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Unit 1
Diesel engines

1.1. Engine Classification

Cycle two-stroke engine four-stroke engine

Piston faces used single-acting double-acting
Connecting-rod trunk piston engine crosshead engine
arrangements
Cylinder in-line engine vee-engine
arrangements
Speed low/slow-speed medium-speed high-speed engine
engine engine
Use on board propelling/propulsion auxiliary engine
engine
Driving mode direct-coupled geared engine
engine
Air supply normally-aspirated turbo-charged
engine engine

The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine which ignites the fuel by
injecting it into hot, high pressure air in a combustion chamber. In common with all
internal combustion engines the diesel engine operates with a fixed sequence of events,
which may be achieved either in four strokes or two, a stroke being the travel of the
piston between its extreme points. Each stroke is accomplishing in half a revolution of the
crankshaft.

1.2. Four-stroke cycle

The four-stroke cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston, or two revolutions of the
crankshaft. In order to operate this cycle the engine requires a mechanism to open and
close the inlet and exhaust valves. Consider the piston at the top of its stroke, a position
known as top dead centre
(TDC). The inlet valve opens
and fresh air is drawn in as the
piston moves down (fig.1. a).
At the bottom of the stroke, i.e.
bottom dead centre (BDC), the
inlet valve closes and the air in
the cylinder is compressed (and
consequently raised the
temperature) as the piston rises
(fig.1.b).
Fig. 1 The four-stroke cycle
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Fuel is injected as the piston

reaches top dead centre and
combustion takes place, producing
very high pressure in the gases
(fig.1.c.). The piston is now forced
down by these gases and at bottom
dead centre the exhaust valve
opens. The final stroke is the
exhausting of the burnt gases as
the piston rises to top dead centre
to complete the cycle (fig.1.d.).
The four distinct strokes are
known as ‘inlet’ (or suction),
‘compression’, ‘power’ (or working
stroke) and ‘exhaust’.

These events are shown diagrammatically on a timing diagram (fig.2.). The angle
of the crank at which each operation takes place is shown as well as the period of
the operation in degrees. This diagram is more correctly representative of the
actual cycle than the simplified explanation given in describing the four-stroke
cycle. For different engine designs the different angles will vary, but the diagram
is typical.

Fig. 2 Four-stroke timing diagram

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1.3. Two-stroke cycle

The two-stroke cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one
revolution of the crankshaft. In order to operate this cycle where each event is
accomplished in very short time, the engine requires a number of special
arrangements. First, the fresh air must be forced in under pressure. The incoming
air is used to clean out or scavenge the exhaust gases and then to fill or charge the
space with fresh air. Instead of valves holes, known as ‘ports’, are used which are
opened and closed by the sides of the piston as it moves.
Consider the piston at the top of its stroke where fuel injection and
combustion have just taken place (fig. 3. a.). The piston is forced down on its
working stroke until it uncovers the exhaust port (fig. 3.b.). The burnt gases then
begin to exhaust and the piston continues down, until it opens the inlet or
scavenge port (fig. 3.c.). Pressurised air enters and drives out the remaining
exhaust gas. The piston, on its return stroke, closes the inlet and exhaust ports.
The air is then compressed as the piston moves to the top of its stroke to complete
the cycle (fig. 3. d.).
A timing diagram for a two-stroke engine is shown in fig. 4.

Fig. 3. Two-stroke cycle Fig. 4 Two stroke timing diagram

The four-stroke engine

A cross-section of a four-stroke cycle engine is shown in Fig. 5. The engine is
made up of a piston which moves up and down in a cylinder which is covered at
the top by a cylinder head. The fuel injector, through which fuel enters the
cylinder, is located in the cylinder head. The inlet and exhaust valves are also
housed in the cylinder head and held shut by springs. The piston is joined to the
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Fig. 5 Cross-section of a four-stroke diesel engine

connecting rod by a gudgeon pin. The bottom end or big end of the connecting rod
is joined to the crankpin which forms part of the crankshaft. With this assembly
the linear up-and-down movement of the piston is converted into rotary
movement of the crankshaft. The crankshaft is arranged to drive through gears the
camshaft, which either directly or through push-rods, operates rocker arms which
open the inlet and exhaust valves. The camshaft is ‘timed’ to open the valves at
the correct point in the cycle. The crankshaft is surrounded by crankcase and the
engine framework which supports the cylinders and houses the crankshaft
bearings. The cylinder and cylinder head are arranged with water-cooling
passages around them.

1. 5. The Two-Stroke Engine A cross-section of a two-stroke cycle engine is

shown in Fig.6. The piston is solidly connected to a piston rod that is attached to a
crosshead bearing at the other end.
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‘The top end of

the connecting rod
is also joined to
the crosshead
bearing. Ports are
arranged in the
cylinder liner for
air inlet and a
valve in the
cylinder head
enables the release
of exhaust gases.
The incoming air
is pressurised by a
turbo-blower that
is driven by the
outgoing exhaust
gases. The
Fig. 6 Cross-section of a crankshaft is
two-stroke diesel engine supported within
the engine
bedplate by the
main bearings. A-
frames are
mounted on the
bedplate and
house guides in
which the crosshead travels up and down. The entablature is mounted above the
frames and is made up of the cylinders, cylinder heads and the scavenge trunking.

1.6. Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke cycles

The main difference between the two cycles is the power developed. The two-
stroke cycle engine, with one working or power stroke every revolution, will,
theoretically, develop twice the power of a four-stroke engine of the same swept
volume. Inefficient scavenging however and other losses, reduce the power
advantage to about 1.8. For a particular engine power the two-stroke engine will
be considerably lighter - an important consideration for ships. Nor does the two-
stroke engine require the complicated valve operating mechanism of the four-
stroke. The four-stroke engine however can operate efficiently at high speeds that
offset its power disadvantage; it also consumes less lubricating oil.
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Each type of engine has its applications which on board ship have resulted
in the slow speed (i.e. 90 to 120 rev/mm) main propulsion diesel operating on the
two-stroke cycle. At this low speed the engine requires no reduction gearbox
between it and the propeller. The four-stroke engine (usually rotating at medium
speed, between 250 and 750 revs/ mm) is used for auxiliaries such as alternators
and sometimes for main propulsion with a gearbox to provide a propeller speed of
between 90 and l20 rev/min.

1.7. Power Measurement

There are two possible measurements of engine power: the indicated power and
the shaft power. The indicated power is the power developed within the engine
cylinder and can be measured by an engine indicator. The shaft power is the
power available at the output shaft of the engine and can be measured using a
torsionmeter or with a brake.

1.8. The engine indicator

An engine indicator is
shown in Fig. 7. It is
made up of a small
piston of known size
which operates in a
cylinder against a
specially calibrated
spring. A magnifying
linkage transfers the
piston movement to a
drum on which is
mounted a piece of
paper or card. The
drum oscillates
(moves backwards
Fig 7 Engine indicator and forwards) under
the pull of a cord. The
cord is moved by a
reciprocating (up and down) mechanism that is proportional to the engine piston
movement in the cylinder. The stylus draws out an indicator diagram that
represents the gas pressure on the engine piston at different points of the stroke,
and the area of the indicator diagram produced represents the power developed in
the particular cylinder. The power can be measured knowing the scaling factors,
spring calibration and some basic engine details.
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1.9. The Gas Exchange Process

A basic part of the cycle of an

internal combustion engine is
the supply of fresh air and
removal of exhaust gases. This
is the gas exchange process.
Scavenging is the removal of
exhaust gases by blowing in
fresh air. Charging is the filling
of the engine cylinder with a
supply or charge of fresh air
ready for compression. With
supercharging a larger mass of
air is supplied to the cylinder by
blowing it in under pressure.
Older engines were ‘naturally
aspirated’ taking fresh air only
at atmospheric pressure. Modern
engines make use of exhaust gas
Fig 8 Exhaust gas turbocharging arrangement
driven turbo-chargers to supply
pressurised fresh air for
scavenging and supercharging. Both four-stroke and two-stroke cycle engines
may be pressure charged.
On two-stroke diesels an electrically driven auxiliary blower is usually provided
because the exhaust gas driven turbo-blower cannot provide enough air at low
engine speeds, and the pressurised air is usually cooled to increase the charge air
density. An exhaust gas driven turbo-charging arrangement for a slow speed two-
stroke cycle diesel is shown in Fig. 8.
The turbo-blower or turbo-charger has on opposite ends of a single shaft
an exhaust gas driven turbine and an air compressor. The compressor and the
turbine are sealed from each other.

1.10. Scavenging

Efficient scavenging is essential to ensure a sufficient supply of fresh air

for combustion. In the four-stroke cycle engine there is an adequate overlap
between the air inlet valve opening and the exhaust valve closing. With two-
stroke cycle engines this overlap is limited and some slight mixing of exhaust
gases and incoming air does occur.
A number of different scavenging methods are in use in slow speed two-
stroke engines. In each the fresh air enters as the inlet port is opened by the
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downward movement of the piston and continues until the port is closed by the
upward moving piston. The flow path of the scavenge air is decided by the engine
port shape and design and the exhaust arrangements. Three basic systems are in
common use: the cross flow, the loop and the uniflow.

In cross scavenging the incoming air is directed upwards, pushing the

exhaust gases before it . The exhaust gases then travel down and out of the exhaust
ports. Fig. 9 (a) illustrates the process.
In loop scavenging the incoming air passes over the piston crown then rises

b Loop scavenging
a Cross-flow scavenging

c Uniflow scavenging
Fig. 9 Scavenging methods

towards the cylinder head. The exhaust gases are forced before the air passing
down and out of exhaust ports located just above the inlet ports. The process is
shown in Fig. 9 (b).
With uniflow scavenging the incoming air enters at the lower end of the
cylinder and leaves at the top. The outlet at the top of the cylinder may be ports or
a large valve. The process is shown in Fig. 9 (c).
Each of the systems has various advantages and disadvantages. Cross
scavenging requires the fitting of a piston skirt to prevent air or exhaust gas
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escape when the piston is at the top of the stroke. Loop scavenge arrangements
have low temperature air and high temperature exhaust gas passing through
adjacent ports, causing temperature differential problems for the liner material.
Uniflow is the most efficient scavenging system but requires either an opposed
piston arrangement or an exhaust valve in the cylinder head. All three systems
have the ports angled to swirl the incoming air and direct it in the appropriate path.

1.11. Scavenge fires

Cylinder oil can collect in the scavenge space of an engine. Unburned fuel
and carbon may also be blown into the scavenge space as a result of defective
piston rings, faulty timing, a defective injector, etc. A buildup of this flammable
mixture presents a danger as a blow past of hot gases from the cylinder may ignite
the mixture, and cause a scavenge fire.
A loss of engine power will result, with high exhaust temperatures at the
affected cylinders. The affected turbo-chargers may surge and sparks will be seen
at the scavenge drains. Once a fire is detected the engine should be slowed down,
fuel shut off from the affected cylinders and cylinder lubrication increased. All the
scavenge drains should be closed. A small fire will quickly burn out, but where
the fire persists the engine must be stopped. A fire extinguishing medium should
then be injected through the fittings provided in the scavenge trunking. On no
account should the trunking be opened up.
To avoid scavenge fires occurring the engine timing and equipment
maintenance should be correctly carried out. The scavenge trunking should be
regularly inspected and cleaned if necessary. Where carbon or oil built up is found
in the scavenge, its source should be detected and the fault remedied: Scavenge
drains should be regularly blown and any oil discharges investigated at the first
opportunity.

1.12. Vocabulary
auxiliary blower = suflantă auxiliară
clean out = a curăţa, a scoate
combustion = ardere
combustion chamber = cameră de ardere
compression = compresie
connecting rod = bielă
crankshaft = arbore cotit
cross flow = curgere transversală, curent încrucişat
cross scavenging = baleiaj transversal
crosshead bearing = bucşă a capului bielei/de cruce
cross-section = secţiune transversală
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cylinder head = chiulasă

diesel engine = motor diesel
draw in = a absorbi
drum = tambur, cilindru
engine bedplate = postament al motorului
entablature = antablament
exhaust = evacuare
exhaust gases = gaze de evacuare
exhaust valve = supapă de evacuare
four-stroke cycle = ciclu în patru timpi
gudgeon pin = bolţul bielei
ignite = a (se) aprinde, a arde
incoming air = aer care intră/ de admisie
indicated power = putere indicată/ nominală
inject = a injecta
inlet valve = supapă de admisie
internal combustion engine = motor cu ardere internă
loop scavenging = baleiaj în contracurent
magnifying linkage = transmisie/ cuplare amplificată
main bearing = lagăr principal
outgoing exhaust gases = ieşirea gazelor de evacuare
output shaft = galerie de evacuare
overlap = a se suprapune, suprapunere
piston = piston
piston skirt = fusta/ cămaşa pistonului
port = orificiu, fantă, deschidere
pressurize = a mări presiunea
push-rod = tijă de împingere, tachet
rocker arm = braţul culbutorului
scaling factor = factor de demultiplicare
scavenge = baleiaj
scavenge drain = scurgere/canal de baleiaj
scavenge trunking = system de baleiaj
shaft power = putere arbore
spark = scânteie
spring = arc
spring calibration = calibrarea arcului
stroke = cursă
stylus = peniţă de înregistrator
suction = absorbţie
supercharging = supraalimentare, supracompresie
surge = impuls, undă
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swirl = a se roti, a face vârtejuri; turbion

timing diagram = diagramă de temporizare
top dead centre (TDC) = punct mort/motor superior/interior
torsionmeter = torsiometru
turbo-blower = turbosuflantă
two-stroke cycle = ciclu în doi timpi
uniflow = echicurent, unicurent
water-cooling passages = canale/ secţiuni de răcire cu apă

1.13. Grammar
For fluency in a language, including English, one has to know the grammar
structures and vocabulary and try to make the most of them speaking, no matter if
the discourse is not a very correct one. For accuracy, one has to know the
grammar rules, structures and vocabulary and try to use and combine them in the
most appropriate way, to sound like natives. That is way in this course, where the
terminology is the most important part, we will give examples of phrases in order
to help students with their accuracy or proficiency in English. The structures may
help you to learn both grammar and vocabulary. Students tend to make a
comparison between their mother tongue and English or connections with other
languages that can be the first foreign language they have learned. Sometimes
comparing two languages is beneficial, although there are some parts of speech
like prepositions and adverbs, which should be given more attention while
learning. The combination of nouns, adjectives and verbs with adverbs and
prepositions is going to be studied in each unit of this course.

Noun + preposition

1. noun + for…
a cheque for (a sum of money)
The shipping company sent me a cheque for 2,000 pounds.
a demand/a need/request/wish/desire/preference/taste/appetite for….
I don’t think there is any need for further information.
a reason for….
The ship was late but nobody knew the reason for the delay.
an application for (a job)
The cadet sent an application for a job to a Norwegian crewing company.
a substitute for…
These pills are a substitute for food.

2. noun + of…
an advantage/disadvantage of…
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The advantage of using a large diesel engine is that it doesn’t need

gearing.
a cause of…
Nobody knows what the cause of the explosion was.
a photography/picture/a map/a plan/a drawing of….
I had a map of the harbour so I was able to find my way back to the ship.
cost/price of….
The cost of engines is increasing.
lack of…
There is a lack of personnel in some great European fleets.
example of…
What happened to the piping system is an example of what I meant to
demonstrate the other days.
hope of…
They’ve got no hope of changing.
way/method of…
It’s a new way of storing data.
student of…
She is a student of engineering.
knowledge/experience of…
An engineer should have some knowledge of computers.
opinion of…
What’s your opinion of these rumours?

3. noun + in…
an increase/a decrease/a rise/a fall in (prices etc.)
Last year was a bad one for the company. There was a big decrease in
shipping.
an interest/ability in…
He has a real interest in thermodynamics.
success in…
Up to now I’ve had a lot of success in my search.
belief in…
You can surpass everything with belief in God.

4. noun + to…
damage to…
The accident was the Captain’s fault, so he had to pay for the damage to
the company.
an invitation to…(a party/a wedding etc.)
Did you get an invitation to the reception?
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a solution to (a problem)/a key to (a door)/an answer to (a question)/a reply to (a

letter)/a reaction/an alternative to…
Have you got a key to the door?
an attitude to/towards…..
His attitude to his job is very negative.

5. noun + with…../between….
a relationship/a connection/contact with…
The harbour police want to question the crew in connection with the
pilferage.
Trouble with…..
I’m having trouble with the main engine.
matter with…
What’s the matter with you?
a relationship/a connection/a difference/ between two things or people
There is a difference between a deck officer and an engineer.

6. noun + at…
skill at….
I admire his skill at organizing things.
success at….(a game)
Our crew played sports yesterday and we had success at tennis.

7. noun + on…
expert on…
He’s an expert on repairing the engine.
Attack on…
It’s for the first time I’ve heard an attack on the chief engineer.