Topic 4. Vectors

International Baccalaureate
LECTURE NOTES
MATHEMATICS SL/HL
Dr Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 4
VECTORS
4.1 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION ………………………………………… 1
4.2 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION ………..……………………………….. 8
4.3 SCALAR (or DOT) PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS ……………. 15
4.4 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D …..…………………………………………….. 20
4.5 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D ………………………………………………… 27
Only for HL
4.6 VECTOR (or CROSS) PRODUCT …………………………………………………………… 33
4.7 PLANES …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38
4.8 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES ……….………………………… 45
4.9 DISTANCES ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 51
January 2017
TOPIC 4: VECTORS Christos Nikolaidis
4.1 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION
♦ DEFINITION
We distinguish two kinds of quantities in nature:
SCALARS vs VECTORS
(magnitude) (magnitude and direction)
examples: examples:
age
(28) length force
(4m)
velocity
(7N)
temperature
35m/sec)
(25oC)
Thus, for a vector it is not enough to know the magnitude. We also

need to know its direction (eg 35m/sec towards southeast)
Geometrically, a vector is represented by an arrow and denoted by
r
a letter: u or two letters: AB
[A=tail, B=head]
r
u B
A
The length of the vector is called magnitude (it is a scalar).

r
It is denoted by |u | or | AB |
Until now, we used to play with numbers: add numbers, multiply

numbers etc. In this topic, we will “play with vectors: we will add
vectors, multiply vectors etc.
1
♦ EQUAL VECTORS
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction. Thus, two equal vectors must be parallel.
r r r
u u=v
r
v
In other words, a vector does not have a specific position; it is

exactly the same as long as it is translated in a parallel position.
Hence, in a parallelogram
A B AB = DC AD = BC
BA = CD DA = CB
D C
r r
♦ ADDITION OF VECTORS: u + v
In order to add two vectors we must place them one after the
other (head to tail)
r r
u v
r r
Then the sum u + v is given by the following shape
r
u r
v
r r
u+v
Here, it is more convenient to use the head and tail notation
A AB + BC = AC
C
[think as follows: If you go from A to B (vector AB) and then from B to C

(vector BC), the result is that you go from A to C (vector AC)]
2
r
♦ THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
r r
u -u
It has the same magnitude but the opposite direction. Again, the
two vectors are parallel. It is more convenient to use the head and
tail notation
B
AB = −BA
A
NOTICE:
• From now on in the head and tail notation we will be writing
AB instead of AB as the direction from A to B is obvious.
• It is easy to verify that
r r r r
u + v = v +u (commutative law)
r r r r r r
u +( v + w ) = ( v +u )+ w (associative law)
• A vector AB can be written as a sum of consecutive vectors in

several ways. For example:
AB=AC+CB
AB=AC+CD+DE+EB etc
The only thing we preserve is to start from A and finish at B.
• Head and tail notation helps to add several vectors even without
drawing them:
AB+CD+BC = AB+BC+CD = AD
AB-AC=AB+CA=CA+AB=CB
r r r r
• If |u |=5 and | v |=3 then | u + v | is not necessarily 8. It is expected
to be less than 8. Indeed, the triangle inequality gives
r
u r
v
r r r r r r
u+v |u + v | ≤ |u |+| v |
r r r r r r
Only if u and v have the same direction it holds: |u + v |=| u |+| v |
3
♦ THE ZERO VECTOR: 0

It is a vector of zero magnitude and no direction!
Notice that
r r
u -u = 0 or AB-AB = AB+BA = AA = 0
r
♦ MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR: ku
r r r
Instead of u +u we can write 2u .
r
u r
2u
Similarly, if k is a natural number

r r r r
ku = u +u +…+u (k times)
r
In general, if k is any positive scalar (k ∈ R + ) the product ku is
r
defined as a new vector of the same direction and magnitude k| u |.
r
u r
ku
r
For k<0 the vector ku simply has the opposite direction.
r r
Thus for two vectors u and v
r r r r
u // v ⇔ u =k v for some k∈R
NOTICE:
It is easy to verify that
r r r r
k(u + v ) = k v +ku (distributive law)
r r r
(k+m) u = ku +m u (distributive law)
r r
k(m u ) = (km) u
r r
1u = u
r
0u = 0
k0 = 0
4
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following cube
E H
F G
D C
A B
r r r
Let a =AB, b =AD c =AF.
r r r
Any other edge can be corresponded to a , b , c .
Namely,
r
a =AB=DC=FG=EH.
r
b =AD=BC=FE=GH
r
c =AF=BG=DE=CH
r r r
Can you express FC in terms of a , b and c ?
First of all we must find a path from F to C: FC=FG+GB+BC

Then we observe
r r r
FC= a - c + b
♦ VECTORS ON THE CARTESIAN PLANE
Remember that a parallel translation of any vector results to an

equal vector:
5
If we can consider the Cartesian Plane, any vector on the plane can
be moved so as to start from the origin O.
B
A
Thus any vector on the plane can be written in the form OA.
Suppose that the coordinates of the point A are: A(a,b)
b r A
u
O a
r a
We agree to denote the vector u =OA by  
b 
r a
We say that u =OA=   is the position vector of the point A(a,b).
b 
Notice also that the length of OA is a 2 + b 2 (according to the

r
Pythagoras’ Theorem). This is in fact the magnitude of u =OA.
6
EXAMPLE 2
r
Consider the following vector u and its equivalent vector OA.
r
4 A u
x
O
3
Notice that the point A has coordinates (3,4)

3 
The position vector of the point A(3,4) is OA=  
4
r 3 
In practice, by a vector u =   we imply that we are moving
4
3 units in the x-direction and
4 units in the y-direction
This description introduces an alternative approach for vectors in

the following paragraph.
7
4.2 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION
♦ 2- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
r a
A vector u is a pair of numbers in column form:   .
b 
r a
A vector u =   is represented on the Cartesian plane as an arrow
b 
r
from the origin O to the point P(a,b). We say that u =OP is the
position vector of the point P.
b r P
u
O a
r r
The magnitude of a vector u is defined by |u |= a 2 + b 2
EXAMPLE 1
r  3  r - 3  r  1  r  0 
Consider the vectors u =   , v =   , w =   , r =  
4
   4  1 0
The corresponding magnitudes are
r r
|u |= 3 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5 | v |= (-3) 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5
r r
| w |= 1 2 + 1 2 = 2 |r |= 0 2 + 0 2 = 0
r r
♦ ADDITION OF VECTORS: u + v
r  a1  r  a2  r r  a1 + a 2 
If u =   and v =   then u + v =  

 b1   b2   b1 + b 2 
8
r
♦ THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
r a r - a 
If u =   then -u =  
b  - b 
♦ THE ZERO VECTOR: 0

0
0 =  
0
r
♦ MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR: k u
r a r  ka 
If k ∈ R (scalar) and u =   then ku =  
b   kb 
r r
If k>0, we say that u and ku have the same direction
r r
If k<0, we say that u and ku have the opposite direction
EXAMPLE 2
r 3  r  2 
Consider the vectors u =   , v =   . Then
4 5 
r r 3   2  5  r r  3   2  1  r r  2   3  -1
u + v =   +   =   , u - v =   +   =  , v -u =   -   =  
 4   5  9   4   5  -1  5   4  1 
r 3  6  r  15  r - 9  r r - 3 
2u =2   =   , 5u =   , -3u =   , -1u =-u =  
4
    8  20  - 12  - 4 
r r 3   2   6   6   12 
2u +3 v =2   +3   =   +   =  
4  5  8   15   23 
NOTICE
r 3  r r 6  r
For u =   , it is | u |=5. For 2 u =   , |2u |= 6 2 + 82 = 100 =10.
4 8 
r 1 r
Similarly, the magnitude of 10u is 50, the magnitude of u is 1.
5
r r
In general, the magnitude of k u is |k| times the magnitude of u ,
that is
r r
|ku |= |k|| u |
9
♦ THE UNIT VECTOR

r
The unit vector corresponding to u is defined by
1 r
û= u
|u|
It is in fact a vector in the same direction with magnitude 1.
EXAMPLE 3
r 3  r  2 
Consider the vectors u =   , v =   . Then
4 5 
r r
|u |= 3 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5 | v |= 2 2 + 5 2 = 29
The corresponding unit vectors are

1 r  3/5  1  2   2/ 29 
û= u =   , v̂ =   =
5  4/5  29  5   5/ 29 
We can easily confirm that the magnitudes of the unit vectors û
and v̂ are both equal to 1.
r r r
Question: Can you find a vector a parallel to u and a vector b
r
parallel to v , both of them having magnitude 20?
r r r
Since |u |= 5 , the vector a =4u has magnitude 20
r r
Since | v |= 29 , it is less obvious to find b . The general method is
to find the unit vector v̂ first (which has magnitude 1) and then
r
we multiply by the required legnth: b =20 v̂ = 20 v
r
29
r r r
♦ THE NOTATION u =a i +b j
r a r r r
A vector u =   may also be written in the form u =a i +b j
b 
r 1  r  0 
where i =   , j =  
0 1 
Notice: In practice, whenever we see an expression like that, say

r r
u =3 i +4 j , we will be using the column vector form, that is u =  3  ,
r r
 4
to make our life easier!!!
10
r r r
♦ EXPLANATION FOR u =a i +b j
a
Notice that any vector on the x-axis has the form  
0  
0
any vector on the y-axis has the form  
b 
r 1
Especially, the unit vector on the x-axis is i =  
0
r 0
the unit vector on the y-axis is j =  
1 
r 3  r  0 
Consider for example the vectors u 1=   , u 2=  
0 4
r
r u
u2
r
j
r r
O i u1
r 3  r r r 3  3   0 
Then u =   can be written as u = u 1+u 2 [indeed,   =   +   ]
4 4 0 4
r r r r r
But u 1=3 i and u 2=4 j , thus the vector u can be expressed as
r r r
u =3 i +4 j
In general,
a r r
  = a i +b j
b 
♦ CONNECTION BETWEEN GEOMETRIC AND ALGEBRAIC

REPRESENTATION
In paragraph 4.1 we gave a geometric description of a vector and

r r r
the operations u + v and ku .
In this paragraph we have presented an algebraic description of
these notions. Do these descriptions agree?
11
We will make use of some examples to demonstrate this connection.
r r
• For u + v
r 3  r 5  r r 8 
Let u =   and v =   . Then u + v =  
4 - 2  2
r r
Geometrically, let us draw u and v , starting from the origin, so
r r
that u and v are consecutive:
r
for u we are moving 3 units horizontally, 4 units vertically
r
for v we are moving 5 units horizontally, -2 units vertically
then we observe that
r r
for u + v we are moving 8 units horizontally 2 units vertically
r
v
r
u
r r
u+ v
O
r r
Hence, the geometric description of u + v that we have seen in
paragraph 4.1 keeps up with the algebraic description in this
paragraph.
r
• For ku
r a
If u =   is a vector of magnitude m
b 
r  2a 
then clearly 2u =   is a vector in
2b
 
the same direction with magnitude 2m
r
Again, the geometric and the algebraic definitions of 2u (and
r
ku in general) coincide!
12
♦ 3- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
In the 3-dimensional space a vector has the following form
a
r   r r r r
u = b  or equivalently u =a i +b j +c k
c 
 
r  1  r  0  r  0 
where i =  0  , j =  1  , k =  0 
0 0 1 
     
z
r
u
y
c
r r b
k j
O
x
r a
i
r r
The magnitude of u is defined by |u |= a 2 + b 2 + c 2
r r r
All the other notions (eg u + v , k u , unit vector) are defined in an
analogue way!
EXAMPLE 4
1  2 
r   r  
Consider the vectors u =  2  , v =  5  . Then
3  - 4 
   
1   2   3   4  7 
r r          
• 3u +2 v =3  2  +2  5  =  6  +  10  =  16 
3  - 4  9  - 8   1 
         
r
• |u |= 1 2 + 2 2 + 32 = 14
 1/ 14 
r 1 r  
• The unit vector corresponding to u is û= u =  2/ 14 
|u|  
 3/ 14 
 
13
♦ POINTS AND VECTORS
2D 3D
Points A(a1,a2) and B(b1,b2) A(a1,a2,a3) and B(b1,b2,b3)
a 1 + b1 a 2 + b 2 a 1 + b 1 a 2 + b 2 a 3 + b3
Mid-point M( , ) M( , , )
2 2 2 2 2
 a1   b1 
position vectors  a1   b1     
OA=   , OB=   OA=  a 2  , OB=  b 2 
of A and B  a2   b2  a   
 3  b3 
 b 1   a 1   b1 − a 1 
 b 1   a 1   b1 − a 1       
vector AB   - =   b2  -  a 2  =  b2 − a 2 
b  a  b − a       
 2  2  2 2
 b 3   a 3   b3 − a 3 
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the (b1 − a 1 ) 2 + (b 2 − a 2 ) 2 (b1 − a1 ) 2 + (b 2 − a 2 ) 2 + (b3 − a3 ) 2
magnitude |AB|
EXAMPLE 5
2D 3D
Points A(1,2) and B(3,4) A(1,2,3) and B(4,5,6)
5 7 9
Mid-point M(2,3) M( , , )
2 2 2
1  4
position vectors 1  3     
OA=   , OB=   OA=  2  , OB=  5 
of A and B 2 4 3  6 
   
 4  1   3
3  1   2       
vector AB   -   =   5  -  2  =  3
4 2 2 6  3   3
     
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the 22 + 22 = 8 3 2 + 3 2 + 3 2 = 27
magnitude |AB|
14
4.3 DOT PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS
♦ THE GEOMETRIC DEFINITION (the ugly one!)

r r
Let u and v be two vectors and θ be the angle between those two
vectors
r
v
θ r
u
r r
The dot product (or scalar product) of u and v is defined to be a
number given by
r r r r
u . v =|u || v |cosθ
r r
For example, if u and v are vectors of magnitudes 5 and 4
respectively and the angle between them is θ=600 then
r r r r
u . v =|u || v |cosθ=(5).(4).(0.5) = 10
Mind that the result is a number (scalar) and not a vector.

Notice that
r r r r
If θ=900 then u . v =0 [ u ⊥ v , perpendicular vectors]
r r r r r r
If θ=0o then u . v =|u || v | [ u ↑↑ v , parallel-same direction]
r r r r r r
If θ=1800 then u . v =-|u || v | [ u ↑↓ v , parallel-opposite direction]
Thus, the dot product can take any value between the minimum
r r r r
value -|u || v | and the maximum value |u || v |
r r r
In particular, the product u . u is denoted by u 2. Since the angle
r r r r
between u and itself is 0, u 2 is equal to |u ||u |, hence
r r
u 2=|u |2
1  0
Notice that for the unit vectors i=   and j=   it holds
0 1 
i2= 1 , j2=1, i.j= 0 and j.i=0
15
♦ THE ALGEBRAIC DEFINITION (the pretty one!)

r  a1  r  a2 
Let u =   and v =   be two vectors. The scalar product (or dot
 b1   b2 
r r
product) of u and v is given by
r r
u. v =a1a2+b1b2
r 2 r 5  r r
For example, if u =   and v =   then u. v =2.5+3.4=22
3  4
♦ BASIC PROPERTIES
It can be shown that the dot product satisfies the following basic
rules:
r r r r
o u. v = v .u (commutative law)
r r r r r r r
o u .( v 1 + v 2 )= u . v 1 + u . v 2 (distributive law)
r r r r r r
o k(u . v )=(ku ). v = u . (k v )
♦ SHORT EXPLANATION FOR THE “PRETTY” DEFINITION

r  a1  r  a2 
Let u =   =a1i+b1j and v =   = a2i+b2j. Then
 b1   b2 
r r
u. v = (a1i+b1j).(a2i+b2j)= a1a2i2 + a1b2i.j + b1a2j.i + b1b2j2= a1a2+b1b2
(since i2=j2=1 and ij=ji=0)
♦ THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

If we combine the “ugly” and the “pretty” definitions we obtain a
nice way to calculate the angle between two vectors. The “ugly”
definition gives
r r
u⋅v
cosθ = r r
| u || v |
r r
Hence, if we are given two vectors u and v , we can easily calculate
r r r r
| u | , | v | and the dot product u. v by using the “pretty” definition
and the formula above gives the angle θ.
16
EXAMPLE 1
r 3  r 1 
Consider the vectors u =   , v =   .
4 - 2 
Find
a) their magnitudes
r r
b) their dot product u. v
c) the angle θ between them
We have
r r
a) | u | = 5, | v | = 5
r r
b) u. v = 3.1+4.(-2)=-5
r r
u⋅v −5 1
c) cosθ = r r = =− , and the GDC gives θ=116.560
| u || v | 5 5 5
The dot product is a nice tool to verify whether two vectors are
perpendicular or not:
♦ PERPENDICULAR VECTORS AND PARALLEL VECTORS

r r
Recall two basic properties: For two non-zero vectors u and v :
r r r r (perpendicular vectors)
u ⊥ v ⇔ u. v =0
r r r r
u// v ⇔ u=k v for some k∈R (parallel vectors)
EXAMPLE 2
r 3  r  4 
a) Show that u =   , v =   are perpendicular
4 - 3 
r 2
b) Find some perpendicular vectors to the vector u =  
5 
Solution
r r r r
a) u. v =3.4+4.(-3)= 0, hence u ⊥ v . Indeed, look at the following
diagram
17
r 3 
u =  
4
r 4 
v =  
- 3 
b  - b  r a
b) In general both   and   are perpendicular to u =   since
-a a  b 
the dot product for both pairs is a.b-ab=0.
r 2
Thus, some perpendicular vectors to u =   are the following
5 
 5   10   15   − 5  - 10  - 15 
  ,   ,   and   ,   ,  
- 2  - 4  - 6   2   4  6 
EXAMPLE 3
r 3  r x 
Let u =   . Find the value of x if v =   is
4 - 6 
r r
a) perpendicular to u b) parallel to u
Solution
r r r r
a) u ⊥ v ⇔ u. v = 0 ⇔ 3x+4(-6)=0 ⇔ 3x=24 ⇔ x=8
r r 3   x 
b) u// v ⇔   =λ   for some λ.
 4  - 6 
But it is more practical to say that the ratios of the corresponding
coordinates are equal:
x −6
=
3 4
9
Therefore, x=-
2
18
r r
♦ THE PROPERTY |u |2= u 2
This property very often helps us to get rid of magnitudes. Look at

the following example!
EXAMPLE 4
r r r r r r
For two non-zero vectors u and v it holds | u+ v |=| u- v |. Show
r r
that u and v are perpendicular.
r r r r r r r r
| u+ v |=| u- v | ⇒ | u+ v |2=| u- v |2 [just squaring]
r r 2 r r 2 r r
⇒ ( u+ v ) =( u- v ) [property |u |2=u 2]
r r r r r r r r
⇒ u2+2 u. v + v 2= u2-2 u. v + v 2
r r r r r r
⇒ 4 u. v =0 ⇒ u. v =0 ⇒ u ⊥ v
♦ 3D VECTORS
a   a2 
r  1 r  
For two vectors u =  b1  and v =  b 2  the dot product is given by
c   
 1  c2 
r r
u. v =a1a2+b1b2+c1c2
Whatever we said about 2D vectors also applies here!
EXAMPLE 5
4  5 
r   r  
Show that u =  2  , v = - 3  are perpendicular. Indeed
- 1   14 
   
r r r r
u. v = 4.5+2(-3)+(-1)(14) = 0, thus u ⊥ v
EXAMPLE 6
1 1 
r   r  
Find the angle between u =  1  and v =  2  . We have
1 3 
   
r r
u⋅v 6
cosθ = r r = =0.926, hence θ=cos-1(0.926)= 22.20
| u || v | 3 ⋅ 14
19
4.4 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D
♦ VECTOR EQUATION
r  a1 
Let A(a1,a2) be a point with position vector a =  
 a2 
r b 
1
b =   be a vector
 b2 
r
There is a unique line passing through A which is parallel to b .
A(a1,a2)
r b 
1
b =  
 b2 
r x
The position vector r =   of the random point P(x,y) in this line is
y
given by
r r r
or  x   a 1   b1 
r = a +λ b   =   +λ  
 
 y   a 2   b2 
where λ is a parameter.
♦ SHORT EXPLANATION
r x
r =  
r  a1  y
a =   P
 a2 
A r b 
1
b =  
 b2 
The position vector of the point P(x,y) is

r
r =OP=OA+AP
r r r
But OA= a and AP // b ⇒ AP=λ b for some λ ∈ R. Thus
r r r
r = a +λ b
20
♦ PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
 x   a 1   b1  x=a1+λb1
  =   +λ   gives
 
 y   a 2   b2  y=a2+λb2
♦ CARTESIAN EQUATION
x − a1 y − a2
If we solve both equations for λ we get λ= and λ= .
b1 b2
Therefore, the relation between the parameters x,y is
x − a1 y − a 2
=
b1 b2
EXAMPLE 1
r 3 
Let A(1,2) be the given point and b =   be the direction vector.
4
r
Then the line passing through A, parallel to b is
r 1  3   x  1  3 
Vector equation: r =   +λ   or   =   +λ  
2 4 y  2  4
Parametric equations: x=1+3λ
y=2+4λ
Now solve for λ and get
x −1 y−2
Cartesian equation: =
3 4
The Cartesian equation may be written in more traditional forms:
ax+by=c or y=mx+c
Indeed, the last equation gives

x −1 y−2
= ⇔ 4x-4=3y-6 ⇔ 4x-3y=-2
3 4
4 2
If we solve for y we obtain the traditional form: y= x+
3 3
21
NOTICE
 x  1  3 
Let us consider again the equation   =   +λ  
y  2  4
r 3 
It is the line which is parallel to b =   and passes through A(1,2).
4
As λ changes we obtain several points of the line.
Some points of the line Some direction vectors
1  3 
  (the given one)   (the given one)
2 4
4 6 
  (for λ=1)  
6  8 
7  9  3 
  (for λ=2)   multiples of  
 10   12  4
- 2  - 3 
  (for λ=-1)  
- 2  - 4 
Hence, if we consider another point from the first column and

another vector from the second column the resulting line is still the
same! For example the vector equation
 x  7   6 
  =   +λ  
 y   10  8 
describes the same line!
(Confirm that the Cartesian equation derived is exactly the same)
♦ GIVEN TWO POINTS A(a1,a2) AND B(b1,b2)

What is the equation of the line passing through A and B?
For the first bracket we choose one of the points: say A(a1,a2)
r  b   a1 
As a direction vector we consider the vector b =AB=  1  -  
 b2   a 2 
Then
r r r
r = a +λ b .
22
EXAMPLE 2
Find the line which passes through A(1,2) and B(4,7)
r 1  r  4- 1   3 
We consider a =   and b =AB=   =  
2 7 - 2   5 
Hence, the line is
r 1  3 
r =   +λ  
 2  5 
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the line y=3x+2. Find a vector equation of the line.
Firstly, let us find two points of this line:

For x=0, y=2 and for x=1, y=5
Hence, we are looking for the line which passes through A(0,2) and
B(1,5).
r  0  1
r =   +λ  
 2  3
1
(since AB=   )
3
EXAMPLE 4 (the inverse of EXAMPLE 3)

Let
r  0  1
r =   +λ  
 2  3
Find the Cartesian equation.
The parametric equations are
x=0+1λ
y=2+3λ
Solving both equations for λ we find
x −0 y−2
(λ= ) =
1 3
That is, 3x=y-2, or y=3x+2 as expected!
23
If we are given two lines

r r r
r1 = a1 +λ b1 (L1)
r r r
r2 = a 2 +µ b 2 (L2)
two questions arise:
1) Find the intersection point P of these lines
2) Find the angle θ between these lines (usually the acute angle)
r
L1 b2
P
θ
r
b1
L2
♦ INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINES
Methodology:
r r
• set r1 = r2 ,
• find λ (or µ),
Substitute to L1 (or L2) to find the point.
EXAMPLE 5
Find the intersection point of the lines
r 1  3  r 2  1 
r1 =   +λ   and r2 =   +µ  
2 4 - 2  4
r r  1 + 3λ   2 + µ  3λ − µ = 1 3λ − µ = 1
r1 = r2 ⇔   = 
  ⇔  ⇔
 2 + 4λ  - 2 + 4µ  4λ − 4µ = −4  λ − µ = −1
The solution of this system is λ=1 and µ=2

r 4
For λ=1 the first vector equation gives r1 =  
6 
Therefore, the intersection point is (4,6).
24
♦ ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES

r r
It is enough to find the angle between b1 and b 2
r r
(since L1// b1 and L2// b 2 )
Notice: We usually consider the acute angle between the lines.

Hence, if θ>90 we consider the angle 1800-θ.
EXAMPLE 6
Find the angle between the lines
r 1  3  r 2  1 
r1 =   +λ   and r2 =   +µ  
2 4 - 2  4
r 3  r 1 
It suffices to find the angle between u=   , and v =  
4 4
We have
r r
a) | u | = 5, | v | = 17
r r
b) u. v = 3.1+4.4=19
r r
u⋅v 19
c) cosθ = r r = =0.922, and the GDC gives θ=22.80
| u || v | 5 17
A nice application of the line equation is the following:
♦ VELOCITY AND SPEED

Suppose that a body is moving along a straight line with a constant
velocity and its position at time t is given by
r r r
r = a +t b
Then
r
a is the position of the body at time t=0
r r
b is the velocity vector of the body (usually v )
r r
|b | is the speed of the body (usually | v |)
25
EXAMPLE 7
Suppose that a body is moving according to the equation
r 1  3 
r =   +t  
2 4
where time is measured in seconds and distance in meters.
The initial position (at t=0) of the body is (1,2).

So it is 1 2 + 2 2 = 5 =2.23m far from the origin.
The position at time t=1sec is (4,6)

So it is 4 2 + 6 2 = 52 =7.21m far from the origin.
r 3 
The velocity vector is v =  
4
r
The speed is | v |= 3 2 + 4 2 =5 m/sec
NOTICE
r r r r
If r = a +λ b is an equation of line, the direction vector b can be
r
substituted by any multiple of b .
r r r r
If r = a +t b is an equation of motion, the velocity vector b CANNOT
r
be substituted by a multiple of b .
This is because the velocity vector corresponds to one unit of time t.
To explain the difference, consider the following situations:
• Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 1
second at position B(5,8). Then
r 4 r 1   4 
velocity vector: v =AB=   , equation of motion: r =   +t  
6   2  6 
• Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 2
r 4
seconds at position B(5,8). Then the direction vector b =AB=  
6 
corresponds to 2 seconds, hence
r 1 r 2 r 1   2 
Velocity vector: v = b =   , equation of motion: r =   +t  
2 3   2  3 
26
4.5 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D
Working in a similar way:

4
r  
The line passing through A(1,2,3) and parallel to b =  5  has
6 
 
vector equation: x 1 4

r r r      
r = a +λ b or  y  =  2  +λ  5 
 z   3  6 
     
x=1+4λ
parametric equations:
y=2+5λ
z=3+6λ
x −1 y−2 z −3
Cartesian equations*: = =
4 5 6
The rest analysis is similar! Let us find for example the line which
passes through two given points:
EXAMPLE 1
Find the line which passes through A(1,2,3) and B(5,2,-1)
Does the point C(21,2,-17) lie on the line?
1  5 - 1   4 
r   r    
We consider a =  2  and b =AB=  2 - 2  =  0 
3  - 1- 3  - 4 
     
Hence, the line is

1 4 
r r r    
r = a +λ b =  2  +λ  0 
 3  - 4 
   
* We just solve the parametric equations for λ and equate the results
27
The point C lies on the line if

 21   1   4 
     
 2  =  2  +λ  0  for some λ
- 17   3  - 4 
     
We obtain three equations:
21=1+4λ
2=2
-17=3-4λ
The second equation is always true! The first one gives λ=5, which
satisfies the third equation as well! Hence, C lies on the line.
Let us see what happens when we are given two lines

r r r
r1 = a1 +λ b1 (L1)
r r r
r2 = a 2 +µ b 2 (L2)
♦ INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINES
In the 3D space, three cases may occur:

• The lines are parallel (special case: they coincide)
• The lines intersect
• The lines are skew (neither parallel nor intersecting)
Methodology:
r r
• If b1 // b 2 the lines are parallel (moreover, if they have a
common point they coincide); otherwise
r r
• Set r1 = r2 . We obtain a system of 3 equations for λ and µ
• Consider the first two equations and find λ and µ,
• If λ and µ satisfy the third equation the lines intersect;
substitute λ to L1 (or µ to L2) to find the point
• If λ and µ do not satisfy the third equation the lines are skew
(nether parallel nor intersecting)
28
EXAMPLE 2
Find the intersection point of the lines:
1  3  1 6 
r     r    
a) r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  1  +µ 8 
3  5  1  10 
       
1  3  7  6 
r     r    
b) r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  10  +µ 8 
3  5   13   10 
       
1  3  1  2
r     r    
c) r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  4  +µ  2 
3  5  4 3 
       
1  3  1  2
r     r    
d) r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  4  +µ  2 
3  5  4 2
       
We have
6  3 
   
a) the lines are parallel since 8  =2  4  . Since (1,2,3) does not
 10  5 
   
lie on the second line (it does not satisfy the equation) the
lines are not identical.
6  3 
   
b) the lines are parallel since 8  =2  4  . Since (1,2,3) lies on
 10  5 
   
the second line (it satisfies the equation for µ=-1) the lines
coincide.
 1 + 3λ   1 + 2µ  3λ − 2µ = 0
r r     
c) r1 = r2 ⇔  2 + 4λ  =  4 + 2µ  ⇔ 4λ − 2µ = 2
    5λ − 3µ = 1
 3 + 5λ   4 + 3µ  
The first two equations give λ=2, µ=3. These values satisfy the
third equation 5λ-3µ=1, so the lines intersect. For λ=2 the first
7 
r  
equation line gives r1 =  10  . Thus the point is (7,10,13).
 13 
 
29
 1 + 3λ   1 + 2µ  3λ − 2µ = 0
r r     
d) r1 = r2 ⇔  2 + 4λ  =  4 + 2µ  ⇔ 4λ − 2µ = 2
    5λ − 2µ = 1
 3 + 5λ   4 + 2µ  
The first two equations give λ=2, µ=3. These values do not
satisfy the third equation 5λ-2µ=1, so the lines are skew.
♦ ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
If the lines intersect, it is enough to find the angle between the

r r r r
direction vectors b1 and b 2 (since L1// b1 and L2// b 2 )
Notice: if θ > 90o we consider 1800-θ.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the angle between the lines
1  3  1  2
r     r    
r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  4  +µ  2 
3  5  4 3 
       
We have seen that the lines intersect (exercise 2c above). It suffices
3  2
r   r  
to find the angle between u=  4  , and v =  2 
5  3 
   
We have
r r r r
a) u. v = 3.2+4.2+5.3=29 b) | u | = 50 5, | v | = 17
r r
u⋅v 29
c) cosθ = r r = = 0.995, and the GDC gives θ=5.730
| u || v | 50 17
EXAMPLE 4
Show that the following lines are perpendicular
1  3  1  - 4 
r     r    
r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  4  +µ  3 
3  5  4 0 
       
The dot product of the direction vectors is 3(-4)+4.3+5.0 = 0.
30
ONLY FOR
HL
31
32
4.6 CROSS PRODUCT (for HL)
This definition applies only for 3D vectors.
♦ THE GEOMETRIC DEFINITION (the “ugly” one)

r r
Let u and v be two vectors and θ be the angle between those two
vectors ( where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π).
r r
The cross product (or vector product) of u and v is defined to be a
vector given by
r r r r r
u × v = (|u || v |sinθ) n
r r r
where n is the unit vector which is perpendicular to both u and v
and follows the “screw rule”†:
r r
r v u
n
r r
u v
r
n
r r r r
That is, u × v is a new vector perpendicular to both u and v (and
r r r r
so to the plane determined by u and v ) with magnitude |u || v |sinθ
r
and direction n .
r
r r u
u× v
r r
v v
r
u r r
u× v
Notice that the commutative law does not hold. However,
r r r r
u × v = -v × u
r r
†
If we place a screw at the common starting point of u and v and rotate it
r r r
form u to v , then the screw will move in the direction of n .
33
♦ THE ALGEBRAIC DEFINITION (the “pretty” one)
 a1   a2 
r   r  
Let u =  b1  and v =  b 2  be two vectors. The cross product (or
c   
 1  c2 
r r
vector product) of u and v is given by
 b1 c 2 − b 2 c 1 
r r  
u × v =  c1 a 2 − c 2 a 1 
a b − a b 
 1 2 2 1
Well, it doesn’t look as pretty as the title promised! But the is a

kind of symmetry in it!
r r
For the first row of the result, you forget the first rows of u and v
and you move along the arrow below
 a 1   a 2   b1 c 2 − b 2 c 1 
     
 b1  ×  b 2  =  
c     
 1   c2   
Then you carry on in a similar way for the 2nd and the 3rd row.
Mind though the order of the operations for the three rows:
NOTICE
For those who know determinants, the definition can be given in
the form
r r r
i j k
r r
u × v = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
expanded in terms of the first row vectors, i.e.
r r b c1 r a 1 c1 r a 1 b1 r
u× v = 1 i − j+ k
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
34
EXAMPLE 1
1  4
r   r  
Let u =  2  and v =  5  . Then
3  6 
   
r. r
a) find u v ,
r r r r
b) find u × v and v × u (by using the “pretty” definition)
r r r r
c) verify that u × v is perpendicular to both u and v
r r
a) u . v = 4+10+18=32
 1   4   12 - 15  - 3 
r r        
b) u × v =  2  ×  5  =  12 - 6  = 6 
 3   6   6- 12  - 3 
       
 4   1   15 - 12  3 
r r         r r r r
v × u =  5  ×  2  =  6- 12  = - 6  . That is v × u = -u × v
 6   3   12 - 6  3 
       
r r r r r r
c) u × v ⊥ u and u× v ⊥ v
-3  1  -3  4 
       
since 6  ⋅  2  =-3+12-9 = 0, 6  ⋅  5  =-12 +30-18 = 0
-3  3  -3  6 
       
Notice that the “ugly” definition cannot be applied directly as we

r
need the unit vector n . Let us choose below two more convenient
r r
vectors u and v in order to compare the two definitions.
EXAMPLE 2
3  1 
r   r  
Let u =  2  and v =  4  . Then
0 0
   
r r
a) find u × v by using the “pretty” definition
r r
b) find the angle θ between u and v
r
c) find the unit vector n .
r r
d) find u × v by using the “ugly” definition
r r r r
e) verify that u × v is perpendicular to both u and v
35
3  1   0 
r r      
a) u × v =  2  ×  4  =  0 
 0   0   10 
     
r r
u⋅v 11
b) cosθ= r r = = 0.74, hence θ = 42.27ο
| u || v | 13 17
r r r
c) both vectors u and v are on the plane Oxy so the unit vector n
r r r
is parallel to axis Oz (if we draw u and v we will realize n is in
the positive direction so
0
r  
n =0
1 
 
0 
r r r r r r r  
d) u × v = (| u || v |sinθ) n = ( 13 17 sin42.3ο ) n = 10 n =  0 
 10 
 
r r r r
e) clearly u × v is parallel to n and thus perpendicular to both u
r
and v .
r r
♦ THE MAGNITUDE | u × v |
r r r r r
Notice that the ugly definition u × v = (|u || v |sinθ) n implies
r r r r
|u × v | = | u || v |sinθ
r
since n is a unit vector.
r r
But, if we consider the triangle determined by u and v
r
v
θ r
u
1 r r
we know that its area is given by |u || v |sinθ.
2
Therefore, the area of this triangle is given by
1 r r
Area of triangle = |u × v |
2
36
r r
In other words, the magnitude of the cross product u × v gives
r r
directly the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v
r
v
r
u
r r
Area of parallelogram = |u × v |
EXAMPLE 3
1  4 - 3 
r   r   r r  
For u =  2  and v =  5  , we have seen that u × v =  6 
3  6  - 3 
     
r r
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v is
given by
r r
Area = |u × v | = 9 + 36 + 9 = 7.35
1
Also, the area of the corresponding triangle is (7.35)=3.67
2
EXAMPLE 4
Find the area of the triangle determined by the three points
A(1,1,1), B(1,3,1) and (-3,3,4)
A C
It suffices to find the area of the triangle determined by any two

vectors; let’s choose the vectors AB and AC.
0 - 4   0  - 4  6 
         
AB =  2  , AC =  2  and so AB × AC=  2  ×  2  = 0
0 3   0  3  8 
         
Hence,
1 1
Area of triangle = |AB × AC| = 36 + 0 + 64 = 5
2 2
37
4.7 PLANES (for HL)
♦ VECTOR EQUATION
 a1 
r  
Given: Point A(a1,a2,a3) (the position vector is a =  a 2  )
a 
 3
b   c1 
r  1 r  
Two vectors b =  b 2  , c =  c 2  (which are non-parallel)
  c 
 b3   3
r r
There is a unique plane passing through A, parallel to both b and c
P(x,y,z)
A
r
c
r
b
x
r  
The position vector r =  y  of any point P(x,y,z) of this plane is
 z
 
given by
r r r r
r = a +λ b +µ c
or
 a 1   b1   c1 
r      
r =  a 2  +λ  b 2  +µ  c 2 
 a    c 
 3   b3   3
where λ,µ are two parameters.
38
♦ SHORT EXPLANATION
If P(x,y,z) is any point on the plane then AP lies in fact on the
r r
plane determined by b and c : ‡
r
c P
A r
b
Hence
r r
AP = λ b +µ c (for some λ,µ).
Then, the position vector of P is given by
r r r r
r =OP=OA+AP= a +λ b +µ c
♦ PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
 x   a 1   b1   c1  x=a1+λb1+µc1
       
 y  =  a 2  +λ  b 2  +µ  c 2  gives y=a2+λb2+µc2
 z   a    c 
   3   b3   3 z=a3+λb3+µc3
♦ CARTESIAN EQUATION
If we eliminate λ and µ we will obtain an equation of the form
Ax+By+Cz=D
Remark: Although the method of eliminating λ and µ is not

necessary (a much easier method will be given in a while!) we
will demonstrate the procedure by using the example below, just
to persuade ourselves. The steps are as follows
• Eliminate λ from equations (1) and (2)
• Eliminate λ from equations (2) and (3)
• Eliminate µ from the two resulting equations
r r
‡ Since b and c may be moved parallelly and placed on the plane in question
39
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,2,3) be the given point
4 7 
r   r  
b =  5  and c = 8  be the parallel vectors
6  8 
   
r r
Then the plane passing through A, parallel to b and c is
Vector equation: 1   4  7 
r      
r =  2  +λ  5  +µ 8 
3  6  8 
     
Parametric equations: x=1+4λ+7µ

y=2+5λ+8µ
z=3+6λ+8µ
Now we eliminate λ from equations (1) and (2)

5 × (1)-4 × (2): 5x-4y=5(1+4λ+7µ)-4(2+5λ+8µ)
5x-4y=-3+3µ
6 × (2)-5 × (3): 6y-5z=6(2+5λ+8µ)-5(3+6λ+8µ)
6y-5z=-3+8µ
Next, we eliminate µ from

5x-4y=-3+3µ (4)
6y-5z=-3+8µ (5)
Thus
8 × (4)-3 × (5): 8(5x-4y)-3(6y-5z)=8(-3+3µ)-3(-3+8µ)
40x-50y+15z=-15
We simplify the equation by dividing by 5 and we obtain
Cartesian equation: 8x-10y+3z =-3
As we said, a much easier process will give the same result!
40
♦ VECTOR EQUATION IN NORMAL FORM

 a1 
r  
Given: Point A(a1,a2,a3) (the position vector is a =  a 2  )
a 
 3
 Α
r  
Normal vector n =  Β 
C 
 
r
There is a unique plane passing through A, perpendicular to n .
r
n
P
A
The equation of the plane is

r r r r
r .n =a.n
r
Indeed, if P(x,y,z) is a random point of the plane then AP ⊥ n
r r
But AP =OP-OA=r - a , and so
r r r r r r r r r r r r
AP . n =0 ⇒ (r - a ). n =0 ⇒ r . n - a . n =0 ⇒ r . n = a . n
NOTICE
The equation
r r r r
r .n =a.n
derives the form
Ax+By+Cz=D
 x   Α
r r   
Indeed, r n =  y   Β  = Ax+By+Cz
 z  C 
  
 a1   Α 
r r   
while a n =  a 2   Β  is a constant scalar, say D
 a  C 
 3 
41
EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of the plane passing through A(1,2,3) which is
 8
r  
perpendicular to n = - 10  (normal vector)
 3
 
r. r r. r
The equation r n = a n implies
x  8  1   8 
     
 y  - 10  =  2  - 10 
 z  3  3   3 
     
and so
8x-10y+3z =8-20+9 or finally 8x-10y+3z =-3
NOTICE
In examples 1 and 2 we obtained the same plane: 8x-10y+3z =-3
We had:
1  4
r   7 
r   r  
EXAMPLE 1: Point: a =  2  Parallel vectors: b =  5  and c = 8 
3  6  8 
     
1   8
r   r  
EXAMPLE 2: Point: a =  2  Normal vector: n = - 10 
3   3
   
r r r
Indeed, if we consider as a normal vector the vector n = b × c
r r
(which is ⊥ b , c hence perpendicular to the plane)
we obtain
 4  7   8 
r      
n =  5  × 8  = - 10 
 6  8   3 
     
Thus, the Cartesian equation of the plane may easily be found by

r r r r
r . n = a . n , instead of applying the elimination process of λ,µ!
42
NOTICE
If we know the Cartesian form Ax+By+Cz=D
 Α
r  
we also know a normal vector of the equation. It is n = Β 
C 
 
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the plane
3x-2y+z = 6
r
a) Find a normal vector n
b) Find three points on the plane
r r
c) Find two vectors b and c parallel to the plane
r r r r
d) Confirm that n ⊥ b and n ⊥ c
e) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
3 
r  
a) n = - 2 
1 
 
b) For y=z=0 it is x=2, thus we obtain the point A(2,0,0).
Similarly we obtain the points B(0,-3,0) and C(0,0,6)
 0   2  - 2   0   2  - 2 
r       r      
c) Let b =AB= - 3  -  0  = - 3  and c =AC=  0  -  0  =  0 
0  0 0  6   0  6 
           
r. r r .r
d) We can easily see that n b =-6+6 = 0 and n c =-6+6 = 0
 2  - 2  - 2 
r r r r r      
e) Vector form: r = a +λ b +µ c or r =  0  +λ - 3  +µ  0 
0 0  6 
     
Parametric form: x=2-2λ-2µ, y=-3λ, z=6µ
r r r r
Normal form: r .n =a.n
Cartesian form: 3x-2y+z = 6
43
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the plane
3  1  5 
r      
r =  1  +λ  2  +µ  0 
 2  3  2
     
r r
a) Find two parallel vectors b and c
b) Find three points on the plane
r
c) Find a normal vector n
d) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
1 5  A(3,1,2) (the obvious one)

r   r  
a) b =2 , c = 0 b) B(4,3,5) for λ=1,µ=0
3  2
    C(8,1,4) for λ=0, µ=1
 1   5  4 
r r r      
c) Let n = b × c =  2  ×  0  = 13 
 3   2  -10
     
3  1  5 
r r r r r      
d) Vector form: r = a +λ b +µ c or r =  1  +λ  2  +µ  0 
 2  3  2
     
Parametric form: x=3+λ+5µ, y=1+2λ, z=2+3λ+2µ
r r r r
Normal form: r .n =a.n
Cartesian form: 4x+13y-10z = 5

4 
  r r
since 13  is a normal vector and a . n =12+13-20 = 5
-10
 
44
4.8 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES (for HL)
In this section we will study the relative position between

• two lines
• a line and a plane
• two planes
• three planes
♦ TWO LINES
r r r
Given: Lines L1: r1 = a1 +λ b1
r r r
L2: r2 = a 2 +µ b 2
We have already seen this study in paragraph 4.5. Let us

remember all possible cases.
Lines Look like Method
r r
parallel Check if b1 // b 2
r r
Check if b1 // b 2
coincide
+ a common point
r r
Intersect r1 = r2
at some point has a solution
r r
r1 = r2
skew
has no solution
θ = angle between the two lines

r r
r r b1 ⋅ b 2
θ = angle between b1 and b 2 cosθ= r r
| b1 || b 2 |
Examples can be found in 4.5
45
♦ A LINE AND A PLANE

r r r
Given: Line L: r1 = a +λ b
Α
r  
Plane Π: Ax+By+Cz=D (so n = Β  )
C 
 
Line and Plane Look like Method
r x
r
n
b r  
Intersect plug r1 =  y  into
 z
at some point  
Ax+By+Cz=D to find λ
r r r
b Check if b ⊥ n
r
parallel n or
no intersection point
r r
Check if b ⊥ n
+ a common point
Line lies on Plane
or
∞ intersection points
θ = angle between line and plane

r r r
r
If φ = angle between b and n b ⋅n
sinθ= r r
then θ = 900 - φ | b || n |
Notice: if the line and the plane are given in other forms, we
r r r
transform them into the forms L: r1 = a +λ b and Π: Ax+By+Cz=D
EXAMPLE 1
1   4 
r    
Consider the line L: r1 =  2  +λ  5  and the plane Π: 2x+5y-3z=18
3  6 
   
Find the the angle between L and Π and the point of intersection.
For the angle between L and P we have

r r
b⋅n 15
sinθ= r r = =0.277, hence θ=16.10
| b || n | 77 38
46
The point of intersection lies on L, so it has the form

(x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+5y-3z=18:

2(1+4λ)+5(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=18 ⇔ 15λ+3=18 ⇔ λ =1
Hence, x=5, y=7, z=9 and the intersection point is (x,y,z)=(5,7,9).
EXAMPLE 2
1   4 
r    
Show that line L: r1 =  2  +λ  5  is parallel to plane Π: 2x+2y-3z=1
3  6 
   
4 2 
r   r  
Method A: If b =  5  and n =  2  , then
6  - 3 
   
r r r r
b ⋅ n =0 ⇒ b ⊥ n ⇒ L //Π
The point (1,2,3) of the line does not satisfy 2x+2y-3z = 1, hence
the line does not lie on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=1:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=1 ⇔ 0λ=4
The last equation is impossible, thus there is no intersection point.
EXAMPLE 3
1   4 
r    
Show that line L: r1 =  2  +λ  5  lies on plane Π: 2x+2y-3z = -3
3  6 
   
r r r r
Method A: Again b ⋅ n =0 ⇒ b ⊥ n ⇒ L //Π
But this time, the point (1,2,3) of the line satisfies the equation
2x+2y-3z = -3, hence the line lies on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=-3:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=-3 ⇔ 0λ=0
The last equation is true for any λ, so the line lies on the plane.
47
♦ TWO PLANES
Α 
r  1
Given: Planes Π1: A1x+B1y+C1z=D1 so n 1 =  Β1 
C 
 1
 Α2 
r  
Π2: A2x+B2y+C2z=D2 so n 2 =  Β2 
C 
 2
Planes Look like Method
r Find two common points
n2
r and thus the line
n1
intersecting or
r
into a line one common point a and
r r r r r r
r = a +λ b direction vector b = n 1 × n 2
or
solve simultaneous equations
r r
parallel Check if n 1 // n 2
r r
Check if n 1 // n 2
+
coincide
The equations are
multiple to each other
θ = angle between the two planes

r r
r r n1 ⋅ n 2
θ = angle between n 1 and n 2 cosθ= r r
| n 1 || n 2 |
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the planes
x+2y+3z=6
4x+5y+6z=15
Find the angle between the two planes and the line of intersection.
r r
n1 ⋅ n 2 32
For the angle: cosθ= r r = ⇒ θ=12.93ο
| n 1 || n 2 | 14 77
48
For the line of intersection

Method A: Let us first find two common points
For z=0 the equations become
x+2y=6 and 4x+5y=15
which give x=0, y=3. Hence, a common point is A(0,3,0).
For z=1 the equations become

x+2y=3 and 4z+5y=9
which give x=1, y=1. Hence, a common point is B(1,1,1).
The two points A,B determine the equation of the intersecting line
 0  1 
r    
r =  3  +λ - 2 
 0  1 
   
Method Β: We find only one common point, say A(0,3,0) and as a
 1   4  - 3 1 
r r        
direction vector we consider n 1 × n 2 =  2  ×  5  = 6  which is // - 2
3   6  - 3 1 
       
Method C: We solve the system of the two linear equations (GDC or
Gauss elimination). The general solution is x = λ, y = 3 − 2λ , z = λ .
These are the parametric equations of the same line.
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10
2x+4y+6z=30
1  2
   
Their normal vectors  2  and  4  are clearly parallel.
3  6 
   
Moreover, the two planes do not have a common point (since one
equation is not a multiple of the other).
EXAMPLE 6
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10 and 2x+4y+6z=20
The two planes coincide (one is a multiple of the other)
49
♦ THREE PLANES
Given: Planes A1x+B1y+C1z=D1
A2x+B2y+C2z=D2
A3x+B3y+C3z=D3
The problem reduces to the solution of a 3x3 system of

simultaneous equations (see paragraph 1.6). Then
SYSTEM CONCLUSION
The three planes have one common

Unique solution (x,y,z)
point (x,y,z)
No common point:
No solution The planes form a triangular prism
or 2 of the planes are parallel
Planes intersect into a line

Infinitely many solutions
or at least 2 planes coincide
EXAMPLE 7
Consider the planes

2x +3y +3z = 3
x + y -2z = 4
5x +7y +4z = 10
We may see (either by Gauss elimination or by a GDC) that this
system has infinitely many solutions:
x = 14 + 16λ
y = -5 + 7λ
z = λ ∈ R (free variable)
 14   16 
r    
The solution represents the line r = - 5  +λ 7  .
 0  1 
   
50
4.9 DISTANCES (for HL)
In this section we will study the distance between

• two points
• a point and a line
• two lines
• a point and a plane
• a line and a plane
• two planes
Let us present our methodology by considering particular examples:
A) Distance between Points

Consider A(1,2,3) and B(5,7,9)
A(1,2,3) B(5,7,9)
The well-known formula gives

2 2 2
d= (5−1) +(7−2) +(9−3) = 77
B) Distance between Point and Line

Consider
5  3 
r    
point A(1,2,3) and line L: r = 7  +λ  2 
9   1 
   
A(1,2,3)
b
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: Vector AP is perpendicular to line L.
51
We first find the foot P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ) on the line L.
3   4 + 3λ  3 
     
AP ⊥ L ⇔ AP ⊥  2  ⇔  5 + 2λ  ⊥ 2
1    1 
  6 + λ   
⇔ 3(4+3λ)+2(5+2λ)+(6+λ)=0
⇔ 14λ=-28
⇔ λ=-2
Hence, the foot of the distance is P(-1,3,7)
The distance between the point and the line is
d(A,P)= (1 + 1) 2 + (2 − 3) 2 + (3- 7) 2 = 21
C) Distance between Lines
• If the lines are parallel:
Consider
1  6  5  3 
r     r    
Line L1: r =  2  +µ  4  and line L2: r = 7  +λ  2 
3  2 9   1 
       
The lines are clearly parallel.
A(1,2,3)
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: We select a point in line L1 and find the distance

from line L2.
Here, the distance of point (1,2,3) of Line L1 from line L2 is

exactly the case B above.
52
• If the lines are skew:
Consider
1  4 5  3 
r     r    
Line L1: r =  2  +µ  5  and line L2: r = 7  +λ  2 
3  0 9   1 
       
It is given that the lines are skew
b1 P(1+4µ,2+5µ,3)
b2 Q(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: Vector PQ is perpendicular to both lines L1 and L2.
 4 + 3λ - 4µ 
 
We first find foots P and Q. Notice that PQ=  5 + 2λ - 5µ 
 
6 + λ 
 4 + 3λ - 4µ  4
   
a) PQ ⊥ L1 ⇔  5 + 2λ - 5µ  ⊥  5 
  0
6 + λ   
⇔ 4(4+3λ-4µ)+5(5+2λ-5µ)+0(6+λ)=0
⇔ 22λ-41µ=-41
 4 + 3λ - 4µ  3 
   
b) PQ ⊥ L2 ⇔  5 + 2λ - 5µ  ⊥  2 
  1 
6 + λ   
⇔ 3(4+3λ-4µ)+2(5+2λ-5µ)+(6+λ)=0
⇔ 14λ-22µ=-28
41 7
The system gives λ= − , and µ= −
15 15
13 1 16 23 94
Hence we find P( − , − ,3) and Q( − , , )
15 3 5 15 15
and hence we can find the distance |PQ|.
53
D) Distance between Point and Plane

Consider
point A(3,4,6) and Plane Π: 2x+3y+5z=10
A(3,4,6)
r
n
P
Key point: Line AP is parallel to the normal vector n; the point P

lies on the plane
We first find the equation of line AP:

3   2 
r    
r =  4  +λ  3 
6  5 
   
The foot has coordinates P(3+2λ,4+3λ,6+5λ) and lies on Π, hence

2(3+2λ)+3(4+3λ)+5(6+5λ)=10 ⇔ 38λ=-38 ⇔ λ=-1
Hence the foot is P(1,1,1).

The distance is |AP|, that is
d(A,P)= (3- 1) 2 + (4 - 1) 2 + (6 - 1) 2 = 38
E) Distance between Line and Plane

This case occurs only if the line is parallel to the plane.
Consider
3  3 
r    
Line L: r =  4  +λ - 2  and Plane Π: 2x+3y+5z=10
6   0 
   
It is given that the line is parallel to the plane.
A(3,4,6)
r
n
P
We just find the distance of point A of line L from plane Π

(case D above)
54
F) Distance between Planes

This case occurs only if the planes are parallel.
Consider
Plane Π1: 2x+3y+5z=10 and Plane Π2: 2x+3y+5z=48
Clearly planes Π1 and Π2 are parallel.
We just find a point of plane Π1: for x=y=0, z=2, hence A(0,0,2)
Then we find the distance of point A from plane Π2
(as in case D above).
We first find the equation of line AP:

0 2
r    
r =  0  +λ  3 
 2  5 
   
The foot has coordinates P(2λ,3λ,2+5λ) and lies on Π2, hence
2(2λ)+3(3λ)+5(2+5λ)=48 ⇔ 38λ=38 ⇔ λ=1
Hence the foot is P(2,3,7).

The distance is
d(A,P)= (2 - 0) 2 + (3- 0) 2 + (7 - 2) 2 = 38
55

Topic 4. Vectors

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International Baccalaureate

4.1 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION ………………………………………… 1

4.2 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION ………..……………………………….. 8

4.3 SCALAR (or DOT) PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS ……………. 15

4.4 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D …..…………………………………………….. 20

4.5 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D ………………………………………………… 27

4.6 VECTOR (or CROSS) PRODUCT …………………………………………………………… 33

4.7 PLANES …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38

4.8 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES ……….………………………… 45

4.9 DISTANCES ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 51

4.1 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION

Thus, for a vector it is not enough to know the magnitude. We also

Geometrically, a vector is represented by an arrow and denoted by

The length of the vector is called magnitude (it is a scalar).

Until now, we used to play with numbers: add numbers, multiply

In other words, a vector does not have a specific position; it is

Here, it is more convenient to use the head and tail notation

[think as follows: If you go from A to B (vector AB) and then from B to C

• A vector AB can be written as a sum of consecutive vectors in

♦ THE ZERO VECTOR: 0

Similarly, if k is a natural number

First of all we must find a path from F to C: FC=FG+GB+BC

♦ VECTORS ON THE CARTESIAN PLANE

Remember that a parallel translation of any vector results to an

Suppose that the coordinates of the point A are: A(a,b)

Notice also that the length of OA is a 2 + b 2 (according to the

Notice that the point A has coordinates (3,4)

This description introduces an alternative approach for vectors in

4.2 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION

♦ THE ZERO VECTOR: 0

♦ THE UNIT VECTOR

The corresponding unit vectors are

Notice: In practice, whenever we see an expression like that, say

♦ CONNECTION BETWEEN GEOMETRIC AND ALGEBRAIC

In paragraph 4.1 we gave a geometric description of a vector and

We will make use of some examples to demonstrate this connection.

In the 3-dimensional space a vector has the following form

♦ POINTS AND VECTORS

4.3 DOT PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS

♦ THE GEOMETRIC DEFINITION (the ugly one!)

Mind that the result is a number (scalar) and not a vector.

♦ THE ALGEBRAIC DEFINITION (the pretty one!)

♦ SHORT EXPLANATION FOR THE “PRETTY” DEFINITION

(since i2=j2=1 and ij=ji=0)

♦ THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

♦ PERPENDICULAR VECTORS AND PARALLEL VECTORS

This property very often helps us to get rid of magnitudes. Look at

Whatever we said about 2D vectors also applies here!

4.4 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D

The position vector of the point P(x,y) is

The Cartesian equation may be written in more traditional forms:

Indeed, the last equation gives

As λ changes we obtain several points of the line.

Some points of the line Some direction vectors

Hence, if we consider another point from the first column and

♦ GIVEN TWO POINTS A(a1,a2) AND B(b1,b2)

Firstly, let us find two points of this line:

EXAMPLE 4 (the inverse of EXAMPLE 3)

If we are given two lines

♦ INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINES

The solution of this system is λ=1 and µ=2

♦ ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES

Notice: We usually consider the acute angle between the lines.