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ChE Thermo Notes
ChE Thermo Notes
Thermodynamic Systems
1. A system is defined as a region in space or a quantity of matter upon which attention is focused for study.
2. Everything that is external to the system is known as the surroundings.
3. The system is separated from the surroundings by system boundaries or control surfaces. These boundaries
may either be movable or fixed.
4. Types of Systems
a. Open System (Control Volume) - a system that allows matter to go in and out through the system
boundaries
b. Closed System (Closed Control Mass) - a system where matter does not enter or exit through the
system boundaries. Transient energy, however, can
be present. Heat and Work are transient energies.
c. Isolated System - a closed system that does not interact in any way with its surroundings.
d. Insulated System - a system that does not allow heat to enter and exit through the boundaries.
Note:
Fw
1. The system boundary, denoted by the
dotted lines, is movable.
2. Although the boundary is movable, the
Gas expands gas comprising the system does not
against the go through the boundaries.
GAS weights, doing 3. Transient energies like heat and work
work. go through the system boundary.
Q (heat applied)
Note:
1. The system boundary, denoted by
the dotted lines, is fixed.
Air Compressor 2. Matter (air) passes through the
boundaries.
W (work by the motor)
3. Transient energies also go through
the system boundaries.
4. Work is provided from the motor
through the driving shaft of the
compressor.
5. Heat is transferred across the
Low Pressure Air High Pressure Air boundaries from the cylinder walls.
Fundamental Quantities
These are quantities representing fundamental concepts which are known only from experience.
1. TIME(t) - the fundamental unit of time is the second, defined as 1 / 86,400 part of a mean solar day.
2. DISTANCE(L) - the fundamental unit of distance or length is the meter, as defined by the distance between
two marks on a platinum-iridium bar at 0oC, kept inside a vault in Sevres, France.
3. MASS(m) - the fundamental unit of mass is the kilogram, defined by a standard lump of platinum-iridium, also
kept at Sevres.
4. TEMPERATURE(T) - There are two common scales for measuring the “degree of hotness or coldness of a
substance. These are the Fahrenheit (oF) and the Centigrade or Celcius (oC) scales.
Useful Conversions:
o
1 day = 24 hours 1 meter = 100 centimeters 1 kilogram = 1000 grams F = 1.8 x oC + 32
1 hour = 60 minutes 1 kilometer = 1000 meters 1 ton (short) = 2000 lb K = oC + 273
1 minute = 60 seconds 1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 metric ton = 1000 kg R = oF + 460
1 foot = 12 inches 1 kilogram = 2.2 pound mass
1 yard = 3 feet (lbm)
Secondary Quantities
These are defined in terms of the basic fundamental quantities of time, distance, mass, and temperature.
1. VOLUME(V) - a common unit of volume is the liter. This is defined as the amount of space enclosed by a
cube whose edges measure 10 cm. Volume may also be looked at as the product of three
distances or lengths (i.e., cm3, ft3, in3)
2. DENSITY(ρ) - a common unit of density is kg/L (kilogram per liter). Density is the amount of mass occupying
a certain amount of space. Other common units include g/ml , lbm/ft 3 , and g/gallon.
3. SPECIFIC VOLUME(ν) - This is the amount of volume occupied by a certain amount of mass. A common
unit of specific volume is L/kg. Specific volume is the exact reciprocal of density.
4. VELOCITY(v) - This is a vector quantity denoting speed. Common units include m/s (meters per second)
and fps (feet per second). Transport vehicles normally use km/hr or mph (miles per
hour).
5. ACCELERATION(a) - Another vector quantity, this time representing the rate of change of a body’s velocity.
A common unit is m/s2 (meters per second squared).
6. FORCE(F) - defined by Newton’s Second Law as the product of a body’s mass and its acceleration. 1
Newton is equivalent to 1 kg-m/s2.
7. PRESSURE(p) - defined as the force applied per unit area. Common units include lbf/in 2 (pound force per
square inch) and N/m2 (Newton per square meter) or Pascal.
8. HEAT (Q ) - thermal energy associated with changes in temperature and / or changes in phase. A common
unit is calories.
9. WORK (W) - another form of energy defined as the product of the force applied on a body and the
subsequent distance it travels as a result of this force. Common units are ft-lbf (foot
pound force) and N-m (Newton-meter) or Joule.
FORCE
According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the force on a body of fixed mass is proportional to the product of the
mass and its acceleration.
1. Calculate the weight or force of gravity in lbf units of an object having a mass of 15.24 lbm, located at an area where the acceleration
due to gravity is 31.97 ft/s2.
mg
15.24 lbm 31.97 ft/s 2
Fw 15.14 lbf
gc 2
32.174 lbm ft / lbf s
2. A mass of 2 kgs is accelerated with a force of 10 lbf. What is its acceleration in ft/s 2 and cm/s2?
2.2 lbm
m 2 kg 4.4 lbm
1 kg
F gc
10 lbf 32.174 lbm ft / lbf s 2
a 73.12 ft/s 2
m 4.4 lbm
2 12 in 2.54 cm 2
a 73.12ft / s 2228.78 cm/s
1 ft 1 in
PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the normal force exerted by a fluid on a unit area of surface. Pressure is associated with liquids
and gases, rarely with solids. The pressure in a liquid at rest at a given point is the same in all directions. If force is
measured in terms of lbf while area is in in2, then the unit for pressure is lbf /in2 or psi.
F P = pressure
P
A F = force
A = area
Fw mg Vg hAg g
P h
h A Ag c Ag c Ag c gc
g
H PA H
gc
B C g
A PB h PC
gc
Hh
PA PB PA PC
In most thermodynamic investigations, we are often concerned with absolute pressure. Pressure and vacuum gages,
however, reflect the difference between absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure existing at the gage. This is
referred to as the gage pressure.
Pressure above
atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Zero pressure
This is the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760mm in length. The density of mercury is 13.6 g/ml.
3
g 2.2 lbm 2.54 cm
Hg 13.6 3
0.4903 lbm3
cm 1000 g 1in in
1in
h Hg 76 cm 29.92 in
2.54 cm
32.174 ft
g 2
Patm Hg h Hg 0.4903 lbm3 s
29.92 in 14.67 psi 14.7 psi 1 atm
gc in 32.174 lbm ft
2
lbf s
at level A, Patm
PF Patm Pcolumn
g
PF 14.7 psi L L
gc Fluid
For instance, if the manometer liquid is mercury PF
and L= 1 ft …… L
A
32.174 ft
2 manometer
PF 14.7 psi 0.4903 lbm3 s 12 in 20.58 psia liquid
in 32.174 lbm ft
2
lbf s
More Useful Conversions:
Examples:
1. A cylindrical piston with a diameter of 12 cm exerts a pressure of 10 lbf/in 2 above atmospheric on the gas enclosed in the cylinder.
Determine the mass of the piston, assuming standard gravitational acceleration.
2 2 2
A d 144 cm 113.1 cm
4 4
in
F PA 10 lbf2 113.1 cm 1 in
2
2.54 cm
2 175.31 lbf mg
gc
175.31 lbf 32.174 lbm ft2
F gc lbf s
m 175.31 lbm
g 32.174 ft2
s
2. A mercury manometer used to measure a vacuum reads 29.3 inches while a barometer reads 29.7 inches Hg. Determine the absolute
pressure in terms of lbf/in2.
Pabs Patm Pvacuum
Pabs 29.7 in 29.3 in 0.4 in
3 32.174 ft2
g 2.2 lbm 2.54 cm
Pabs 13.6
s
0.4 in Hg 0.196 lbf2
3
1000 g lbm ft
cm 1 in 32.174
2
in
lbf s
14.7 psia
Pabs 0.4 in Hg 0.196 psia
29.92 in Hg
3. Due to the unavailability of mercury, a barometer was constructed using water in the closed column, with a certain amount of oil on top
to prevent the boiling of water. For standard atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa, what height of oil, in cm, will be required if the
minimum pressure at the water-oil interface is kept at 14.2 kPa? What must be the height of the water, also in cm, inside the column to
achieve the required minimum pressure at the interface? Assume the specific gravity of the oil used to be 0.92.
g
Pint oil H
gc
m
3 9.8 2
g 1 kg 100 cm
14,200 N2 0.92 1 3
1m s H oil 9016 H oil
cm 1000 g kg m
m 1 2
N s
m
3 9.8 2
N 1 g 1 kg 100 cm
101,325 14,200 2 3
s
H
m water
9800 H water
m cm 1000 g 1m 1 kg
2
N s
H oil 1.575 m H water 8.89 m
WORK
When a force acts on a body, causing it to move a certain displacement, then the action is said to have produced work.
The quantity of work done is defined as the product of the force and the distance through which it moves.
W Fs
W = work
dW F ds F f s
F = force
s2
s = displacement
W
s 1
F ds
In thermodynamics, one of the most important types of work is that which accompanies a change in the volume of a
gas. Consider the expansion or compression of a gas inside a cylinder by the movement of a piston.
Note:
dW F ds 1. The displacement of the piston may be computed
V P = pressure by dividing the change in the volume of the gas by
dW PA d A = cross-sectional area
A the constant cross-sectional area.
dW P dV V = volume 2. From the definition of pressure, force is equivalent
P f V to pressure multiplied by the area.
V2
3. Work can also be represented by the area under
W P dV
the curve in the Pressure-Volume Diagram.
V1
Energy is one of the most important concepts in all of physical science, yet it is one of the most ambiguous. To
oversimplify, energy may be considered as the capacity to do work. Thus, there exists a close relationship between
work and energy. There are a number of different forms of energy and the two most common are kinetic energy and
potential energy.
1. Kinetic Energy (KE) - energy associated with motion, specifically an object’s velocity. When a force is applied
on an object, causing it to move a certain displacement, work is done. This same force also imparts an
acceleration as stated by Newton’s Second Law. Therefore, a change the object’s velocity can be expected.
dW F ds
ma m dv m ds m v dv
dW ds
dt ds g dt dv g
gc g
c c c
v
m v2 m v
2 2 1 mv 2 1 mv 2
2 1 KE
W v dv final KE initial
gc v1 gc 2 2 g 2 g
v1 c c
2. Potential Energy (PE) - energy associated with elevation. When a body is raised from an initial elevation to
one that is higher, a force at least equal to the body’s weight must be applied in an upward direction.
dW F dZ
z2 mg m g Z1
W
z Fw dZ Fw Z 2 Z1 Z2 Z1 m g Z2
g
PEfinal PEinitial
1 gc gc c
m g Z1 m g Z2 1 m v 2 2 1 m v 12
W p
2 g
gc gc c 2 gc
1 mv 2 1 mv 2 m g Z
Wp 2 1 2 m g Z1
2 gc 2 gc gc gc
a
W p KE PE E
Fgravity Note:
1. E = total mechanical energy
2. For free fall conditions, E = 0
Examples:
1. Gas inside a cylinder is held down by a piston, on which a number of small weights were placed. The pressure exerted by the weights
was determined to be 10 psia while the initial volume of the gas is 0.5 ft 3. If heat is applied, causing the gas to expand to a volume of 2
ft3, how much work is associated with the expansion?
W
V2
V1
P dV P V 2 V1 10 lbf2 12 in
in
1 ft
2 3 3
2 ft 0.5 ft 2,160 ft lbf
2. A 0.84 ton automobile is traveling at 80 kph. How much work is required to bring it to a complete stop?
W KE
0.84 2000
1 mv 2
W
2 g
1
1 mv 2
2 g
2
m
2 gc
v 1 2
kg m
kg
20 kmhr 2 1000
1 km
m 2 1hr 2
3600s
c c 2 1 2
Ns
W 51,851.85 N m 51.85 KJ
3. A 4000-lbm elevator car rests 20 ft from the base of the shaft. It was raised to a height of 100 ft from the base when the cable snaps,
causing the car to plunge in freefall. A strong spring located at the bottom of the shaft eventually brought it to a stop.
a. What is the potential energy of the elevator car at its initial position with respect to the bottom of the shaft?
b. How much work is required in raising the car to the 100 ft mark at constant velocity?
c. Determine the velocity and kinetic energy of the car just before it strikes the spring.
4000lbm 32.174 ft
2
mg s
a). PE Z2 Z1 20 ft 0 ft 80,000 ft lbf
gc 32.174 lbm ft2
lbf s
4000lbm 32.174 ft
2
mg s
b). W PE Z2 Z1 100 f t 20 ft 320,000 ft lbf
gc 32.174 lbm ft2
lbf s
c).
KE PE 0
1 mv 2 1 mv 2 mgZ
2 1 2 m g Z1 0
2 g 2 g
c c gc gc
1 mv 2 mgZ
2 1 0
2 gc gc
1 v 2 gZ
2 2 1
v2 2 g Z1 2 32.174 ft2 100 ft 80.22 ft
s s
1 mv
2 4000lbm 80.22 ft
s
2
KE 400,027.87 ft lbf
2 gc
2 32.174 lbm ft2
lbf s
4. The turbines in a hydroelectric plant are fed by water falling from a height of 120 ft. Assuming 90% efficiency for converting the
potential to electrical energy, and 5% loss of resulting power in transmission, how many metric tons of water per hour are needed to
keep an 80-watt light bulb burning?
Basis : 1hour
W PE 80 W 3600 s 288,000 J
Wactual 288,000 0.190 0.195 336,842.11 J
m kg 9.8 m
2.541incm 1001mcm 336,842.11N m
2
mg s
h1 h 2
kg m
120 f t 0 f t 12 in
1 ft
gc 1 2
Ns
358.445 m 336,842.11 N m
When a hot object is brought in contact with a cold object, the hot object becomes cooler while the cold object
becomes hotter. Clearly, something was transferred from the hot object to the cold object, and that something is called
heat. The transfer of heat almost always affects a change in temperature. The degree of this relationship is
dependent on the object’s capacity to absorb heat. Heat is normally expressed either in terms of calories or BTU
(British Thermal Unit). Like work, heat is also considered as transient energy.
m = mass
Q mCT C = heat capacity (cal/g-Co and BTU/lb-Fo are numerically equal)
Q mC T2 T1 T = temperature
Heat transfer does not cause a change in the temperature of a body whenever a phase change is involved (i.e.,
melting of ice). Phase changes for pure substances occur at constant temperature.
Q m v m = mass
v = latent heat of vaporization (cal/g or BTU/g)
Q mf
f = latent heat of fusion
Examples:
1. How much heat is needed in melting 10 lbs of ice at –10 oC by placing it at room temperature? ( Room T = 30 oC, Cice = 0.5 cal / g-C o,
Cwater = 1 cal / g-Co, fusion = 6.01kJ/mol )
QT Q 1 0C 0C Q melting Q 0C 3 0C
QT 10 lb 0.5 c al
gC
o
0 10 C o
1000g
2.2 lb 10 lb 6010 mol
J 4.
1 ca l
18 4 J
1 mo l 100 0g
18.0 2 g 2.2 lb
ca l o 10 00g
10 lb
1 g Co 30 0 C
22,727.27 cal 362,330.86 cal 136,363.64 cal 521.42 kc
2.2 lb
2. The inside compartment of a calorimeter contains 300g of acetone at 20 oC while the outside compartment contains 200 g of ethylene
glycol at 110 oC. At what temperature will the two liquids equilibrate? (C acetone = 0.53 cal/g-Co and Cethylene glycol = 0.68 cal/g-Co)
Q gain Q loss
300 g 0.53 Tf 20 200 g 0.68 cal
cal
o o
110 Tf
gC gC
159Tf 3180 14,960 136 Tf
o
295 Tf 18,140 Tf 61.49 C
Joule’s Experiments: It was discovered that a definite amount of work was required per unit mass of water for every
degree of temperature rise caused by stirring. To lower the temperature back to its initial
state, a certain amount of heat had to be removed. Energy was added to the water in the form
of work, and was retrieved in the form of heat.
Internal Energy (U) - energy stored inside a substance, manifested as the ceaseless motion of the molecules,
possessing kinetic energy, not only of translation but also vibration and rotation.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that although energy takes many forms, the total quantity of energy is
constant, and when energy disappears in one form, it appears simultaneously in another form.
Enthalpy (H) -
sum of the internal energy and the product of pressure and volume. Enthalpy, also a state function, is
particularly significant in the analysis of open systems.
H = change in enthalpy Note:
H U PV U = change in internal energy 1. Flow energy only occurs when fluids enter or leave an open system.
H U PV PV = flow energy 2. The product PV represents energy only when flow through the boundaries
of the system is involved.
Flow Energy:
Flow energy is not associated directly with the matter crossing the boundary, but is associated with the fact that
somewhere, a pumping process occurs which forces the fluid across the system boundary.
U KE PE Q W
P1V1
U KE PE Q W s P2V 2 P1V1
U 2 U 1 P2V 2 P1V1 KE PE Q W s
U 2 P2V 2 U 1 P1V1 KE PE Q W s
Heat Exchanger
H 2 H 1 KE PE Q W s
H KE PE Q W s
Turbine
P 2V 2 = work (flow energy) done on surroundings
P2V2 P 1V 1= work (flow energy) done by surroundings
W s = shaft work
Ws
Examples:
1. Determine the changes in both internal energy and enthalpy in terms of BTU for 1 lbm of water as it is vaporized at its normal boiling
point temperature and pressure. The specific volumes of water in the liquid and vapor phases are 0.017 and 26.8 ft 3/lbm respectively.
960 BTU of heat was added to complete this vaporization.
2. The mass flow rate into a steam turbine is 10,000 lbm/hr, and the heat loss is 30,000 BTU/hr. The following information are known for
the inlet and outlet streams.
What is the power output of the turbine (in horsepower), assuming g = 32.174 ft/s 2?
H KE PE Q W s
3. Air at 1 bar and 250C enters a compressor at very low velocity, discharges at 3 bar, and enters a nozzle in which it expands to a final
velocity of 600 m/s at the same pressure and temperature conditions as when it first entered the compressor. If the work of
compression is 200 kJ/kg of air, how much heat must be removed during compression?
H KE PE Q W s
1kg 600 m 2
s
kg m
Q 200 kJ 1000N m
1kJ
2 1 2
N s
Q 180,000 200,000 J 70 kJ Q removed 70 kJ
kg air kg air
4. In a non-flow process, the pressure increases from 50 psia to 200 psia, following the relationship PV=k. The internal energy increases
by 20 BTU and the initial volume is 3 ft3. How much heat was removed?
E Q W
V2
P1V1
50 psi a 3 ft 3 0.75 ft 3
P2 200 psia
W
V2
V PdV
V
V2
kdV
V
0.75
3
50 psia 144 in
ft
2
2
3 ft dV
3
V
21,600 ln 0.75 29,943.96 ft lbf
3
1 BTU
778 ft lbf
1 1
Q E W 20 BTU 38.49 BTU 18.49 BTU
A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition even if there exists more than
one phase. Properties of pure substances can be divided into two general classes, namely intensive and extensive
properties.
If a quantity of matter in a given state is divided into two equal parts, each part will have the same value of intensive
properties as the original, and half the value of the extensive properties. Intensive properties include pressure,
temperature, and density. Mass and total volume are examples of extensive properties. Specific volume, like density,
however, is intensive.
The Phase Rule states that the number of known properties of a pure substance needed in order to also determine its
other properties may be computed if the number of phases and the number of components present in the said
substance is known.
For instance, if the degrees of freedom for a given system is equal to two, then, it means that knowing only two
properties of the system will exactly determine the state of the system, hence, all its other properties will also be
known.
Examples:
The simplest P-V-T relationship for pure substances in the gaseous phase is the Ideal Gas Law. For pure gases, the
Phase Rule dictates that 2 properties can be varied independently to determine the other properties.
P V T n R
atm ft3 R lbmole 0.73 atm-ft3/lbmole-R
PV nRT
psia ft3 R lbmole 10.73 psia-ft3/lbmole-R
lbf/ft2 ft3 R lbmole 1545 ft-lbf/lbmole-R
P = pressure n = moles atm ft3 K lbmole 1.314 atm-ft3/lbmole-K
T = temperature R = Gas constant (units depend atm cm3 K gmole 82.06 atm-cm3/gmole-K
V = volume on P, T, V, and n) BTU R lbmole 1.987 BTU/lbmole-R
calories K gmole 1.987 cal/gmole-K
Examples:
1. Air is pumped into a 0.5 m3 tank until the pressure is 120 psig. When the pumped is stopped, the temperature is 210 oF. What mass is
in the tank and what is its density? What is the pressure if the air is then cooled to 80 oF?
V 0.5 m
3
1 010mc m 3 2.514inc m 3 112ftin 3 1 7.66 ft 3
T 21 0 460 R 6 70R P 1 20 1 4.7 p sia 1 34.7 ps ia
n PV
1 3 4.7 p s ia 1 7.6 6 ft 3
0.33 1lb mo l
m 0.3 31lbmol 29 lb m 9.6 0lb m 9.6 lb m 0
RT 3 lb mo l 1 7.6 6 ft
3
1 0.7 3 psi a ft 6 7 0R
l bm ol R
T2 80 46 0 R 5 40R
3
0.3 3 1lb m o l 1 0.7 3 psi a ft
l bm ol R
5 4 0R
n RT2
P2 1 08.5 6 p sia
V 1 7.6 6 ft
3
2. The height of a cylindrical tank, containing 10 lbm of gas at 60 psia and 320K, measures three times its diameter. If the gas constant is
50 ft-lbf/lbm-R, what are the dimensions of the tank in feet?
2
P 60 psia 12 in 8640 lbf2
1 ft
ft
T 320 K 1.8 R 576 R
K
10 lbm 50 fft lbf 576 R 3 2 2 3
V mRT lbm R
33.33 ft D h D 3D 3D
P 8640 lbf2 4 4 4
ft
D3
33.33 ft 4
3
2.419 ft
3
h 3D 7.256 ft
2. Compressibility Factor
Examples:
1. It is required to store 1 lbmole of methane at a temperature of 122 oF and a pressure of 600 atm. What is the volume of the vessel that
must be provided based on: a). the Ideal Gas Law, b). the Van der Waal’s Equation, and c). the Compressibility Factor method?
(Tc = 190K, Pc = 46 atm, Z = 1.34)
1lbmol 0.73
3
atm fft
122 460 R
a). lbmol R
3
V nRT 0.708 ft
P 600 atm
b).
2
27R Tc
2 2
27 0.73 atm fft
lbmol R
3
190 K
2
1.8 R
K
2 6
a 783.07 atm ft2
64Pc 64 46 atm
lbmol
RTc
0.73 atm fft
lbmol R
3
190K 1.8 R
K
3
b 0.678 ft
8Pc 8 46 atm lbmol
P a2 V b RT
V
3
600 783.207 V 0.678 0.73 582 V 0.984 ft
V
2. 3 lbmol of ammonia, initially at 20 atm and 400 oF, occupies 100 ft3. It was then compressed to 50 ft 3 and a final temperature of 500oF.
What is the %difference in the computed final pressure between the Ideal Gas Law and the compressibility factor method?
3
3 lbmol 0.73 atm fft
lbmol R
960 R
P nRT 42.05 atm
V 50 ft
3
ZR PV
P1V1 PV PV T
P2 1 1 2
20 atm 100 ft 3 960 R 44.65 atm
nT T1
2 2
T2 T1 V2 860 R 50 ft 3
%D 44.65 42.05 x 100 6.19%
42.05
3. What will be the temperature of propane when it has a specific volume of 0.102 ft 3/lbm and a pressure of 1000 psia using the
Generalized Compressibility Chart? For propane, Tc = 665 R, Pc = 618 psia, R = 35 ft-lbf/lbm-R.
1000 lbf
2
121 fftin 2 0.102 lbm
fft
3
T PV in 419.657
mZR Z 35 lbm fft lbf
R
Z
1000psia
Pr P 1.618 Tr T T
Pc 618 psia Tc 665
assume T 765 R , Tr 765 1.15
665
From the Generalized Compressibility Chart, Z 0.55
T 419.657 763.01R
0.55
1. Saturation Temperature - temperature at which vaporization or condensation takes place at a given pressure.
2. Saturation Pressure - pressure where vaporization or condensation occurs
3. Saturated Liquid - liquid existing at the point of saturated temperature and saturated pressure.
4. Saturated Vapor - vapor existing at the point of saturated temperature and saturated pressure.
5. Subcooled Liquid - liquid at which the temperature is lower than the saturation pressure at a given pressure
(compressed liquid).
6. Superheated Vapor - vapor at which the temp. is higher than that at saturation conditions for a given pressure
7. Quality - the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass when substances exist as a mixture of liquid and vapor.
8. Triple Point - the point at which solid, liquid, vapor exist in equilibrium.
Examples:
1. During the vaporization of water at 1 atm, a sample was found to have a quality of 0.68. How much enthalpy will this sample possess?
h mix 1 x h f x h g
h mix 1 0.68 180.07 0.68 1150.4 839.89 BTU
lbm
2. At room temperature of 30oC, the specific volume of a water and steam mixture is 60 ft 3/lbm. Determine the enthalpy of the mixture.
Examples:
h 1237.4
1284.2 1237.4
420 400
500 400
100
h 1237.4 46.8 20 h 1246.76 BTU
lbm
2. Superheated steam at atmospheric pressure and 560 oF is cooled at constant pressure until it is partially liquefied. How much enthalpy
change was involved if its final quality is 0.45?
h1 1285.4
1333 1285.4
560 500
600 500
h 1 1285.4 47.6 400
40 h 1 1304.44 BTU
lbm
h 2 1 x hf x h g
h 2 1 0.45 180.07 0.45 1150.4 616.72 BTU h 2 h 1 687.72 BTU
lbm lbm
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
U Q W U Q W U W
T2
U Q C v T
T1
Cv dT
Cv dT PdV RT dV
V
2. Isobaric (Constant Pressure) dT R dV
T Cv V
H Q W s
Cp C R
T2 v 1 R
H Q C p T
T 1
C p dT Cv Cv Cv
dT 1 dV
dH dU d PV T V
C p dT Cv dT RdT T V
C p Cv R ln 2 1 ln 2
T1 V1
3. Isothermal (Constant Temperature) 1
1
T2 V
U Q W 0 T1 V
2
V2 V2 1
Q W
V1
PdV
V 1
nRT dV
V
T2
T1
2
P
P1
V2 P
W nRT ln nRT ln 1 W U Cv T R T
V1 P2
1
RT1 RT2 PV P V
W 11 2 2
1 1
The Throttling Process:
This is a steady flow process across a restriction, which causes a drop in pressure. A typical example is the flow
through a partially-opened valve. In most cases, this happens so rapidly and in such a small place, that there is
neither sufficient time nor large enough area for much heat transfer. Therefore, this process may be assumed to be
adiabatic.
H KE PE Q W s
H KE 0
There is no work, no change in potential energy, and no heat transfer. However, the specific volume always increases
after undergoing a throttling process, and therefore if the cross-sectional area of the conduit is constant, there will be
an increase in the velocity of the fluid as well. In reality, this change in velocity is often negligible because the diameter
of the conduit is rarely kept constant (i.e., diameter of the exit pipe is larger than the inlet). Hence, change in enthalpy
may be considered zero.
Examples:
1. Air is to be compressed reversibly from an initial condition of 1 atm and 60 oF to a final state of 5 atm and 60 oF by the following
processes: a). heating at constant volume then cooling at constant pressure, b). isothermal compression, and c). adiabatic
compression followed by cooling at constant volume. At these conditions, air may be considered an ideal gas having constant heat
capacities of Cv = 5 BTU/lbmol-Fo, Cp = 7 BTU/lbmol-Fo. Calculate the work required, the heat transferred, and the changes in internal
energy and enthalpy of air for each of the processes.
T2
P2V
5
atm 379.6 ft
3
2600 R 2140 F
o
nR at m f f t
3
0.73 l bm ol R
U Q W U Q Cv T 5 BTU
o
2140 60 o F 10,400 BTU
lbmol F
H 2 Q Ws H 2 Q C p T 7 BTU
o
60 2140 o F 14,560 BTU
lbmol F
U 2 Q W U 2
Cv T 5 BTU
o
60 2140 o F 10,400 BTU
lbmol F
W 2 H 2 U 2 14,560 10,400 4160 BTU
Q W RT ln
P1
P2
1.987 BTU
lbmol R
520R ln 1 atm 1662.94 BTU
5 atm
3
0.73 a tm fft
lbm ol R
60 460 R
3
V 2 nRT 75.92 ft
P 5 atm
Cp
7 1.4
Cv 5
1
1
V1 2
P V1 P2 379.6 1.4 P2 P2 9.52 atm
V V P 1 atm
2 P1 2 1 75.92
U W
RT1
1 2
P
1
BT U
1.987 lbm olR 520 R 1 9.52 1 .4 1
1
1 .4
2334.33 BTU
P1 1.4- 1
1