CHAPTER

19-24
SUMMARY
Chapter 19 – Lipids
Chapter 20 – Carbohydrates
Chapter 21 – Amino Acids, Proteins, and Enzymes
Chapter 22 – Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
Chapter 23 – Metabolism and Energy Production
Chapter 24 – Carbohydrates, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism

PASCASIO, Jarel A.
BSN 1B
Biochemistry Lecture
Dr. Andoy
 Chapter 19 – Lipids

Lipids are unique among organic molecules because their identity is defined
on the basis of a physical property and not by the presence of a particular
functional group. Because of this, lipids come in a wide variety of structures and
they have many different functions. Common lipids include triacylglycerols in
vegetables oils, cholesterol in egg yolk, and vitamin E in leafy greens.
*The word lipid comes from the Greek word lipos for “fat.”
Lipids are biomolecules that are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in
water.

Lipids can be categorized as:

1. Hydrolyzable lipids
2. Nonhydrolyzable lipids

Hydrolyzable lipids can be converted into smaller molecules by means of

hydrolysis. Some examples of hydrolysable lipids are waxes, triacylglycerols, and
phospholipids. On the other hand is the nonhydrolyzable lipids who cannot be
cleaved into smaller molecules by means of aqueous hydrolysis. Some example
of these are steroids, Fat-soluble vitamins, and Eicosanoids.

Fatty Acids
 This is where the hydrolysable lipids like waxes and phospholipids are
derived
 They are carboxylic acids with a functional group of (RCOOH) plus long
carbon chains of 12-20 Carbon atoms.
 An example of fatty acid is palmitic acid with a chemical formula of
CH3(CH2)14COOH
  *The functional group is the polar portion and it is hydrophilic. When
we say hydrophilic, it is the portion of a molecule whose interaction with
water and other polar substances are more thermodynamically favorable
than their interactions with oil or other hydrophobic solvents.
 *While the C-H chain, is the nonpolar portion and it is hydrophobic.
Hydrophobic molecules prefer other neutral molecules and nonpolar
solvents, they are called the “water-fearing” molecules.

Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in their long hydrocarbon chains.
While Unsaturated fatty acids have 1 or more double bonds in their long
hydrocarbon chains.
So as the number of double bonds in the fatty acid increases, the melting point
decreases.

Examples of Saturated Fatty Acids and their melting points:

1) Lauric Acid – with a meting point of 44°C
2) Myristic Acid – w/ a melting point of 58°C
3) Palmitic Acid – with a melting point of 63°C
4) Stearic Acid – w/ a m.p. of 71°C
5) Arachidic Acid – with a melting point of 77°C

Unsaturated Fatty Acids and their melting points:

1) Oleic Acid – 16
2) Linoleic Acid - -5°C
3) Linolenic Acid - -11°C
4) Arachidonic Acid - -49°C

Addn. info: *cis alkene has two alkyl groups on the same side of the double bond,
while a trans alkene has 2 alkyl groups on opposite sides of the double bond.*
Linoleic acid is an omega-6 acid because the first double bond appears in the 6th
carbon atom in the non-polar chain, below is the picture:

While Linolenic acid is an omega-3 acid, due to the fact that the position of the
first double bond appears in the 3rd carbon atom in the non-polar chain, below is
the picture:

Moving on to Waxes:
 They are esters(RCOOR) formed from a fatty acid(RCOOH) and a high
molecular weight alcohol(R’OH).
FATTY ACID + ALCOHOL = WAX + H2O
 Waxes are very hydrophobic, meaning they are water-fearing molecules
 Waxes are hydrolyzed with water in the presence of acid or base to re-form
the carboxylic acid and alcohol from which they are prepared

CETYL PALMITATE which is a wax when added with water and H2SO4 will
form fatty acid plus alcohol.
*Also, since waxes are hydrophobic they repel water. They form a protective
coating on the feathers of birds to make them water repellent and on leaves to
prevent water evaporation.

TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
- They are triesters formed from glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids.
…an example of a block diagram of triacylglycerol is shown below…

Simple triacylglycerols
- triacylglycerols that contains 3 identical fatty acid side chains
Mixed triacylglycerols
- have 2 or 3 different fatty acids
Saturated triacylglycerols
- contain only saturated fatty acids; they make up most animal fat and are solids
at room temp.
Unsaturated triacylglycerols
- contain at least one unsaturated fatty acid; they make up most vegetables oils
and are liquids at room temp.
Monounsaturated triacylglycerols
- have 1 double bond
Polyunsaturated triacylglycerols
- have many double bonds

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- lipid that contain a P atom
TWO COMMON TYPES OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- phosphoacylglycerols
- sphingomyelins

STEROID HORMONES
- It is a steroid that acts as a hormone. Steroid hormones can be grouped into two
classes: corticosteroids and sex steroids. Within those two classes are five types
according to the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids,
androgens, estrogens, and progestogens.
Female Sex Hormones:
 Estrogens
 Progestin
Male Sex Hormones:
 Androgens

Anabolic Steroids
 Tetrahydrogestrinone
 Stanozolol
 Nandrolone
Adrenal Cortical Steroids
 Aldosterone, cortisone, and cortisol
 Chapter 20 – Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates represent a broad group of substances which include the sugar,

starches, gums, and celluloses. The common attributes of carbohydrates are that
they contain only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and that their
combustion will yield CO2 plus one or more molecules of H2O.
Carbohydrates are commonly referred to as sugars and starches, they are
polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones, or compounds that can be hydrolyzed to
them.
CARBOHYDRATES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO 3 GROUPS:
a) Monosaccharides
b) Disaccharides
c) Polysaccharides

MONOSACCHARIDES
- They are the simplest carbohydrates
- monosaccharides cannot be converted to simpler compounds by hydrolysis
- generally have 3 to 6 carbon atoms in a chain with an aldehyde or ketone ending
and many hydroxyl groups
- simplest aldose = glyceraldehyde
- simplest ketose = dihydroxyacetone

So a monosaccharide is characterized by the number of carbon atoms in its

chain. If it has 3 carbon atoms, then it is a triose. If 4 carbon atoms are present,
then it is a tetrose. For pentose, there are 5 carbon atoms, same with hexose which
have 6 carbon atoms. They are sweet tasting, but their relative sweetness varies
greatly.
Monosaccharides are polar compounds with high melting points.
DISACCHARIDES
- They are composed of two monosaccharides joined together.
- Two monosaccharides link together by forming an acetal.
- When this reaction occurs between two monosaccharides, the bond that joins
them together is called a glycosidic linkage.

*Hydrolysis of maltose yields 2 glucose molecules*

POLYSACCHARIDES
- Disaccharides are carbohydrates composed of 2 monosaccharides
- Disaccharide results when a hemiacetal of one monosaccharide reacts with a OH
group of a second monosaccharide to form an acetal. The new C-O bond that joins
two rings together is called a glycosidic linkage.
POLYSACCHARIDES (CELLULOSE)
- Cellulose is an unbranched polymer made up of repeating glucose units joined
by 14-b-glycosidic linkages.

- Cellulose is found in the cell walls of all plants, where it gives support and rigidity
to wood, plant stems, and grass.

POLYSACCHARIDES (STARCH)

- Starch is a polymer made up of repeating glucose units joined by alpha glycosidic

linkage

- FIRST MAIN TYPE OF STARCH IS AMYLOSE

- SECOND TYPE OF STARCH IS AMYLOPECTIN

POLYSACCHARIDES (GLYCOGEN)

- Glycogen is the major form of polysaccharide storage in animals, similar in

structure to amylopectin

- Stored mainly in the liver and in muscle cells

Glycosaminoglycans

- These are group of unbranched carbohydrates derived from alternating amino

sugar and glucuronate units. Glycosaminoglycans form a gel-like matrix that acts
as a lubricant, making them key components in connective tissue and joints.

Chitin

- This is the second most abundant carbohydrate polymer, is a polysaccharide

formed from N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units joined together in 14-b-glycosidic
linkages.
 Chapter 21 – Amino Acids, Proteins, and
Enzymes

Proteins are biomolecules that contain many amide bonds, formed by joining
amino acids together.

The word protein comes from the Greek proteios meaning “of first
importance”. Proteins occur widely in the human body, accounting for
approximately 50% of its dry weight.

SOME PROTEINS IN THE HUMAN BODY:

 Hemoglobin – transport protein that carries O2 in the blood

 Collagen – fibrous protein in connective tissue, they are found in tendons,
bone, cartilage, and blood vessels
 Ferritin – protein that stores iron in the liver
 Actin and myosin – proteins that control muscle contractions
 Keratin – fibrous protein in hair, skin, and nails
 Myoglobin – protein that stores O2 in tissues
 Insulin – protein hormones synthesized in the pancreas and controls blood
glucose levels

PROTEINS

- These are biomolecules that contain many amide bonds, formed by joining amino
acids.

- They account for 50% of the dry weight of the human body.
AMINO ACIDS

- They contain two functional groups: amino group(NH2) and carboxyl grp(COOH)

- GLYCINE: The simplest amino acid

- Since amino acids contain a base (NH2) and an acid (COOH), a proton transfers
from the acid to the base to form a zwitterion

Essential Amino Acids

1) Histidine
2) Isoleucine
3) Leucine
4) Lysine
5) Methionine
6) Arginine
7) Phenylalanine
8) Tryptophan
9) Valine
10) Threonine

Non-essential Amino Acids

1) Glutamine 9) Cysteine
2) Glycine 10) Tyrosine
3) Glutamic Acid
4) Alanine
5) Asparagine
6) Aspartic Acid
7) Proline
8) Serine
PEPTIDES

- They are proteins are formed when amino acids are joined together by amide
bonds.

- DIPEPTIDE: Has two amino acids joined together by one amide bond

- AMIDE BOND = peptide bond

- TRIPEPTIDE: Has 3 amino acids joined together by one amide bond

*POLYPEPTIDES HAVE MANY AMINO ACIDS

*PROTEINS HAVE MORE THAN 40 AMINO ACIDS

- The amino acid with the free -NH3+ group is the N-terminal amino acid and is
written on the left.

- The amino acid with the free -COO- group is the C-terminal amino acid and is
written on the right.

Some peptide hormones:

Oxytocin

-This stimulates the contraction of uterine muscles, and signals for milk production;
it is often used to induce labor.

Vasopressin

-Antidiuretic hormone targets the kidneys and helps to limit urine production to
keep body fluids up during dehydration.

*Myoglobin has 153 amino acids in 1 polypeptide chains

*Hemoglobin has 4 polypeptide chains, each carrying a heme unit
ENZYMES
- These are proteins that serve as biological catalysts for reactions in all living
organisms.
- Enzymes increase the rate of a reaction, but are unchanged themselves
- Enzymes are very specific; each enzymes catalyzes a certain reaction or type of
reaction only
- The names of most enzymes end with the suffix “ase” like peptidase, lipase, and
hydrolase.
- A cofactor is a metal ion or an organic molecule needed for an enzyme-catalyzed
reaction to occur
- NAD+ is the cofactor (coenzyme) that oxidizes lactate to pyruvate with the aid of
the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase

TWO MODELS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED TO EXPLAIN THE SPECIFICITY OF

A SUBSTRATE FOR AN ENZYME’S ACTIVE SITE:
a) Lock-and-key model
- This states that the active site is a rigid cavity; to react, the substrate must
exactly match the shape of the active site.
b) Induced-fit model
- This states that the active site has a flexible shape, which can adjust to fit
a variety of substrate shapes.

ENZYME INHIBITORS
- An inhibitor bonds to the enzyme and alters or destroys the enzyme’s activity.
- This inhibition can be reversible or irreversible
- Noncompetitive inhibitor bonds to the enzyme, but not to the active site.
- Competitive inhibitor has a shape and structure similar to the substrate, so it
competes with the substrate for binding to the active site.
 Chapter 22 – Nucleic Acids and Protein
Synthesis

Nucleic acids are the biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essential to all

known forms of life. The term nucleic acid is the overall name for DNA and RNA.
They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three
components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
Nucleic acids are unbranched polymers composed of repeating monomers
called nucleotides.
2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:
a) DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) – stores the genetic information of an organism
and transmits that information from one generation to another.
b) RNA (Ribonucleic acid) – translates the genetic information contained in
DNA into proteins needed for all cellular functions.

DNA molecules contain several million nucleotides while RNA molecules are much
smaller, containing perhaps a few thousand nucleotides. DNA is contained in the
chromosomes of the nucleus, each chromosome having a different type of DNA.
The number of chromosomes differs from species to species. Humans have 46
chromosomes (23 pairs). An individual chromosome is composed of many genes.
A gene is a portion of the DNA molecule responsible for the synthesis of a single
protein.

DNA contains the bases:

 Adenine
 Guanine
 Cytosine
  Thymine

RNA contains the bases

 Adenine
 Guanine
 Cytosine
 Uracil

*To name a nucleoside derived from a pyrimidine base, use the suffix -idine
(cytosine > cytidine)
*To name a nucleoside derived from a purine base, use the suffix -osine (adenine
> adenosine)
*For deoxyribonucleosides, add the prefix deoxy-, as in deoxyadenosine

NUCLEOTIDES
- They are formed by adding phosphate group to the 5’-OH of a nucleoside.
Nucleotides are named by adding the term 5’-monophosphate to the name of the
nucleoside from which they are derived. Ribonucleotides are derived from ribose,
while deoxyribonucleotides are derived from 2-deoxyribose.

Type of Compound Components

Nucleoside  Monosaccharide + a base
 Ribonucleoside contains the
monosaccharide ribose
 Deoxyribonucleoside contains
the monosaccharide 2-
deoxyribose
 Nucleotide  Nucleoside + phosphate = a
monosaccharide + a base +
phosphate
 Ribonucleotide contains the
monosaccharide ribose
 Deoxyribonucleotide contains
the monosaccharide 2-
deoxyribose
DNA  A polymer of
deoxyribonucleotides
 The monosaccharide is 2-
deoxyribose
 Bases are AGCT
RNA  A polymer of ribonucleotides
 The monosaccharides is ribose
 Bases are AGCU

*DNA consists of 2 polynucleotide strands that wind into a right-handed double

helix

REPLICATION
- During replication, the strands of DNA separate and each serves as a template
for a new strand. Thus, the original DNA molecule forms two DNA molecules, each
of which contains one strand from the parent DNA and one new strand. This
process is called semiconservative replication. The sequence of both strands of
the daughter DNA molecules exactly matches the sequence in the parent DNA.
RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID)
- The sugar is ribose
- is single stranded

3 Types of RNA molecules:

a) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – the most abundant type of RNA, is found in the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm of the cell
b) Messenger RNA (mRNA) – It is the carrier of information from DNA to the
ribosomes. Each gene of a DNA molecule corresponds by a specific mRNA
molecule.
c) Transfer RNA (tRNA) – This is the smallest type of RNA, it interprets the
genetic information in mRNA and brings specific amino acids to the site of
protein synthesis in the ribosome.

Chapter 23 – Metabolism and Energy Production

Metabolism is the sum of all of the chemical reactions that take place in an
organism.

TWO TYPES OF METABOLIC PROCESSES:

 Catabolism – is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones.
Energy is generally released during catabolism.
 Anabolism – is the synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones.
Energy is generally absorbed during anabolism.
*Linear Pathway = a series of reactions that generates a final product different
from any of the reactants.
*Cyclic Pathway = a series of reactions that regenerates the first reactant.

The catabolism of food begins with digestion, which is catalyzed by enzymes

in the saliva, stomach, and small intestine. Digestion converts large molecules into
smaller components. The hydrolysis of carbohydrates to monosaccharides begins
with amylase enzymes in the saliva, and continues in the small intestine. Protein
digestion begins in the stomach, where acid denatures the protein, and the
protease pepsin begins to cleave the protein backbone into smaller polypeptides
and amino acids. Digestion continues in the small intestine, where trypsin and
chymotrypsin further cleave the protein backbone to form amino acids.
Triacylglycerols, the most common lipids, are first emulsified by the bile secreted
by the liver, and then hydrolyzed to glycerol and fatty acids by lipases in the small
intestine.

4 STAGES OF METABOLISM:
a) Digestion
b) Formation of Acetyl-CoA
c) Citric Acid Cycle
d) Electron Transport Chain

KREBS CYCLE
- This cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and generates a pool of chemical
energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH2) from the oxidation of pyruvate, the end product
of glycolysis. Pyruvate is transported in to the mitochondria and loses carbon
dioxide to form acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon molecule.
*Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is a biological oxidizing agent that
accepts electrons and protons, thus generating its reduced form NADH. NADH is
a reducing agent that donates electrons and protons, re-forming NAD+.

*Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a biological oxidizing agent that accepts

electrons and protons, thus yielding its reduced form, FADH2. FADH2 is a reducing
agent that donates electrons and protons, re-forming FAD.

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

- The electron transport chain is a multistep process that takes place in the inner
membrane of mitochondria. Electrons from reduced coenzymes enter the chain
and are passed from one molecule to another in a series of redox reactions,
releasing energy along the way. At the end of the chain, electrons and protons
react with inhaled oxygen to form water.

Chapter 24 – Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein

Metabolism

Carbohydrates: Glycolysis converts glucose, the most common monosaccharide,

to pyruvate, which is then metabolized to acetyl-CoA

Lipids: Fatty acids are converted to thioesters, which are oxidized by a stepwise
procedure that sequentially cleaves two-carbon units from the carbonyl end to form
acetyl-CoA

Amino Acids: The amino acids formed from protein hydrolysis are often
assembled into new proteins w/o any other modification. Since excess amino acids
are not stored in the body, they are catabolized for energy. The amino groups
(NH2) of amino acids are converted to urea, which is excreted in urine.

GLYCOLYSIS
- This is a linear, 10-step pathway that coverts glucose, a six-carbon
monosaccharide, to two molecules of pyruvate (CH3COCO2-).
- This is an anaerobic pathway that takes place in the cytoplasm and can be
conceptually divided into two parts.