SPACE FRAME STRUCTURES

Definition
a space frame or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure
constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames can
be used to span large areas with few interior supports.
•a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in
a geometric pattern.
•space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports.
• a space frame is strong because of:
• the inherent rigidity of the triangle;
• flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted as tension and compression
loads along the length of each strut.
•space frame a three-dimensional structure.
•assembled linear elements are arranged to transfer the load.
•take a form of a flat surface or curved surface.
•designed with no intermediate columns to create large open area.

Load distribution
Horizontal slab of interlocking square, pyramids and tetrahedra built from
aluminium or tubular steel struts
•stronger form is composed of interlocking tetrahedra in which all the struts
have unit length.
•more technically this is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single
unit width an octet truss.
•more complex variations change the lengths of the struts to curve the overall
structure or may incorporate other geometrical shapes.

history of space frame

•space frames were independently developed by alexander graham bell
around 1900 and Buckminster fuller in the 1950s Buckminster fuller's focus
was architectural structures; his work had greater influence.
•it was developed in California during the 1960s and introduced to the south
African market in 1982, specifically developed for unstable soil conditions, the
panels form a monolithic structure offering superior wall strength in which no
cracking will occur.

Buckminster fuller geodesic dome grahambell space frame design

design method space

•frames are typically designed using a rigidity matrix. The special characteristic
of the stiffness matrix in an architectural space frame is the independence of
the angular factors.
•if the joints are sufficiently rigid, the angular deflections can be neglected,
simplifying the calculations.
Applications:
•platform or overhead structure that spans large distances without need for
internal loadbearing support.
•in the past few decades, the spread of space frame was mainly due to its
great structural potential and visual beauty. New and imaginative applications
of space frames are being demonstrated in the total range of building types,
like:
•sports arenas •exhibition pavilions •assembly halls •transportation terminals
•airplane hangars •workshops, and warehouses enclosure.

Materials:
Many materials are used for these space frames steel timber
Steel: this steel material which is used for the space frames sustain more load
and carry tones of weight. This steel is mostly used in now-a-days in a long
span structures and has to be maintained property.
Timber: this timber material is also used in the 19th century and by using this
material the maintenance level is becoming very high.

Structural background
A space frames along-spanning three-dimensional plate structure based on the
rigidity of the triangle and composed of linear elements subject only to axial
tension or compression, even in the case of connection by comparatively rigid
joints, the influence of bending or torsional moment is insignificant.
Plain frames and space frames
Plain frames
•the forces are act only along the axis
of the members are having tension of
compression.
•each member is acted upon by two
equal and opposite forces having line
of action along the centre of
members i.e. every member of it is
two force members.
•members are subjected to
tension/compression only.
•forces are applied on joints only.
• usually, more simple to calculate,
more weight effective.
Plain frames:
In plain frame truss m=2n-3, where m is total number of members and n is
total number of joints.
Space frames:
Space frames
•the forces are acting along the axis
of the member. In addition to
transverse forces.
•one or more then one member of
frame is subjected to more then two
forces. (multiple force members)
•at least one member is subjected to
bending, shear or torsion.
•forces may act anywhere on the
members.
•usually simpler to manufacture and
to place in tight layout.
In plain frame truss m=3n-6, where m is total number of members and n is
total number of joints.

Classification of space frames:

Curvature classification
1. Space plane covers: spatial structures composed of planar
substructures. Deflections in the plane are channeled through the
horizontal bars and the shear forces are supported by the diagonals.

2. Barrel vaults:
 Has a cross section of a simple arch.
Usually this type of space frame does not need to use tetrahedral
modules or pyramids as a part of its backing.

3. Spherical domes: require the use of tetrahedral modules or pyramids

and additional support from a skin

Classification by the arrangement of its elements

1.single layer grid: all elements are located on the surface
approximately.
2.double layer grid: commonly used spaceframes are double layered
and flat. Elements are organized in two parallel layers with each other at
a certain distance apart. Each of the layers form a lattice of triangles,
squares or hexagons in which the projection of the nodes in a layer may
overlap or be displaced relative to each other.

3.triple layer grid: elements are placed in three parallel layers, linked by
the diagonals. They are almost always flat. Practically used for a larger
span building.

Types of tubes:
1. Nodus connector:
It can accept both rectangular and circular hollow sections and that the
cladding can be fixed directly to the chords. Chord connectors have to
be welded to the ends of the hollow members on site

1. Triodetic connector: consists of a hub, usually an aluminium

extrusion, with slots or key ways.

2. Tubal node connector:

Hollow sphere made of spheroidal graphite.
End of the circular hollow section member to be connected is fitted
at its ends by welding connection from inside the cup is done using
bolt and nut.
 Hemispherical dome connector:
Usually use for double layer domes. Has a span more than 40m.
More economical for long span. The jointing is connected by slitting
the end of the tube or rod with the joint fin. Two types of joint:
pentagonal joint and hexagonal joint.

Types of space frame connection:

Mero space frame structure:

•the mero connector, introduced in 1948 by dr. Mongeringhausen, proved to
be extremely popular and has been used for numerous temporary and
permanent buildings.
•its joint consists of a node that is a spherical hot-pressed steel forging with
flat facets and tapped holes. Members are circular hollow sections with cone
shaped steel forgings welded at the ends, which accommodate connecting
bolts.

•the mero connector was originally developed for double-layer grids. Due to
the increasing use of non-planar roof forms, it is required to construct the
load-bearing space frame integrated with the cladding element.
•a new type of jointing system called mero plus system was developed so that
a variety of curved and folded structures are possible.
Space frame method of erection:
•the method chosen for erection of a space frame depends on:
• its behaviour of load transmission
•constructional details, so that it will meet the overall requirements of quality,
safety, speed of construction, and economy
•the scale of the structure being built, the method of jointing the individual
elements, and the strength and rigidity of the space frame until its form is
closed must all be considered.
Scaffold method:
•individual elements are assembled in place at actual elevations, members and
joints or prefabricated subassembly elements are assembled directly on their
final position.
•full scaffoldings are usually required for this type of erection. Sometimes only
partial scaffoldings are used if cantilever erection of space frame can be
executed. The elements are fabricated at the shop and transported to the
construction site, and no heavy lifting equipment is required.

Block assembly method:

•the space frame is divided on its plan into individual strips or blocks. These
units are fabricated on the ground level, then hoisted up into its final position
and assembled on the temporary supports.
•with more work being done on the ground, the amount of assembling work
thigh elevation is reduced. This method is suitable for those double layer grids
where the stiffness and load-resisting behaviour will not change considerably
after dividing into strips or blocks, such as two-way orthogonal latticed grids,
orthogonal square pyramid space grids, and the those with openings. The size
of each unit will depend on the hoisting capacity available.

Lift up method:
•the whole space frame is assembled at ground level so that most of the work
can be done before hoisting. This will result in increased efficiency and better
quality. For short and medium spans, the space frame can be hoisted up by
several cranes.
• for long-span space frame, temporary posts are used as the support and
electric winches as the lifting power. The whole space frame can be translated
or rotated in the air and then seated on its final position. This method can be
employed to all types of double-layer grids.
Space frame components:
Member
• members are axial elements with circular or rectangular sections, all
members can only resist tension or compression.
•the space grid is built of relatively long tension members and short
compression members. A trend is very noticeable in which the structural
members are left exposed as a part of the architectural expression.
Joints
• in a space frame, connecting joints play an important role, both functional
and aesthetic, which derives from their rationality during construction and
after completion.
•since joints have a decisive effect on the strength and stiffness of the
structure and compose around 20 to 30 percent of the total weight, joint
design is critical to space frame economy and safety.

Advantages:
•lightweight -this is mainly due to the fact that material is distributed spatially
in such a way that the load transfer mechanism is primarily axial; tension or
compression. Consequently, all material in any given element is utilized to its
full extent. Furthermore, most space frames are now constructed with
aluminium, which decreases considerably their self-weight.
• mass productivity-space frames can be built from simple prefabricated units,
which are often of standard size and shape. Such units can be easily
transported and rapidly assembled on site by semi-skilled labor. consequently,
space frames can be built at a lower cost.
•stiffness-a space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness. This
is due to its three- dimensional character and to the full participation of its
constituent elements.
•versatility -space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can
utilize a standard module to generate various flat space grids, latticed shell, or
even free-form shapes. Architects appreciate the visual beauty and the
impressive simplicity of lines in space frames.

Disadvantages:
•one major disadvantage is that they can be difficult to engineer. It's not
straightforward to determine how forces will distribute throughout a structure
that has a lot of redundant pieces.

Limitations:
A space frame or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure
constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frame truss
can be used for a platform or overhead structure that spans large distances
without need for internal load bearing support.
Space frames are advantageous compared to other common structures by
their; light weight, mass production, stiffness, and versatility.
Space frames are classified into three types according to the number of grid
layers as follows; single, double, or triple layer. Space frame connections can
be made by; welding, bolting, or threading.
Space frame construction utilize three main methods of erection; 1scaffold
method, 2. Block assembly method, lift-up method.

Case study: Space frame for the ‘symbol zone’, expo ’70, osaka, japan
Completed: 1969
Architects: kenzo tange space frame
Theme space architects: tomoo fukuda
koji kamiya engineer: yoshikatsu tsuboi
•the world exposition in osaka, in 1970, had as its theme ‘progress and
harmony for humanity’ and at its centre the festival square, masterminded by
kenzo tange, was to symbolize the expression of ‘... A festival where human
beings can meet, shake hands, accord minds and exchange wisdoms’.
• a huge, translucent, spacetruss roof 291.6 m by 108 m,
•supported on only six lattice columns
•at a height of 30 m above the ground,
•covered the festival square and dominated the site. Based on a 10.8 m by
10.8 m square on square offset grid 7.637 m deep,
•the roof spanned 75.6 m between column centres across its width, with
cantilevers of 16.2 m at each side.
•in the longitudinal direction, there were two 108 m spans and 37.8 m
cantilevers at each end.
•as can be seen in the plan and east elevation of the pavilion shown in, one
main span of the space grid was pierced by a circular opening diameter to
allow the symbolic helios tower or tower of the sun, rising from the concourse
of humanity, to soar above the roof .the depth of the space truss was sufficient
to allow exhibition spaces to be located within the roof structure.
•this was space truss construction on a huge scale and the length of the
compression members required the use of
• large-diameter steel tubes, • 500 mm for chords and •350 mm for diagonals.
•the tubes, of similar external dimension, varied in thickness from 7.9 to 30
mm, depending on the forces to be resisted, and were welded to conical cast
steel end pieces.
•these were then connected by 70 to 188 mm diameter high-tensile steel
bolts to giant hollow cast steel spherical nodes 800 to 1000 mm in diameter.

•the aesthetic of the roof structure was continued in the supporting columns
which were constructed from similar elements, surrounding a central 1.8 m
diameter tubular post.
•a total of 2272 tube members were used, connected at 639 nodes.2 it is
interesting to note the philosophy that was adopted for this structure in terms
of accuracy of fabrication.
•for space grids it is essential that the position of the nodes conforms with the
proposed geometry. This is usually achieved by fabricating individual members
and nodes to a high degree of accuracy, so that when they are assembled
accumulated errors or tolerances do not affect the overall geometry, but this is
expensive. The alternative solution, adopted here, was to fabricate the
elements of the space grid to less rigorous dimensional accuracies and to
accurately fix the position of the nodes

•in space whilst allowing for small adjustments of member lengths in the
connection details. Such a solution is not reasonable when there is a large
number of nodes or when the grid is assembled in the air. However, in this
case, where there are widely spaced nodes and assembly was at ground level it
was a feasible and efficient solution. Here the adjustment in member length
(up to ± 25 mm) was achieved using several steel shims inserted between the
ends of the member cones and the spherical node. Angular discrepancies were
catered for by the use of spherical contact faces between the fixing bolts and
the inside of the node casting and by oversizing bolt holes by 12 mm to permit
some degree of rotation. The bolts were introduced into the casting through
an access hole that was later sealed by a cover plate.
•assembly of the space grid was carried out on the ground around the 1803
mm diameter central posts of the permanent columns. Subsequently, the roof
was lifted in 80 mm steps, at the average rate of 2 m per day, using climbing
pneumatic jacks of 450-tonne capacity.
• as the roof was lifted, erection of the outer framework of the columns was
commenced and temporary struts were set in place at the base to provide
rigidity against lateral seismic and wind forces, as can be seen in the erection
sequence.
When the lifting operation was completed, the load was transferred from the
jacks to the permanent column structure by installation of the capital joints
and removal of the temporary struts at the base. Lateral restraint was then
provided by rigid frame action between the columns and roof structure, with
‘pinned’ column bases, thus reversing the previous temporary condition.
•to avoid ‘locking-in’ forces due to temperature differences during this
transfer, it was carried out during one night. An innovative solution, at the
time, was the translucent roof which was made from inflated pillows
introduced into each square of the top layer grid of the space truss. Two
hundred and forty-three polyester film membrane cushions 9.9 m 9.9 m
were made from 1.1 m wide strips 250 microns thick.
•the upper skin was formed from six layers and the lower from five layers of
polyester, with each layer running perpendicularly to those adjacent. Inflation
was with dry air normally at 50 mm water pressure, or 100 mm in strong wind
conditions. A special ultraviolet-resistant film was used for the outer layers of
each pillow.3 the use of inflated pillows within roof structures is currently
finding favour with the use of highly translucent ethyltetrafluorethylene (etfe)
membranes.