ENGLISH mood and specifically the two phrases if I

was vs. if I were. For example, which of the

Was vs. Were: What’s the Difference? following two choices is correct?
Home » Was vs. Were: What’s the Difference?  If I was a better cook, I could entertain
Was and were are both past tenses of the more.
verb to be. The verb be is a tricky one because it -or-
is an irregular verb and one that we find ourselves
using with great frequency, so it is that much
 If I were a better cook, I could entertain
more important that we choose the correct verb
more.
for our sentences.
You hear people say both each and every day, so
In this post, I want to go over the grammar
it’s hard to know which is correct. The answer,
behind was vs. were, when it’s correct to use
however, has to do with the subjunctive mood.
which one, and give you a few tips to keep track
of them both. After reading this post, you
shouldn’t have any trouble correctly choosing Subjunctive Mood
between was or were in your future writing.

Forms of Was and Were

The subjunctive mood is a verb form that is used

for unreal or hypothetical statements. It is made
up of the phrases I were, he were, she were, it
were, etc. You often use this form when you are
As I said above, was and were are in the past
being wishful. For example,
tense, but they are used differently.
 I wish I weren’t so shy.
Was is used in the first person singular (I) and
 I wish it were warmer outside.
the third person singular (he, she, it).
 If I were taller, I could dunk a basketball.
Were is used in the second person singular and
 If John were a rich man, he could drive a
plural (you, your, yours) and first and third
fancy car.
person plural (we, they).
 He acts as if he were the one in charge.
The forms that was and were will take in your
 John spends money as if he were a
sentence are summarized in the chart below,
millionaire.
Singular = I was, You were, He was, She was, It
All of the above sentences use the
was
verb were because they aren’t true; they do not
Plural = We were, You were, They were
describe reality.
 I was driving to the park.
In the first two sentences, I am talking about
 You were drinking some water.
things I wish would happen.
 He was about to eat dinner.
 She was at the roller rink.
 It was a great time. In the third and fourth sentences, I am talking
 We were in the right spot. about situations that would happen if I were taller
 They were nowhere to be seen. and if John were rich, speaking hypothetically.
If I was vs. If I were
While some people get mixed up on what we’ve And the fifth and sixth sentences are examples of
covered above, most of the confusion with these unreal statements.
two words centers on the use of the subjunctive
When to Use Were
Another good example of the subjunctive mood
can be found in the musical Fiddler on the Roof.
In the song, “If I were a rich man,” the character
Tevye sings about how different his life would be
and all the things he would do if he were rich.
If I were a rich man, I’d build a big tall house…
If I were a rich man, I’d have the time that I lack.
If I were a wealthy man, I wouldn’t have to work
hard.
In these lines, Tevye is fantasizing about life as a
wealthy man. He isn’t rich now; he’s just
imagining it, so we need to use the subjective “If
I were,” not “If I was.”
The correct answer for the example above,
therefore, is, “If I were a better cook, I could
entertain more.”
Tricks to Remember
Two good clues for the subjunctive mood are the
words if and wish. If you see either of these
words, there is a good chance you will need to
use the subjunctive.
When to Use Was
Since were is used for statements that do not
describe reality, was is just the opposite. Was is
used for statements of fact. For example,
 Last night, I was watching TV until
midnight.
 When I was younger, I wanted to be a
singer.
 Your brother was my college roommate.
Summary
These words are used differently in sentences, so
it’s important to know when to use were vs. was.
Was is used in the first and third person singular
past. It is used for statements of fact.
Were is used in the second person singular and
plural and first and third person plural. It is used
in the subjunctive mood to indicate unreal or
hypothetical statements. The
words if and wish usually indicate the subjunctive
mood.
“Nor” with
PROPER USE OF
“Neither”
Everybody knows that “neither” and “nor” are
bosom buddies. They require balance. A “nor”
usually follows a “neither” when they're used in
the same sentence (1). For example, you might
say, “I like neither hot dogs nor mustard.” You
may also use “nor” if you’re talking about more
than two items, but you must repeat “nor” after
each element (2). So if you want to add ketchup
to your list of dislikes, you have to say, “I like
neither hot dogs nor mustard nor ketchup.” It
would be incorrect to use an “or” anywhere in
that sentence—or to leave out either case of
“nor.”
“Neither” can appear at the beginning of a
sentence as well as the middle. For example,
“Neither the man nor the woman is a good surfer”
is nice and balanced.
BUY NOW
The issue gets a little complicated when the two
items in the “neither-nor” part of the sentence are
a mix of singular and plural. If you changed the
sentence to discuss the surfing skills of two men
and one woman (one plural, one singular), what
would you do? Writer Patricia O'Connor (3) calls
this “a two-headed creature,” but luckily for us,
it’s not as complicated as it seems. Simply take
the noun closest to the verb and ensure they
agree. So “Neither the men nor the woman is a
good surfer” is correct, as is “Neither the woman
nor the men are good surfers.” Note how we use
the plural word “surfers” at the end there to keep
everything in agreement.
“Nor” doesn’t necessarily have to appear in a 3. That cat never seems to tire of jumping in
sentence with the word “neither.” “Nor” can start and out of the box.
a sentence. For example, if you’ve just mentioned
4. You stole my idea and didn’t give me any
that you don’t usually wake up at 6 a.m. and you
credit.
want to continue being negative, you can start
another sentence with “nor”: “Nor do I like to 5. Your mom is going to be upset about that
wake up at 5 a.m.” Another option is to combine broken lamp.
the two negative ideas into one sentence and then 6. It’s not difficult to grow a tree as long as you
start the second part with “nor”: “I don’t usually give it plenty of water.
wake up at 6 a.m., nor do I like to wake up at 5
7. I can’t believe you let your dog stick
a.m.”
his head out the window while you drive.
PLURAL AND SINGULAR
Plural Noun Examples

Plural Nouns The following sentences contain plural noun

Plural nouns are words used to indicate that there
is more than one person, animal, place, thing, or
idea. The difference between singular and plural
nouns is simple once you know what to look for.
Here, we take a look at singular and plural nouns,
providing both singular nouns examples and
plural noun examples to help you recognize
plural nouns when you see them.
Singular and Plural Nouns
The difference between singular and plural nouns
is easy to spot. When a noun indicates one only,
it is a singular noun. When a noun indicates more
than one, it is plural.
Singular Noun Examples
The following sentences contain singular nouns
examples.
1. The boy had a baseball in his hand.
2. My horse prefers to wear an English saddle.
examples.
1. The boys were throwing baseballs back and
forth between bases.
2. Our horses are much happier wearing
lightweight English saddles.
3. Those cats never seem to tire of chasing one
another in and out of those boxes.
4. You stole my ideas and didn’t give me any
credit.
5. Our moms are going to be upset
that we stayed out all night going to parties.
6. It’s not too difficult to grow trees as long as
you provide them with plenty of water.
7. I can’t believe you allow your dogs to climb
all over the seats while you are driving.
PROPER USE OF IN, ON, AT

When english speakers talk about time and place,
there are three little words that often come
up: in, on, and at. These common words are
prepositions that show a relationship between two
words in a sentence.
Some prepositions are rather easy for English
learners to understand: behind, over, under, next to,
etc…
But these little two-letter prepositions seem to
create confusion. Here are a few rules to help you
understand when to use in, on, and at in a sentence.
For describing time and place, the prepositions in, on,
and at go from general to specific.
Prepositions and Time
Let’s start by looking at how we talk about time.
English speakers use in to refer to a general, longer
period of time, such as months, years, decades, or
centuries. For example, we say “in April,” “in 2015”
or “in the 21st century.”
Moving to shorter, more specific periods of time, we
use on to talk about particular days, dates, and
holidays . You may hear, “I went to
work on Monday,” or “Let’s have a In non-technical terms, this means that when I,
picnic on Memorial Day.”
For the most specific times, and for holidays without
the word “day,” we use at. That means you will hear,
“Meet me at midnight,” or “The flowers are in
bloom at Easter time.”
Prepositions and Place
When English speakers refer to a place, we use in for
the largest or most general places. You can say that
“VOA is located in Washington, D.C.” And “for the
best food, try the restaurants in Chinatown.”
For more specific places, like certain streets, we use
the preposition on. You may know that President
Obama lives on Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington,
D.C.
Finally, we get to the most specific places. For exact
addresses or intersections, we use the
preposition at. If I invited you to visit us here at VOA,
I would say, “Come to my office at 330 Independence
Avenue.” To be exact, it’s at the corner of
Independence and 3rd Street.”
What is the use of go and
goes in grammar?
The difference between go and goes relates to
conjugation of verbs in the present tense. I don’t
know why this basic grammar rule is not taught
or understood more widely in India, but even
among educated speakers of English, I hear
misuse of verb forms very often.
Here’s a rule to help you get this one right all the
time.
For all English verbs except “to be,” the verb
form in the present tense remains the same for all
persons except the third person singular.
you, we, or they are doing something, the verb is
the same. The verb only changes when he, she,
it or one is doing it. Usually, for he, she, it, or
one, the required change is to add “s” or “es.”
Example:
I go
 You go It’s a very basic question of English Grammar.
We come to know in the very beginning
He goes (she goes, it goes, one goes) of Tenses. As we start learning English most of
the people start with Tenses. Some people start
We go with use of there or use of be
(is,am,are,was.were etc.). Anyhow, as use start
You (plural) go learning Tenses, the tense that comes first would
be Present Indefinite Tense.
They go
In positive sentences of Present Indefinite
Compare:
Tense we use first form of verb with ‘s’ or ‘es’
The wheels on the bus go round and round. conditionally.When the subject would be singular
(Wheels = 3rd person plural = they) (he,she,it or names) we use verb with ‘s’ or ‘es’
and when the subject would
This bus goes to Hyderabad. (This bus = 3rd be plural(we,they,I,You etc.) we use verb as it
person singular = it) would.

Atul goes to JNU. (Atul = 3rd person singular = Structure of Present Indefinite Tense-
he)
For Singular- Subject + verb (with ‘s’ or ‘es’) +
Atul and Fatima go to JNU. (Atul and Fatima = object.
3rd person plural = they)
Example-1. Urvashi goes to school everyday.
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2. He plays cricket very well
Your feedback is private.
Structure of Present Indefinite Tense-
Is this answer still relevant and up to date?
For Plural- Subject + verb + object.
Related QuestionsMore Answers Below
Example- 1.Indian cricket team won the
match.They play very well.
 Is "use grammar" proper grammar?
2.We go to Bangluru in every summer.
 What is use of 'all' in grammar?
 Where do we use “had” in grammar? We put ‘s’ or ‘es’ according to the verb as-
Goes(Go) , Does(do) , Likes(Like) , Plays(Play).
 Why should we use grammar in English?
 Why can't I use proper grammar? USE OF HAVE, HAD, and HAS

We can
use ‘Has’, ‘Have’ and ‘Had’ in three ways.

Faizan Ahmad, Graduate with English(Hons.) The first way it can be used as a ‘helping verb’.
from B.H.U. Commonly we see it in perfect tense. Some
examples of using ‘Has’, ‘Have’, ‘Had’, and
Answered May 27, 2016 · Author with ‘been’ as ‘has been’, ‘have been’ and ‘had
has 472 answers and 1.7m answer views been’ etc.;
In ‘Present Perfect Tense’: OR

1. He has finished his 1. He will have been finishing his

homework. (Use ‘Has’ when subject homework for two hours. (In point of
is singular) time use ‘Since’)
2. I have a plan to execute to win the The second way is
match. (Use ‘Have’ when subject using ‘Has’, ‘Have’ or ‘Had’ as a main verb.
is plural) We can use it as a main verb as other verbs are
In ‘Past Perfect Tense’: used.

1. He had finished his homework. (Use Examples:

always ‘Had’ whether subject
is singular or plural) 1. I have a book but my brother has not
In ‘Future Perfect Tense’: any
book.(Use ‘Has’ for singularand ‘Hav
1. He will have finished his homework. e’ for plural)
(Use always ‘Will have’ or ‘Shall 2. She has a nice pen.
have’ whether subject 3. I had a bicycle when I was young.
is singular or plural) 4. Sachin Tendulkar had his first
In ‘Present Perfect Continuous century in his 89th one day cricket
Tense’: (Present Progressive tense with match.
‘Time’) The third way of
using ‘Has’, ‘Have’ and ‘Had’ with ‘To’ where
1. He has been finishing his homework is compulsion to do any work. (Use
for two hours. (In period of time always with ‘To’)
use ‘For’ )
OR Examples:

1. He has been finishing his homework
since 3 c`lock. (In point of time
use ‘Since’)
In ‘Past Perfect Continuous Tense’: (Past
Progressive tense with ‘Time’)
1. He had been finishing his homework
for two hours. (In period of time
use ‘For’)
OR
1. I have to finish the works because I
have not any other way. (I don’t want
to do that work but because
of ‘Compulsion’ I have to do)
2. P.V. Sindhu has to satisfy with the
silver medal because she lost the final
match.
3. Former Prime Minister had to apply
emergency because there was no
other way.

1. He had been finishing his homework

since 3 o`clock. (In point of time
use ‘Since’)
In ‘Future Perfect Continuous Tense’: (Future SCIENCE
Progressive tense with ‘Time’)
BACKGROUND:
1. He will have been finishing his
homework for two hours. (In period Minerals make up rocks. Rocks are formed in
of time use ‘For’) many environments upon and within the Earth's
crust. There are three types of rock, each formed form in dry, desert environments or in association
in a different way. Igneous rock , formed by the with glaciers.
cooling of magma (molten rock) inside the Earth
Metamorphic rocks are igneous, sedimentary, or
or on the surface. Sedimentary rocks, formed
preexisting metamorphic rocks that have been
from the products of weathering by cementation
changed by great pressures and temperatures within
or precipitation on the Earth’s surface.
the crust and upper mantle of the Earth. The
Metamorphic rocks, formed by temperature and
temperatures were not enough to melt the rock,
pressure changes inside the Earth. All three types
otherwise, an igneous rock would have formed. The
of rock make up the Earth’s lithosphere, the pressures were much greater than those required to
outermost layer. The lithosphere averages about simply break the rocks into pieces. They were high
100 kilometers in thickness. enough to change the chemical make up of the rock
All igneous rocks began as magma (molten rock) by forcing the elements in it to "exchange partners."
Different grades of temperature and pressure will
which cooled and crystallized into minerals.
cause the same original rock to form very different
Geologists classify igneous rocks based on both
metamorphic rocks. Slate, which forms from the
their crystal size and composition. Igneous rocks
sedimentary rock shale, is very dense, smooth and
may look different because they may have cooled
does not contain visible minerals. However, if more
at different rates and the "mother" magma
pressure and temperature are applied to a slate, it
(original melted rock) was of a different
could turn into schist, which has visible layers of
composition. Variations in these two factors have
minerals. If yet higher temperature and pressure are
created many different types of igneous rocks.
applied, the schist could turn into gneiss, which
When the magma cools at different rates, it
shows visible bands of minerals.
creates different sized minerals. Quick cooling
magmas have small minerals (with the exception IGNEOUS -Fire or hot rocks, form when melted rock
of obsidian, which is actually composed of silica, (magma or lava) cools. When magma cools slowly,
but has no crystalline structure). Basalt, for large minerals are produced. In lava that cools quickly
example, has small minerals, most of which can the minerals can only be seen with a microscope. IGN
only be seen under a microscope. Quick cooling = Latin for fire
lavas are called volcanic rocks. Magma that cools
ignite
slowly creates rocks like granite, which have large
ignescent
minerals that can be seen with the naked eye. These
ignis fatuus
igneous rocks cool inside the lithosphere, and are
ignition
called plutonic rocks.
ignitron
Sedimentary rocks form at the Earth’s surface in two igniter
main ways. Clastic material (pieces of other rocks or
SEDIMENTARY - Sedimentary rocks are usually
fragments of skeletons) may become cemented
formed under water when grains of broken rocks are
together and chemical precipitation and evaporation
glued together. SEDIMENT = Latin meaning to settle
can form sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are
usually associated with liquid water (which facilitates sedimentology
erosion, transportation, deposition, and sedimentation
cementation). However, sedimentary rocks may also
METAMORPHIC - Metamorphic rocks are rocks that
once were igneous or sedimentary rocks but have
been changed by pressure and temperature. META =
from Latin and Greek meaning to transform; MORPH
= Greek meaning form
metamorphism
metamorphose
Students can also develop nicknames for the rocks,
and they can call the individual types of
rocks: IGNEOUS - fire or hot; SEDIMENTARY - cool,
wet, fossil; METAMORPHIC - flat, squished,
changed
Using the Mineral and Rock Kit, show the students
examples of the different types of rocks. Use the
rocks in the kit to see if students remember what
formed each of them. The written packet included
with the kit should be consulted for more
information on each rock.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM
radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or
their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic
field, propagating (radiating) through space,
carrying electromagnetic radiant energy.[1] It
includes radio
waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible)
light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPHERE
Lithosphere
The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard
solid land of the planet's crust (surface), the semi-
solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid
land near the center of the planet. *The surface of
the lithosphere is very uneven (see image at
right). There are high mountain ranges like the
Rockies and Andes (shown in red), huge plains or
flat areas like those in Texas, Iowa, and Brazil
(shown in green), and deep valleys along the
ocean floor (shown in blue).
The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the
lithosphere form layers that are physically and
chemically different. If someone were to cut
through Earth to its center, these layers would be
revealed like the layers of an onion (see image
above). The outermost layer of the lithosphere
consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen,
and silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin,
solid crust of oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick,
semi-solid mantle of oxygen, silicon, iron, and
magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of
nickel and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid
inner core of nickel and iron.
*Note: The word "lithosphere" can take on
different meanings depending on the speaker and
the audience. For example, many geologists--
scientists who study the geologic formations of
Earth--reserve the word "lithosphere" to mean
only the cold, hard surface of Earth, not the entire
inside of the planet. For the purpose of this
module, however, there will be no distinction
among the various layers of land. The word
"lithosphere" will be used in reference to all land
in Earth's system.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and
gaseous water of the planet. **It ranges from 10
to 20 kilometers in thickness. The hydrosphere
extends from Earth's surface downward several
kilometers into the lithosphere and upward about
12 kilometers into the atmosphere.
A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is
fresh (non-salty). This water flows as
precipitation from the atmosphere down to
Earth's surface, as rivers and streams along
Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath
Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh water,
however, is frozen.
Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty.
The salty water collects in deep valleys along
Earth's surface. These large collections of salty
water are referred to as oceans. The image above
depicts the different temperatures one would find
on oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very
cold (shown in dark purple), while water near the
equator is very warm (shown in light blue). The
differences in temperature cause water to change
physical states. Extremely low temperatures like
those found at the poles cause water to freeze into
a solid such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an
iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those
found at the equator cause water to evaporate into
a gas.
**Note: Some scientists place frozen water--
glaciers, icecaps, and icebergs--in its own sphere
called the "cryosphere." For the purpose of this
module, however, frozen water will be included
as part of the hydrosphere. The word
"hydrosphere" will be used in reference to all
water in Earth's system.
Biosphere
The biosphere contains all the planet's living
things. ***This sphere includes all of the
microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth.
Within the biosphere, living things form
ecological communities based on the physical
surroundings of an area. These communities are
referred to as biomes. Deserts, grasslands, and
tropical rainforests are three of the many types of
biomes that exist within the biosphere.
It is impossible to detect from space each
individual organism within the biosphere.
However, biomes can be seen from space. For
example, the image above distinguishes between
lands covered with plants (shown in shades of
green) and those that are not (shown in brown).
***Note: Some scientists place humans in their
own sphere called the "anthrosphere." For the
purpose of this module, however, humans will be
included as part of the biosphere. The word
"biosphere" will be used in reference to all living
things in Earth's system.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's
system. ****It extends from less than 1 m below
the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km
above the planet's surface. The upper portion of
the atmosphere protects the organisms of the
biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It
also absorbs and emits heat. When air
temperature in the lower portion of this sphere
changes, weather occurs. As air in the lower
atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around
the planet. The result can be as simple as a breeze
or as complex as a tornado.
****Note: The atmosphere is made up of many
layers that differ in chemical composition and
temperature. For the purpose of this module,
however, we will not differentiate among the
layers of the atmosphere.
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is comprised of
layers based on temperature. These
layers are the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere and
thermosphere. A further region at
about 500 km above the Earth's
surface is called the exosphere.
The different layers of the
atmosphere
The atmosphere can be divided into layers based
on its temperature, as shown in the figure below.
These layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere,
the mesosphere and the thermosphere. A further
region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's
surface, is called the exosphere.
The red line on the figure below shows how
temperature varies with height (the temperature
scale is given along the bottom of the diagram).
The scale on the right shows the pressure. For
example, at a height of 50 km, the pressure is
only about one thousandth of the pressure at the
ground.
The Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the
part we live in. It contains most of our weather -
clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere
the temperature gets colder as the distance above
the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre.
The actual change of temperature with height
varies from day to day, depending on the weather.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the
air in the atmosphere, and almost all of the water
vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The
decrease in temperature with height is a result of
the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves
upwards it expands (because of the lower
pressure). When air expands it cools. So air
higher up is cooler than air lower down.
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the
boundary layer. This is where the air motion is
determined by the properties of the Earth's
surface. Turbulence is generated as the wind
blows over the Earth's surface, and by thermals
rising from the land as it is heated by the sun.
This turbulence redistributes heat and moisture
within the boundary layer, as well as pollutants
and other constituents of the atmosphere.
The top of the troposphere is called the
tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is
about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is
highest (about 17 - 18 km) near the equator.
The Stratosphere
This extends upwards from the tropopause to
about 50 km. It contains much of the ozone in the
atmosphere. The increase in temperature with
height occurs because of absorption of ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone.
Temperatures in the stratosphere are highest over
the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole.
By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone
in the stratosphere protects us from skin cancer
and other health damage. However chemicals
(called CFCs or freons, and halons) which were
once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire
extinguishers have reduced the amount of ozone
in the stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes,
leading to the so-called "Antarctic ozone hole".
Now humans have stopped making most of the
harmful CFCs we expect the ozone hole will
eventually recover over the 21st century, but this
is a slow process.
The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the
mesosphere. Here the temperature again
decreases with height, reaching a minimum of
about -90°C at the "mesopause".
The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and
is a region in which temperatures again increase
with height. This temperature increase is caused
by the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-
Ray radiation from the sun.
The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km
is also caused the "ionosphere", since the
energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off
molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions"
with a positive charge. The temperature of the
thermosphere varies between night and day and
between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions
and electrons which are present. The ionosphere
reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to
receive shortwave radio broadcasts in New
Zealand from other parts of the world.
The Exosphere
The region above about 500 km is called the
exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen and
hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that
they rarely collide - they follow "ballistic"
trajectories under the influence of gravity, and
some of them escape right out into space.
The Magnetosphere
The earth behaves like a huge magnet. It traps
electrons (negative charge) and protons
(positive), concentrating them in two bands about
3,000 and 16,000 km above the globe - the Van
Allen "radiation" belts. This outer region
surrounding the earth, where charged particles
spiral along the magnetic field lines, is called the
magnetosphere.
HOMOHENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS
A homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous
mixture are first and foremost both mixtures.
That means no chemical bonding has occurred
between the substances within the mixtures.
They can be separated through physical means if
necessary.
The difference between the two mixtures is in
how well they are mixed. Heterogeneous
mixtures are mixtures that are not well mixed. A
person could see the individual pieces that are
mixed together. Foods are often great examples
of heterogeneous mixtures. For example, a fruit
salad is a heterogeneous mixture. So is trail mix
and Lucky Charms. Pepper works too, because
you can see all of the different pieces that make
up pepper.
A homogeneous mixture is a mixture that is really
well mixed. It's so well mixed that you can't see
the different parts of the mixture. It all looks
uniform. The air that you are breathing right now
is a homogeneous mixture. It's made up of
several different gasses that are so thoroughly
mixed together that they appear uniform. Milk is
also a homogeneous mixture. It looks uniform
throughout. In fact, if you have a gallon of milk
in your refrigerator at home, go check the
container. It more than likely says
"homogenized."
General
Chemistry/Properties of
matter
The fundamental properties that we use to
measure matter in are; Inertia, Mass, Weight,
Volume, Density and Specific Gravity.
The periodic table is a visual method of
interpreting the chemical properties of elements
which effect the measurements below.
These measurements can be classified into two
categories, intrinsic and extrinsic.
the overall weight is equal to to another extrinsic
properties
Extrinsic properties (also called extensive), such
as volume and weight, are directly related to the
amount of material being measured.
 Inertia - the resistance of an object to changes
in motion (Newton's first law).
o Measured as mass because it is intimately
related to mass. Mass has inertia by virtue
of its nature.
o Common units: kilograms (kg), grams
(g), pounds (lb).
o Fundamental property of matter.
 Mass - a) the amount of matter in an object;
b) a measure of resistance to acceleration that
an object has.
o Common units; kilograms (kg), grams(g),
pounds (lb), ounces (oz).
o Sometimes equated with weight, but only
valid when the acceleration due
to gravity is understood to be
9.81 m/s2 (i.e., earthly conditions), or
when a different definition of the word
"weight" is used, as is normal in
commerce and the medical sciences.
 Weight:
1. Mass times the acceleration of gravity.
2. Note that Weight is very different from
Mass, a common misconception for
students. However, weight and mass are
related. An easy way to remember the
difference is that no matter what planet
you are on, you will always be the same
mass. However, if you enter a different
planet or go on the moon,
your weight will change.
3. The measure of the attraction between two
objects, one of which is generally much
larger than the other.
4. Common units: newtons (N), pounds-
force (lbf), ounces-force (ozf).
 Force:
o Common units: pounds-force (lbf) or
newtons (N).
o Relevant equation(s):
1. F = m a ( Force = Mass *
acceleration )
2. W = m g ( Weight = Mass *
Gravity )
3. N = 1 kg m/s2 ( newtons =
kilograms * meters per second
squared )
o Notes: The acceleration of gravity near
the surface of the earth is 9.81 meters per
second squared or 9.81 m/s2.
 Volume - the amount of space that an object
occupies.
o Common units: liters (l), cubic meters
(m³), cubic feet (ft³), fluid ounces, pints,
quarts, gallons.
Density- the amount of how much an object/
matter is or how compact it is
Intrinsic Properties[edit]
Intrinsic properties (also called intensive) are
those which are independent of the quantity of
matter present. For example, the density of gold
is the same no matter how much gold you have to
measure. Common intrinsic properties are density
and specific gravity.
 Density - units of mass per unit of volume.
o Common units: g/cm3 and kg/m3
o Relevant equation(s):
1. D = m/v ( Density = mass/volume
)
o These measurements are relative to
temperature. The density of water (at 4
degrees Celsius) is 1.00 g/cm3. Above
and below that temperature, the density
will be slightly different.
 Specific Gravity - ratio of a substance's
density relative to the density of water.
Usually table values use a water temperature
of 25 degrees Celsius. See current reference
books for examples.
o Since specific gravity is a ratio with the
same numerator as denominator, it has no
units.
o Specific gravity is usually measured with
a hydrometer.
o Specific gravity can be an ambiguous
measurement if the temperatures of the
two substances are different.
  Specific Heat - the amount of energy required
to raise the temperature of one gram of a pure
substance by one degree Kelvin.
o Common units J/(g*K) (Joules per gram-
Kelvin).
PLANT CELL and ANIMAL CELL
 Both animal and plant cells have
mitochondria, but only plant cells have
chloroplasts. Plants don’t get their sugar from
eating food, so they need to make sugar from
sunlight. This process (photosynthesis) takes
place in the chloroplast. Once the sugar is made,
it is then broken down by the mitochondria to
make energy for the cell. Because animals get
sugar from the food they eat, they do not need
chloroplasts: just mitochondria.
 Both plant and animal cells have vacuoles. A
plant cell contains a large, singular vacuole that is
used for storage and maintaining the shape of the
cell. In contrast, animal cells have many, smaller
vacuoles.
 Plant cells have a cell wall, as well as a cell
membrane. In plants, the cell wall surrounds
the cell membrane. This gives the plant cell its
unique rectangular shape. Animal cells simply
have a cell membrane, but no cell wall.
 CELL THEORY
 Cells are the basic unit of life.
 The Cell Theory states that:
 1) All organisms are made up of one or
more cells and the products of those cells.
 2) All cells carry out life activities (
require energy, grow, have a limited size).
 3) New cells arise only from other living
cells by the process of cell division.

 THE THREE MAIN COMPONENTS
OF ANY PLANT OR ANIMAL CELL
ARE:
 1. PLASMA MEMBRANE/ CELL
MEMBRANE
 Structure- a bilipid membraneous layer
composed of proteins and carbohydrates.
It is fluid like.
 Function - the cell membrane separates
the cell from its external environment, and
is selectively permeable (controls what
gets in and out). It protects the cell and
provides stability.
 Proteins are found embedded within the
plasma membrane, with some extending
all the way through in order to transport
materials.
 Carbohydrates are attached to proteins
and lipids on the outer lipid layer.

 2. CYTOPLASM
 Structure - The jelly-like substance
composed of mainly water and found
between the cell membrane and nucleus.
The cytoplasm makes up most of the
"body" of a cell and is constantly
streaming.
 Function - Organelles are found here and
substances like salts may be dissolved in
the cytoplasm.

 3. NUCLEUS
 Structure - The largest organelle in the
cell. It is dark and round, and is
surrounded by a double membrane called
the nuclear envelope/membrane. In
spots the nuclear envelope fuses to form
pores which are selectively permeable.
The nucleus contains genetic information
 (DNA) on special strands
called chromosomes.
 Function - The nucleus is the "control
center" of the cell, for cell metabolism
and reproduction.
 being highly folded. the mitochondria are
 THE FOLLOWING ORGANELLES ARE
FOUND IN BOTH PLANT AND ANIMAL
CELLS.
 1. "ER" OR ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network
of membranous canals filled with fluid.
They carry materials throughout the cell.
The ER is the "transport system" of the
cell.
 There are two types of ER: rough ER and
smooth ER.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is lined
with ribosomes and is rough in
appearance and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum contains no ribosomes and is
smooth in appearance.
 
 2. RIBOSOMES
 Ribosomes are small particles which are
found individually in the cytoplasm and
also line the membranes of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes
produce protein. They could be thought
of as "factories" in the cell.
 flagella ionclude locomotion for one-
 3. GOLGI BODY / APPARATUS
 Golgi bodies are stacks of flattened
membranous stacks (they look like
pancakes!). The Golgi Body temporarily
stores protein which can then leave the
cell via vesiciles pinching off from the
Golgi.
 
 4. LYSOSOMES
 Lysosomes are small sac-like structures
surrounded by a single membrane and
containing strong digestive enzymes
which when released can break down
worn out organelles or food. The
lysosome is also known as a suicide sac.

 5. MITOCHONDRIA
 The mitochondria are round "tube-like"
organelles that are surrounded by a double
membrane, with the inner membrane
often referred to as the "powerhouse" of
the cell. the mitochondria releases food
energy from food molecules to be used by
the cell. This process is called
respiration. Some cells( muscle cells)
require more energy than other cells and
so would have many more mitochondria.

 6. VACUOLES
 Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles
enclosed by a membrane. They can store
materials such as food, water, sugar,
minerals and waste products.

 ANIMAL CELLS ORGANELLES NOT
FOUND IN PLANT CELLS:
 CILIA AND FLAGELLA
Both cilia and flagella are hair-like
organelles which extend from the surface
of many animal cells. the structure is
identical in both, except that flagella are
longer and whiplike and cilia are shorter.
There are usually only a few flagella on a
cell, while cilia may cover the entire
surface of a cell. The function of cilia and
celled organisms and to move substances
over cell surfaces in multi-celled
organisms.

 ORGANELLES AND OTHER
FEATURES FOUND ONLY IN PLANT
CELLS:
1. CELL WALL
 The cell wall is a rigid organelle
composed of cellulose and lying just
outside the cell membrane. The cell wall
gives the plant cell it's box-like shape. it
also protects the cell. The cell wall
contains pores which allow materials to
pass to and from the cell membrane.
 
 2. PLASTIDS
 Plastids are double membrane bound
organelles. It is in plastids that plants
make and store food. Plastids are found in
the cytoplasm and there are two main
types:
 Leucoplasts - colorless organelles
which store starch or other plant
nutrients. ( example - starch stored in a
potato)
 Chromoplasts - contain different
colored pigments. The most important
type of chromoplast is the chloroplast,
which contains the green
pigment chlorophyll. This is important in
the process of photosynthesis.

 3. CENTRAL VACUOLE
 The central vacuole is a large fluid-filled
vacuole found in plants.

Table of Content

English c

 Was and Were

 Nor and Neither

 Pluaral and Singular Noun

 Preposition

 Proper use of In, On, and At

 Proper use of Go and Goes

 Proper use of Have, Has, and Had

Science

 Different Types of Rocks

 Sedimentary, Igneous, and

metamorphic rock

 Electromagnetic waves

 Different types of Atmosphere

 Different layer of Atmosphere

 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous

 General Chemistry Properties of

Matter

 Plant and Animal Cells