and moments which are arising as a result of earthquake the
safe load on the individual pile must be limited to the provision given in IS1893-Part I. If
any transient load comes on the foundation system due to the superimposed load or live
load no increase is allowed. During the construction and execution process an excessive
load of 10 percent is allowed on an individual pile. However the total load on the group of
piles must not be exceeded beyond 25 percent of the total load.

Codal Provisions for reinforcement detailing

1)Design and analysis of the reinforcement cage generally depens upon the driving and the
method of installation. It also depends upon the nature of soil strata and the nature of load
applied on the pile (axial load). Area of longitudinal reinforcement to be provided in the
piles shall be at least 0.4 percent of the effective cross sectional area of the shaft. No space
along the length of the pile shall be left without minimum reinforcement, if at all
reinforcement is not required.

2)Curtailment of reinforcing bars along the length of the pile essentially depends on the
amount of load imposed and the adjoining soil strata. If the pile under consideration is
subjected to only compressive force the reinforcement must be curtailed at equal intervals
as per the design requirements from IS456-2000

3)Reinforcement must be provided through the length of the pile if the pile is subjected to
moment lateral force or uplift. In soft clays, saturated soil or loosely packed sands or the
location where there might be a sign of danger to green concrete due to piling activity of
adjoining piles reinforcement must be provided throughout the depth of the pile foundation
even if the pile is not subjected to any lateral load or uplift buoyant. Still minimum
reinforcement is to be provided along the length of the pile from the pile cap to the end tip.

4)Reinforcement in the piles must be provided in the form of dowel bars keeping sufficient
amount of bond length in the pile along its length upto the cut-off level and sufficient
amount of projections must be kept into the pile cap, even if there is no need of
reinforcement from bending moment and shear force criteria.

5) A minimum clear cover of 50mm must be provided to the main reinforcement in the
pile. Lateral ties must be provided in the form of reinforcing cage. They can take either of
the forms that is links or spirals. Designer must ensure that sufficient amount of rigidity is
imparted to the reinforcing cage during the installation and handling stage by making
proper use of diameter of reinforcing bars and appropriate pitch( spacing). Diameter of the
links or spirals whatever the case may be shall not be less than 8mm the pitch or the spacing
between the links in any case must be greater than 150mm.

6) In order to provide rigidity to the reinforcing cage stiffner rings are preferably provided.
Diameter of the stiffner rings must be equal to 16mm , whereas the center to center spacing
must be equal to 1.5m preferably. Number of vertical bars for a circular pile shall not be
less than 6 in number. Horizontal spacing between the adjoining vertical bars must not be
less than 4 times the MAS ( Maximum aggregate size). If at all it is required bundling of
bars must be done to maintain uniform spacing of reinforcing bars.

Reinforcement details for raft

Raft in combined pile raft foundation assumes that load from the column is dispersed in all
directions at forty five degree angle ranging from the top to raft panel to the center of pile
cap. As well as from the base of the column , the haunch and pedestal. Similarly, the
reaction coming from the bottom piles is also assumed to be distributed at forty five degree
angle from top of the pile to center of the pile cap. On the basis of these assumptions
maximum bending moment, maximum torsional force, axial force and shear force are
evaluated at the crucial points as per this method in the analysis and design process stress
must comply with IS456-200.

Depth of the raft panel must be enough to large ensure the anchorage of the column or the
reinforcement in the pile are sufficiently embedded. The imposed on the raft panel must be
equally distributed on the pile. To ensure this case raft panel must be rigid enough. In case
there is possibility of differential settlement in large raft panel provision must be made for
the consequential moment and shear coming into the picture.

At least a projection of 150mm shall be provided beyond the corner pile in the overhang
of the raft panel. At least 75mm thick subbase course of concrete must be provided below
the raft panel. Clear cover not less than 60mm must be provided for the main reinforcement
in accordance with IS2911-2010.

At least 75mm of pile must be embedded in the raft panel or the pile cap.

Specifications for concrete

Concrete must be consistent if piles are driven in-situ. Concrete mix must be homogenous
workable and consistent enough for the installation procedure. Slump cone test must be
performed at the time of pouring concrete in the pile hole. The amount of subsidence must
be equal to 150 to 180mm , in other words it must be a collapse slump. At least M25 grade
of concrete must be used for casting the piles. Preferably sub aqueous concrete shall be
followed. In case the piles are casted in aggressive atmosphere sulphate resisting cement
must be used. Cement content in the design mix must at least be equal to 400 kg/cu.m. In
case admixtures are used in the concrete mix design the cement content can be reduced to
350kg/cu.m.

Spacing of pile Foundation

In case of end bearing piles the minimum center to center spacing between adjoining piles
is taken as 2.5 times diameter. Where as in case of friction piles the minimum center to
center spacing between adjoining piles is taken as 3 times diameter of the pile. If the
diameter of the pile is less than 600mm then it is called as small pile. If diameter of the pile
is greater than or equal to 600mm then it is termed as larger pile. Diameter of the pile shall
be at least equal to 450mm.

Methods on Analysis of raft foundation

To identify the distribution of contact pressure below the raft is the most essential task in
the design of the raft foundation. Several necessary assumptions are made to make the
problems associated with the raft simpler. No sooner than the contact pressure distribution
is evaluated , shear force and bending moment can be computed on the basis of static
analysis. Following two methods are suggested by IS2950-Part I . Designer must choose
the specific method on the basis of the given assumptions.
1)Rigid Foundation :
This is the conventional method adopted on the basic assumption that the contact pressure
if linearly distributed. Several other assumptions associated with this method are as
follows:
 The footing material is comparatively more rigid as compared to the supporting
soil, where as the compressible soil layer is extensively shallow.
 The pressure at the bottom of the footing is assumed to be planar such that if we
calculate the centroid of the pressure distribution diagram it must coincide with the
resultant of all the forces acting together on the foundation system inclusive of dead
weight.
The above method can be used when the following situations arise :
  If the stiffness factor (K) is greater than 0.5 , the structure behaves as a rigid
foundation. Relative stiffness factor is calculated considering the action of super-
structure and sub-structure together.
 If the center to center distance between adjacent column is less than 1.75 divided
slenderness ratio of the column.

The Rigid foundation is divided into the strips which are perpendicular to each other
having equal width. In such cases the designer must check that the variation in the loads
and spacing of adjoining column is not exceeding 20% of the peak value. Each strip is
separately analyzed considering it as an inverted beam with a known column loads and
the part of contact pressure which combinedly acts as action reaction pair . These beams
must be designed on the basis of the coefficient table for moment given in IS456-2000.
It is not necessary to check these beams for the action of shear. The above assumptions
holds strong in case of organic soils, normally consolidated clay, mixture of peat and
muck.

1)Flexible Foundation :

Basic assumption in this method is that the soil can be modelled as elastic springs of
which subgrade modulus (K) is known to us. Modulus of subgrade reaction is readily
available in standard book by Bowels , more over the modulus of subgrade reaction can
be easily determined by Vesic’s equation (Refer Chapter 3). The settlement at any point
under the raft foundation is directly proportional to the contact pressure at that point.
The conditions to design and analyze the foundation by above method are as follows :

 If the stiffness factor (K) is greater than 0.5 , the structure behaves as a flexible
foundation. Relative stiffness factor is calculated considering the action of super-
structure and sub-structure together.
 The designer must check that the variation in the loads and spacing of adjoining
column is not exceeding 20% of the peak value.
This method is basically derived from the assumptions given by elastic plate theory. It
is based upon the theory of plates proposed by Winkler. Deflections and the contact
pressure for the raft are also determined by the plate theory, all the formulae obtained
by the plate theory are discussed in chapter 3 under the PDR method.