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Lecture 4:
Power machines heat engines spark ignition piston-cylinder engine
principal parts

cylinder
piston
spark plug
combustion chamber
connecting rod
crankshaft
cylinder head
intake valve
exhaust valve
cylinder block

NOTE:
crankshaft and connecting rod
convert reciprocating motion of the
piston into rotary motion of the
crankshaft

fundamental definitions
BORE D inner diameter of cylinder
TDC Top Dead Center extreme
position of the piston when volume
between piston and cylinder is at minimum
BDC Bottom Dead Center extreme
position of the piston when volume
between piston and cylinder is at maximum
STROKE L maximum distance the
piston travels in one direction
PISTON DISPLACEMENT PD
volume displaced by piston as it moves
between TDC and BDC
compression ratio
π
V V PD = ⋅ D2 ⋅ L
r = max = BDC 4
Vmin VTDC
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Chrysler Corporation, 4 cylinders spark ignition engine, total PD=2.2litre

bore D=87.5mm, stroke L=92mm, power 65kW at 5000rev/min
 3

DOHC (Double Overhead Camshaft) Boxer arrangement of 6 cylinders,

of 16V (sixteen valves engine) 24V engine

Four(4)-stroke engines:
the cycle is executed during four (4) strokes of the piston and the crankshaft
completes two(2) revolutions per one complete cycle,

Two(2)-stroke engines:
the cycle is executed during two (2) strokes of the piston and the crankshaft
completes one (1) revolution per one complete cycle,

(2) strokes engine arrangement

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One cycle of four-stroke spark ignition engine

Operation of the engine during intake

stroke

The piston moves down drawing in fresh

air-fuel mixture through the intake valve
into the cylinder. The pressure in the
cylinder is slightly below the atmospheric.
The crankshaft rotates by the half of the
revolution.

Operation of the engine during

compression stroke

Both the valves are closed. The piston

moves upward compressing the air-fuel
mixture. Shortly before the piston reaches
TDC position the spark plug fires and the
mixture ignites and the pressure and
temperature of the combustion gases
increase. The crankshaft rotates by the
second half of the revolution. In turn,
during intake and compression strokes the
crankshaft executed one complete
revolution.
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Operation of the engine

during power (expansion) stroke

Both the valves are closed. The high-

pressure gases force the piston to move
down towards BDC position. The piston
forces the crankshaft to rotate by
subsequent half of revolution producing
work on output. At the end of this stroke the
piston reaches the BDC position and all the
cylinder volume is filled with the combustion
gases.

Operation of the engine

during exhaust stroke

The exhaust valve opens and piston

starting from BDC position moves upward
purging the combustion gases through the
exhaust valve out of the cylinder. At the
end of this stroke the piston reached TDC
position, the exhaust valve closes. The
pressure in the cylinder is slightly above
below the atmospheric. The crankshaft
rotates by the half and completes the
second revolution of the crankshaft ending
the cycle.
Then, the complete cycle has been executed
during two revolutions of the crankshaft
and only during the half of one revolution
the work is produced on output.
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Real p-V diagram of a spark ignition 4-stroke piston-cylinder engine

theoretical p-V diagram the OTTO cycle

working fluid: air at constant properties determined at room temperature

processes for the cycle

1-2 isentropic (S=const) compression
2-3 isochoric (V=const) heat input
3-4 isentropic(S=const) expansion
4-1 isochoric (V=const) heat output
Theoretical efficiency of heat-to-work energy conversion process for the piston spark
ignition engine
The 1-st law ∆U = Q − W
for the cycle ∆U = 0
hence Q − W = Qin − Qout − Wout = 0

and Wout = Qin − Qout

theoretical (thermal) efficiency
Wout Qin − Qout
ηt = =
Qin Qin
 7

Otto cycle

Heat input
Qin = m ⋅ cυ ⋅ (T3 − T2 )

Heat output Qout = m ⋅ cυ ⋅ (T4 − T1 )

V1 V4
Compression ratio r= =
V2 V3
Equations of the isentropic processes:
n −1
n −1 n −1 T V 
process 1-2 T1 ⋅ V
1 = T2 ⋅ V
2 hence 2 =  1  = r n −1
T1  V2 

cp
where n is the isentropic exponent n = , for air at room temperature n = 1.41
cυ
n −1
n −1 n −1 T V 
process 3-4 T3 ⋅ V 3 = T4 ⋅ V 4 hence 3 =  4  = r n −1
T4  V3 

T2 T3 T2 T1
in turn = hence =
T1 T4 T3 T4
theoretical efficiency determined based on the Otto cycle
 T1 
1 − 
m ⋅ cυ ⋅ (T3 − T2 ) − m ⋅ cυ ⋅ ( T4 − T1 ) T4 − T1 T4  T4 
ηt = = 1− = 1− ⋅
m ⋅ cυ ⋅ (T3 − T2 ) T3 − T2 T3  T2 
1 − 
 T3 
 T1   T2 
1 −  =  1 − 
 T4   T3 
T4 1
= n −1
T3 r
 8

Theoretical efficiency of the piston-cylinder spark ignition engine

1
ηt = 1 −
r n −1

Conclusions
• the efficiency increases rapidly at low compression ratios,

• from about r=8 the curve flattens and increase in the thermal efficiency
is slow at high values of the compression ratios,

Limitations on compression ratio values for piston spark ignition engines:

• temperature of the air – fuel mixture rises during the compression stroke
and when high r values are used the temperature of the air-fuel mixture
can rise above the ignition temperature which is the temperature at
which the fuel autoignites (yet during compression stroke) without the
help of a spark,

• the autognition causes an early and explosive burn of the fuel and
produces loud noise which is called as the engine “knock”,

• in turn when autoignition occurs the up-rising piston is attempting to

squeeze the rapidly developing combustion gases of high pressure what
increases the work of compression and results in decreasing the net
work output and in turn the engine efficiency

• then the autoignition cannot be tolerated because it reduces the engine

performance when the fuel burning starts too early,

• the autoignition cannot be tolerated also because it can causes

damages of the engine (valves, piston and connecting rod), this will
usually destroy an engine quickly if allowed to continue.
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• requirement that autoignition is not allowed bars an upper limit on the

compression ratio for piston-cylinder spark ignition engines, and in turn
bars also the upper values of the thermal efficiency. Currently, the
upper limit for r is about 10.

Improvement of the efficiency of spark ignition engines

• by the use of gasolines that have the best antiknock characteristics,

determined by means of octane number (or octane rating), symbol ON,

• high ON values of gasoline fuels are desired because these result in the
best antiknock gasoline characteristics,

• then such the fuels are less prone to auto-ignition and can withstand a
greater rise in temperature during the compression stroke without auto-
igniting, thus allowing more power to be extracted from the cycle what
results in increase of the engine efficiency.

• when gasoline fuels of high ON values are available the engines can be
constructed to operate at higher values of compression ratio what result
in better engine efficiency leading to lower fuel consumption.

Meaning of the octane number (ON)

• reference fuel mixture of isooctane (hydrocarbon, chemical formula
C8H18, the best antiknock properties, octane number ON=100) with n-
heptane (hydrocarbon, chemical formula C7H16, the worst antiknock
properties, octane number ON=0) then

ON =volume fraction (%) of isooctane in mixture with n-heptane

hence ON<100
If gasoline has ON= 98 then its antiknock characteristics is the same as mixture of 98%
isooctane with 2% heptane.
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• reference fuel for ON>100: mixture of isooctane (ON=100) with

P
N
-
1 3
0
0
ethyl alcohol (ON=110) performance number PN

O
N
=
1
0
0
+
Categories of Octane Number

Research Octane Number (RON)

The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the Research Octane Number
(RON). RON is investigated by running an experimental engine at 600 rpm supplied
with the tested gasoline and determining intensity of the engine “knock”. Then the
same engine is running using mixtures of iso-octane and n-heptane which fractions
are selected to get the same intensity of the engine “knock”. In turn RON of the
tested gasoline is volume fraction (%) of isooctane in mixture with n-heptane

Motor Octane Number (MON)

There is another type of octane rating, called Motor Octane Number (MON), which is
a better measure of how the fuel behaves when under load, as it is determined at
900 rpm engine speed. MON testing uses a similar test engine to that used in RON
testing, but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine speed, and variable ignition
timing. Depending on the composition of the fuel, the MON of a modern gasoline will
be about 8 to 10 points lower than the RON, however there is no direct link between
RON and MON. Normally, fuel specifications require both a minimum RON and a
minimum MON.
always MON<RON
Anti-Knock Index (AKI)
In most countries, including Australia and all of those in Europe, the "headline"
octane rating shown on the pump is the RON, but in Canada, the United States,
Brazil, and some other countries, the headline number is the average of the RON
and the MON, called the Anti-Knock Index (AKI, and often written on pumps as
(R+M)/2). It may also sometimes be called the Pump Octane Number (PON).

Difference between RON and AKI

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Because of the 8 to 10 point difference noted above, the octane rating shown in
Canada and the United States is 4 to 5 points lower than the rating shown elsewhere
in the world for the same fuel.

Antiknock agents

Manufactured gasolines by petrochemical industry are mixtures of various

hydrocarbons but not mixture of isooctane with n-heptane. Then to get proper
value of ON of commercial gasolines some agents improving ON are added.

Currently methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE) is used as agent that improves ON of

commercial gasolines.

chemical formula: C5H12O

synthesis methanol + isobutene → MTBE

On average about 1,0-1,6% of MTBE is added, maximum allowed is 7%.

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Experimental determining of indicated power of the piston-cylinder

engine

Definition:
indicated power power delivered to the piston face

Indicator a kind of manometer applied to measure pressure in the

cylinder as function of its current volume

Indicator diagram experimentally determined (by means of

indicator) relation between pressure and cylinder volume closed by
moving piston

Indicated work=area of positive loop(23452) – area of negative loop(2b1a2)

Determining of the indicated power

• calculate net area of the indicator diagram

Anet = A+ - A- [cm2]

• determine the scale for volume axis

Sv [cm3/cm]

• determine the scale for pressure axis

Sp [Pa/cm]
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• calculate number of cycles performed by the engine per unit time

N [ rpm ]  cycles 
4 − stroke engine Nc =  min 
2  

 cycles 
2 − stroke engine N c = N [ rpm ]  
 min 

• calculate the indicated power of the engine

 cm 2   cm 3  −6  m 3   Pa  N c  cycles 
Wɺi = Anet   ⋅ SV   ⋅10  3  ⋅ S p   ⋅  
 cycle   cm   cm   cm  60  s 

Wi  = wats
ɺ

• calculate heat input into the engine

Qɺin = mɺ f ⋅ LHV

LHV → lower heating value of the fuel [ J / kg ]

where
mɺ f → fuel consumption [ kg / s ]

• calculate indicated efficiency of the engine

indicated power Wɺi
ηi = =
heat rate input Qɺin

• calculate mean indicated effective pressure mep

 cm 2   cm 3  −6  m 3   Pa 
indicated work per cycle W [ J / cycle] = Anet   ⋅ SV   ⋅ 10  3  ⋅ S p  
 cykl   cm   cm   cm 

on the other hand indicated work per cycle can be expressed as

W [ J / cycle] = mep × piston face area × stroke
mean
effective
pressure

hence mean indicated effective pressure mep can be expressed

W [ J / cycle]
mep =
mean
piston face area × stroke
effective piston displacement Vs
pressure
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Liquid fuels – calculation of air demand and volume of combustion

gases
Zapotrzebowania powietrza: konieczna jest analiza stechiometrycznych reakcji
spalania

• spalanie węgla na tlenek węgla

2C + O2 ⇒ 2CO
2kmol + 1kmol ⇒ 2kmol

( 2 ⋅12kg C + 22.4 Nm3 O2 ⇒ 2 ⋅ 22.4 Nm3 CO ) / 24 kg C

22.4 Nm3 O2 2 ⋅ 22.4 Nm3 CO
1kg C + ⇒
24 kg C 24 kg C
1 kg C + 0.933[ Nm3 O2 /kg C ] ⇒ 1.865[ Nm3 CO/kg C ]

• spalanie węgla na dwutlenek węgla

C+ O2 ⇒ CO2
1 kmol + 1 kmol ⇒ 1 kmol

(12kg C + 22.4 Nm3 O2 ⇒ 22.4 Nm3 CO2 ) / 12 kg C

22.4 Nm 3 O2 22.4 Nm 3 CO2
1kg C + ⇒
12 kg C 12 kg C
1 kg C + 1.865[ Nm3 O2 /kg C ] ⇒ 1.865 Nm 3 [ Nm 3 CO2 /kg C ]

• spalanie wodoru na parę wodną

2 H2 + O2 ⇒ 2 H 2O
2 kmol + 1 kmol ⇒ 2 kmol

( 2 ⋅ 2kg H 2 + 22.4 Nm3 O2 ⇒ 2 ⋅ 22.4 Nm3 H 2O ) / 4 kg H 2

22.4 Nm 3 O2 2 ⋅ 22.4 Nm 3 H 2O
1kg H 2 + ⇒
4 kg H 2 4 kg H 2
1 kg H 2 + 5.55[ Nm3 O2 /kg H 2 ] ⇒ 11.2[ Nm3 H 2O/kg H 2 ]

• spalanie siarki na dwutlenek siarki

S+ O2 ⇒ SO2
1kmol + 1kmol ⇒ 1kmol

( 32kg S + 22.4 Nm3 O2 ⇒ 22.4 Nm3 SO2 ) / 32 kg S

22.4 Nm3 O2 22.4 Nm3 SO2
1kg S + ⇒
32 kg S 32 kg S
1 kg S + 0.7[ Nm3 O2 /kg S ] ⇒ 0.7 Nm 3 [ Nm 3 SO2 /kg S ]
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• teoretyczne zapotrzebowanie tlenu do spalania (spalanie stechiometrycznego

zupełnego paliwa ciekłego) wynosi
 
 C H S O 
VO( t ) =  1.865 ⋅ + 5.55 ⋅ 2 + 0.7 ⋅ − 0 .7 ⋅ 2 
2
 100 100 100 32 kg O → 22.4 Nm3 O 100 
 2 2
1 kg O2 → 0.7 Nm3 O2

 

• teoretyczne zapotrzebowanie powietrza do spalania (spalanie stechiometryczne

i zupełne paliwa ciekłego) wynosi
 
100  C H S O 
(t )
V ps = ⋅ 1.865 ⋅ + 5.55 ⋅ 2 + 0.7 ⋅ − 0 .7 ⋅ 2 =
21  100 100 100 32 kg O →22.4 Nm3 O 100 
zawartosc O2 w  2 2
1 kg O2 → 0.7 Nm3 O2

suchym powietrzu  
atmosferycznym

= 0.0889 ⋅ ( C + 0.375 ⋅ S ) + 0.265 ⋅ H 2 − 0.0333 ⋅ O2 [ Nm3 / kg pal ]

(t )
V ps ⋅ ρ[kg pow / Nm3 ] = a f [kg pow / kg pal ] = iloraz paliwo : powietrze

• współczynnik nadmiaru powietrza λ : iloraz rzeczywistej ilości powietrza

doprowadzonego do spalania i teoretycznego zapotrzebowania powietrza do
spalania
V
λ = (pst )
V ps
wartości współczynnika nadmiaru powietrza λ stosowane w praktyce
λ
silniki tłokowe wewnętrznego
spalania
zapłon iskrowy: λ=0.85÷1.15
zapłon samoczynny: λ=1.15÷1.65
turbodoładowanie: λ=1.7÷2
kryterium: największa szybkość
spalania