Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ARTICLES
Kinetic Architecture:
40 The Experiential Connections between
Human Consciousness and Informal Settlements
Kelley O’Brien
REVIEWS
BOOK REVIEWS
112 Interior Design in the Philippines: A Retrospect of Spaces and Culture
Philippine Heritage Homes: A Guidebook
What Kids Should Know About Philippine Architecture
Maureen Anne L. Araneta
EXHIBITION REVIEWS
115 The Surface of the World Gerard Lico
Time Space Existence Reuben Ramas Cañete
A Shared Heritage Timothy Augustus Ong
Infrastructures of
Colonial Modernity
Public Works in Manila from the late 19th to the early 20th Centuries
GERARD LICO
MARY DELIA TOMACRUZ
Gerard Lico is a Professor at the College of Architecture,
University of the Philippines Diliman. He is the multi-
awarded author of publications on Philippine architecture
and cultural studies, designer and curator of pioneering
exhibitions in architecture, and producer and director of
documentaries on Philippine built environments.
2 es pa syo 6
Figure 3. The metallic lighthouse from the foundry of Gustave Eiffel Figure 4. Plan for the Port of Manila
processing of sugar. The Americans prized the a sheltered docking area for ships and large
Manila hemp or abaca as it was in demand among areas designated for sheds and warehouses to
the shipbuilders in the East Coast of the United store produce and other merchandise awaiting
States. shipment to Europe and America.
In 1842, Sinibaldo de Mas, a Spanish diplomat With the increase in maritime traffic in the mid-
commissioned by the Spanish King to conduct 19th century, the colonial authorities embarked
an economic appraisal of the Philippines, on the systematic construction of lighthouses
recommended the opening of more ports to or farolas all over the archipelago. The Plan
promote foreign trade, encouraging Chinese General de Alumbrado de Maritimo de lascostas
immigration to stimulate agricultural del Archipelago de Filipino (Masterplan for the
development in the countryside and abolishing Lighting of the Maritime Coasts of the Philippine
the tobacco monopoly. Heeding this economic Archipelago) crafted in 1857 was carried out
prescription, a number of ports were opened by the Inteligencia del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de
to global trade at the behest of the Spanish Caminos, Canales y Puertos (Corps of Engineers for
monarch, the ports of Sual, Pangasinan, Iloilo and Roads, Canals, and Ports), the goal of which was
Zamboanga in 1855, the port of Cebu in 1860, and to install 55 lighthouses all over the archipelago,
Legazpi and Tacloban in 1873. These port facilities including its remotest corners. Notable was the
made possible the integration of the colony with prefabricated iron lighthouse designed by José
the routes of global commerce and the veins of Echeverría in 1876 and erected at the sandy
the world economy. In 1881, Manila’s role as an promontory of San Nicolas in Manila. Completed in
important maritime city was recognized when 1879, the metallic lighthouse was purchased from
plans drafted by José García Morón, a Spanish the foundry of Gustave Eiffel and used cast-iron
engineer, included a major overhaul of the port screw piles, a construction method developed by
of Manila. The latest methods and technology a Belfast engineer, Alexander Mitchell, to anchor
for port construction were employed to provide the lighthouse in soft sand.
The Pasig River and its branching canal system Two other bridges spanned the Pasig River:
were the great transportation and commercial the Claveria and Ayala bridges. The Clavería
routes for Manila and nearby provinces. Bridges Bridge, popularly known as Puente Colgante,
interconnected all parts of the city, whose was completed in 1852. It earned distinction as
topography was defined by clusters of marshland the first suspension bridge in Asia. It was built
intersected by shallow rivers and canals. At the end by a private enterprise, Ynchausti y Compañia,
of the 19th century, the Port Works Board drafted according to the design of Basque engineer
a master plan for channeling the waterways to Matias Menchacatorre. The bridge components
improve fluvial movement and transit of goods. were imported from England and its assembly
was supervised by M. Gabaud, a French engineer.
In 1875, Puente de España on Pasig River in Manila The suspension bridge consisted of a tall concrete
was inaugurated, replacing an old pontoon bridge. pier where strands of steel cables were attached
It had eight arches, two central arches of iron truss to and then slung across the river to carry a
and the other six of quarried stone. The bridge was steel trussed bridge. On the other hand, the
designed by Spanish engineer José Echeverría, Ayala Bridge, constructed of prefabricated steel,
who was assigned to make the specification and crossed the river in two independent sections
procure the central steel spans in Paris. He also that converged on Convalescencia Island. Eiffel’s
commissioned La Carrière, a renowned lamp official catalogue of work made reference to the
maker in Paris, to fabricate the ornamental triple- Ayala Bridge which was completed in 1880.
branched street lamp for the bridge.
4 es pa syo 6
Steel bridges or puentes de acero had prefabricated the construction of a line network totaling 1,730
components sourced from France and Belgium as kilometers, consisting of three lines, and sought
evidenced by French historian Bertrand Lemoine’s to connect the productive agricultural areas
collection the letters of correspondence between of Luzon - Cagayan Valley, the Central Plains,
Spanish engineers deployed in the Philippines and Bicol. In the list of priority, a 195-kilometer
and the office of Gustave Eiffel. Lemoine traced stretch of track was constructed between Manila
the origin of manufacture of the following steel and Dagupan and began to service the public by
bridges to Eiffel’s foundry: the Bridge of Santa November 1893. A concession for the construction
Cruz, Laguna (1890); Ayala Bridge on the Pasig of a railway line from Manila to Dagupan City was
River, Manila (1890); Bridge of Simala, Cebu granted to Don Edmundo Sykes of the Ferrocarril de
(1891); Bridge of Calamba, Laguna (1892); Bridge Manila-Dagupan on June 1, 1887. The construction
of Tanauan, Batangas (1892); Bridge of San commenced with the laying of the cornerstone at
Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan (1892); and Bridge Manila Central Station in Tutuban, Tondo on July
on the Janipan River, Iloilo (1895). 31, 1887. Most of the construction materials were
shipped from abroad. Railroad ties and bridge
Colonial industrialization also summoned the timber came from Australia. Portland cement,
construction of a railroad system to facilitate rails, switches, track spikes and bolts, steel bridges
efficient imperial penetration of the hinterlands. and cast iron components were from England. The
By and large, the colonialist used railways to steam-power locomotives could travel at what
integrate and annex territory and to exploit the was then an amazing speed of 45 miles per hour.
resources of the regions surrounding the ports On the average, it took eight hours to traverse the
they controlled. Colonial railways or ferrocarril entire line. What used to be a travel duration of
played a critical role in the diffusion of economic several days on an animal-driven carriage could
processes, ideas and institutions of the colonial now be accomplished in a matter of hours. The
powers, making the conquered lands auspicious iron horse allowed for the fast, convenient and
for investment and exploitation. The plan for an inexpensive movement of goods and passengers
insular, locomotive-driven railroad system in the over long distances and would play an influential
Philippines was officially initiated in June 25, 1875 role in the urbanization patterns of the island of
by a Royal Order issued by King Alfonso of Spain Luzon. Furthermore, the new railroad encouraged
instructing the Office of the Inspector of Public urban diaspora and expansion of the city of Manila
Works to submit a railroad plan for the island of at an unprecedented scale.
Luzon. Spanish engineer Eduardo López Navarro
submitted his Plan General de Ferrocarilles en la New technologies of communication were also
isla de Luzon (General Plan for Railways on the introduced. The first telegraph line ran from Manila
Island of Luzon) in 1876. This plan contemplated to Cavite and commenced message transmittal
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Figure 14. Horse-drawn street car in Manila Figure 15. The street of the business district of 19th century Binondo
Figure 18. Manila Cathedral in the aftermath of 1880 earthquake Figure 19. The all-steel church of San Sebastian in the cover of Revista
de Obras Publicas published in Madrid
In the aftermath of the July 1880 earthquake, be an architectural turning point as the primary
residential architecture was also modernized by cause of human casualty was the collapse of
virtue of a circular issued on August 18, 1880 heavy tile roofs that predominated in the majority
(Reglas para la edificación en Manila, dictadas a of buildings in Manila. The Junta Consultiva de
consecuencia de los terremotos de los días 18 y Obras Públicas and the Office of the Inspector
20 de Julio). The circular provided significant General for Public Works campaigned against the
guidelines or rules and regulations on the rampant use of tiles and bricks in the construction
construction and repair of structures following of roofs and eaves.
the earthquake. It compelled homeowners to
replace the heavy clay tiles as roofing material The same seismic event of 1880 left the churches
with láminas de hierro galvanizado (galvanized of Guadalupe, Paco, Pandacan, Santa Ana, San
iron sheets). The tragic seismic event proved to Sebastian Church and San Miguel in ruins.
8 es pa syo 6
Within the walls of Manila, the churches of San meters, with a central nave 12 meters from the
Augustin, San Francisco and Santo Domingo were floor to the springing dome and towering 32
seriously damaged. The religious administrators meters to the apex of the spire. The church, which
of the Recollect church of San Sebastian sought was stylistically inspired by the Gothic Cathedral
to rebuild their church as a fire and earthquake- in Burgos, Spain, was to be made of all-steel
resistive structure crafted entirely of steel. They plates. His design was approved on June 14, 1883.
contracted the services of Spanish engineer Three years later in 1886, the Societe Anonyme
Genaro Palacios, then director of public works in d’ Enterprises de Travaux Publics of Brussels,
Manila, to design an all-steel church in the Gothic Belgium was awarded the contract to undertake
Revival style but without the flying buttresses. the construction of this grandiose design. One-
Palacios designed an edifice covering 704 square thousand-five-hundred-twenty-seven tons of steel
parts were cast in Belgium and subsequently
shipped to Manila in six shiploads that arrivedin
1888. The assembly took two years. On August 15,
1891, the San Sebastian was inaugurated.
Figure 22. Cement advertisement in the early 20th century. (left) Cement and stone quarry in the province of Rizal (right)
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Figure 23. Bamboo and cement composite invented by Ermitaño Figure 24. Spanish dredging machine used for Manila’s port construction
In 1894, a new composite material made of In the twilight years of the 19th century, the
cement and bamboo was developed by an Filipinos’ expectations broadened as liberal
inventor known only as Ermitaño. Because of its knowledge from Europe penetrated their
incombustible properties, the composite was consciousness. The city and its’ environs were
endorsed as the new material for building walls caught up amidst political dissent demanding
in urban areas. The system was known as “Modelo change; the nationalist ferment would erupt into
de Nueva Sistema de Construccion Urbana” a revolution leading to the demise of the Spanish
which was disseminated in pages of La Ilustracion Empire. With Spain’s defeat in the Spanish-
Filipina that same year. This system never took American War in 1898, a new era dawned. A new
off but true reinforced concrete structures would architecture was to emerge, shaped by American
emerge in the Philippines in the first decade of the imperial ambition.
20th century under the auspices of the American
colonial authorities. Building the Infrastructure for
American Imperial City in the Tropics
Overall, the achievements of the Hispanic After Spain surrendered Manila in August 1898,
urbanization program were synonymous to the the Americans took up their positions in the city
elevation of the standards living of its colonial and commenced to govern Manila. In the process
subjects through urban infrastructure and public of takeover, Manila as a new American colonial
works that bespoke of colonial modernity and city underwent a massive transformation to
progress. This metropolitan transformation was restructure its urban built environment as a model
not simply fuelled by imperial altruism or the colonial outpost. Charged with an imperialist
simple benevolence of the colonialist; rather, agenda, this urban overhaul was initiated to
these were undertaken to facilitate efficient facilitate efficient colonial governance and to
colonial governance and further the economic signify the power and prestige of the new colonial
exploitation of the colony by maximizing the order.
extraction of its resources. Not only did the
Filipinos enjoy the fruits of industrialization All public works were placed under the United
through the infrastructure works and the States Army Corps of Engineers. The corps was
aesthetics of colonial urbanism that depended on given responsibility over all public works under the
cutting-edge Spanish engineering and European military government of General Arthur MacArthur.
technology; more palpable was the power, prestige Infrastructure and buildings of Manila and other
and the techno-cosmopolitan tendencies of the urban centers were appraised and those that
colonial social order. Colonial urban reengineering incurred damage from the war were immediately
was meant to transfigure the city into an efficient, repaired to make them serviceable. The Philippine
well-ordered and regulated domain so structured Commission, headed by Judge Howard Taft, was
to enhance the flow of economic activities and in control of the development and improvement
ultimately frame the colonial subjectivity into of the islands and eventually took over the civil
subservient natives. administration of the country as well. Taft was
appointed as the first Civil Governor General of
Figure 26. Filling the moats of Intramuros Figure 27. Construction of streets in Manila
the Philippines. Soon, the commission generously US dollars. Shipping remained an important form
deployed its resources to help the city recuperate, of transport. Over 800 foreign vessels entered
rehabilitate and improve existing infrastructure Manila Bay with a total of just under two million
and introduce urban strategies that assured a net tons. Coastal steamers added an additional
comfortable, healthy and secure settlement for 33,000 net tons. 6
the anticipated influx of American population.
Americans built roads not only as a manifestation
Drainage programs modified low-lying areas, road of 20th century modernization in the Philippines
construction and the clearing and straightening but also to render the colony to systematic
of streams helped control diseases such as military and commercial exploitation. The first
malaria and dysentery. The Army engineered act approved by the Philippine Commission on
these activities as a means to eradicate breeding September 12,1900 was the appropriation of one
areas of mosquitoes that, along with nets, screens million US dollar for the construction of roads and
and sanitation programs, improved the health bridges in the colony to open up new territory and
of both the military and civilian populations.4 to facilitate military and commercial exploitation
The development of the Islands required the of the hinterland. Previously, railroads served
improvementof the roads and rail and facilitating as projections of European imperialism. Britain,
the extension of the mail, telegraph and phone France and Germany laid track from Africa to
lines linking the islands.5 Workers constructed Asia as a means to expand their presence from
450 miles of new track, creating a total network the coast to the interior. America focused on
of 575 miles. By 1912, travel in the Islands was creating a network of roads and streets rather
vastly improved by 1,140 miles of first-class than railroads, allowing automobiles access to
macadamized roads, 1,340 miles of second-class the Islands. From 1916 through 1925, the number
lightly surfaced roads and 5,170 steel and concrete of private passenger automobiles grew, but only
bridges and culverts. Expenditures for roads and from 2,461 to 10,095.7
bridges for 1911 and 1912 reached over 4 million
12 es pa syo 6
As early as 1902, Manila’s utilities and other (Meralco) on March 14, 1903 by Charles M. Swift.
urban services were undertaken by the Philippine Though the first electric plant was built in 1892,
Commission by authorizing a franchise on a electricity came to Greater Manila in 1903.
competitive bidding “to construct and maintain in Initially, its use in many households was limited to
the streets of Manila and its suburbs an electric illumination, but the promise of a clean, smokeless
street railway and the service of electric light, and odorless energy source created an attraction
heat, and power.” The franchise was awarded to of new inventions like the electric fan, toaster and
an American capitalist, who acquired the existing flat iron which made housework more efficient
antiquated power plants and installed modern and less tiring. These common house appliances
ones which had greatly contributed to the were specifically given away for free by the electric
industrial development, economy and comfort of company if the household can consume more than
living in Manila and its suburbs. In 1903, the city 10 kilowatts per hour.
of Manila had, under its auspices, 218 arc lights
and 1,568 incandescent lamps on the streets and In 1904, a new powerhouse, containing four
public buildings. Small tramcars drawn by native Westinghouse turbo generators, was erected on
ponies had been replaced by a modern American Isla de Provisor, an island in the middle of Pasig
electric street-railway service and the railway River from where they drew their condensing
service to and from other towns in the island of water. In addition to supplying power for the street
Luzon had been extended. Connected to Manila railway and public lights, the same plant delivered
by electric railway was Fort William McKinley, a US 220 volts of electricity to households and other
army post in the hills five miles away, providing power subscribers.8 The company serviced
quarters for about 3,000. 3,478 households in 1906, increasing at an
average of 6,000 additional customers per year,
Electricity, a relatively new commodity at the reaching 42,126 households in 1923. The plant
beginning of the century, was made available to also increased its power output to 55,000,000
more Filipino consumers with the establishment kilowatts by 1923.
of the Manila Electric and Railroad Company
Figure 29. Power plant in Manila Figure 30. Print advertisement of the Manila Electric Company
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Figure 32. Pier no. 7 in Manila Harbor
Construction of water piers began in 1905. Pier
divisions: the improvement of the outer harbor No.1, a 70 feet wide by 600 feet long concrete
or Bay of Manila; the improvement of Pasig River deck on reinforced concrete piles, was constructed
below the Bridge of Spain (now Jones Bridge), by the US Army. Next, the Bureau of Navigation
the bar at the entrance, the inner basin and the undertook the construction of Pier No. 3. This pier,
canal connecting the latter with the river; the also of concrete deck supported on reinforced
improvement of upper Pasig River to Laguna concrete piles, was 110 feet wide and 650 feet long
de Bay; and the building of a drawbridge across with a 60 feet by 500 feet cargo shed. In 1910, the
the Pasig River near its mouth, giving passage Bureau completed Pier No. 5, 160 feet wide by 750
to steam and street cars, and other vehicles and feet long consisting of concrete slabs supported
foot passengers. on steel beams and a pedestal type substructure
provided with a cargo shed 100 feet wide by 600
In summary, the project called for the completion feet long. By 1920, 85 hectares of land had been
of a breakwater and dredging of designated reclaimed and the construction of Pier No. 7 would
harbor areas in which dredged material were eclipse all previous piers in scale and style. Pier
to be used to reclaim some 60 hectares from No.7, considered the largest and most modern port
the sea. The Pasig River was also widened to facility in Asia and a gem of colonial architecture,
76 meters up to the Bridge of Spain, the river’s was completed in 1926 at the huge sum of P13
intermediate arterial canals were deepened to million. The pier consisted of a reinforced concrete
5.5 meters and the Ayala Bridge and Laguna de deck supported on reinforced concrete piles and
Bay shoal places were dredged to a two meter measured 240 feet wide by 1400 feet long.11 An
depth to allow for low water navigation. The imposing shed, 160 feet wide and 1200 feet long
highlight of this plan, which was never realized, with passenger corridors on both wings and an
was the construction of a through drawbridge administration building at the center recalled the
over the Pasig River near its mouth. This steel Crystal Palace of London with its vaulted ceiling of
bridge, having a double-track railway, two wagon steel and crystalline façade.
roads and two foot walks, was to rest on three
concrete piers and two abutment piers. According to the Philippine Commission Report of
1903, there were over 30 esteros or branches of
The construction of two breakwaters as part of esteros within the city limits of Manila. Although
the port improvement project erased Manila’s they were dirty and ill-smelling, their value to
infamous reputation as the worst major port for the city as commercial waterways, sewers, open
freight in the Orient. The harbor metamorphosed drains and irrigating ditches were incalculable,
from an open roadstead into a secure closed playing a significant role in Manila’s cultural
harbor. An area within the breakwater was and economic life. These canals were not only
dredged, the refuse material from the process depicted as picturesque destinations in vintage
used to fill in ground for a new commercial photographs but also as busy and sometimes
district on what had been, before the arrival of congested thoroughfares, bustling with economic
the Americans, shoals in front of the shoreline of activities and doubling as home to Manila’s
Manila. This was the Ermita and Malate district, a floating population (15,000 persons resided
marshy area along the shoreline of Manila. in cascos, lorchas launches and other small
16 es pa syo 6
Figure 34 Binondo lift-bridge Figure 35 and 36. Typical estero bridge design (above); Plans of the
Pasig River wall (below)
south banks west of the Bridge of Spain; the All in all, the bituminous macadam pavements
concrete steel arch over the Estero San Miguel had reached 15,097 square yards; wood blocks
made necessary by the extension of the electric by 27,538 square yards; asphalt by 498 square
street railway; a substructure of the Ayala Bridge, yards; and a small amount of concrete blocks.20
a substructure of the Binondo lift bridge, and The water-bound macadam was torn every single
a redesign for the Suspension Bridge.17 It was year by heavy traffic and flooding, prompting
also during this time that the stagnant moats the Governor General to remark: “The paving of
of Intramuros were filled and developed as streets…seems never to end in the tropics.”21 In
promenades. It was decided to utilize the tons of the second decade of the American occupation,
sand fill excavated from the harbor, which was at the city had a total street mileage of 2,059,176
that time undergoing port expansion, to reclaim meters and began to convert all its streets to
the pestilential moats. asphalt – an immense undertaking which was
projected to incur P 3 million and a span of five
The Pasig River Wall project called for the years.22
construction of a concrete retaining wall along a
portion of the south bank of the Pasig River, south Materials of Colonial Modernity
of the Bridge of Spain. This wall, approximately Infrastructure projects became an essential part
1,000 feet in length, was constructed of concrete of America’s modernization program, expanding
with stone coping, resting on a grillage and pile imperial control throughout the Philippines.
foundation of sufficient depth to allow an 18- During this period, methods of construction were
foot channel at low water. The old city wall was greatly improved through the adoption of new
removed along this portion of the river, and in building technologies promoted by the American
addition, an area of approximately 7,600 square authorities in the Philippines. Improvements in
meters was reclaimed by filling out to the new wall. construction technology translated to larger and
The construction of this wall opened up a section taller structures that allowed the application of
of the riverfront to commerce to facilitate inter- complex forms of articulation and ornamentation.
island freight.18 The contract for the river wall was Steel-framed skeleton, reinforced concrete
awarded to Salvador Farre and was completed on and concrete hollow-block were the primary
March 26,1906 at a cost of P 314,935.80.19 construction technologies imported from the
United States. This transfer of technology to the
By 1912, Manila had 129 miles of streets and Philippines was only part of a larger, worldwide
83 bridges, 11 of which were open exclusively transmission that the United States started
to foot traffic. The Cavite Boulevard (now Roxas at the end of the 19th century. Catalyzed by the
Boulevard), running about 15 miles along the successful construction of the Panama Canal in
bay’s shore, was completed in accordance 1914, the American building industry gained world
with Burnham’s waterfront development. The reputation leading to an aggressive and massive
retaining wall along the city front was completed. export of American expertise and technologies
18 es pa syo 6
the United States entered the country duty free,
but the long transportation and cost of shipping
logistics have kept the importation of American
cement to the minimum.25
a cement plant.26
Figure 42. Insane Ward at San Lazaro Hospital Figure 44. Philippine General Hospital
concrete (with the exception of wood window & Julius Kahn, designers of some of the more
frames and roof trusses) was the Insane Ward significant US automobile factories like Ford’s
at San Lazaro, designed by Consulting Architect Highland Park in Detroit. The company’s main
William E. Parsons and completed in 1907. The product was the “Kahn Trussed Bar,” a horizontal
building was hailed by the Bureau of Health as main bar with flanges or plate-like projections
“a radical departure in hospital construction and from each side that were partially cut away and
will serve as a guide for the future.”31 Parsons, who bent upward at 45 degrees, apparently to act
advocated the use of reinforced concrete for all as shear reinforcing. This system was used as a
government-funded buildings, noted the difficulty reinforcement medium for concrete construction
in expediting the construction of reinforced as the trussed bars were placed within concrete
concrete buildings in the country because of molds for floor slabs and beams. The Army and
the absence of skilled workers trained to handle Navy Club in Manila, designed by William Parsons
concrete’s plastic properties and the formwork in 1908, specifically used the Kahn system for its
it requires. The Insane Ward at San Lazaro, reinforcement requirements. This system became
executed under a contract with B.W. Cadwallader so pervasive that it was the primary construction
Company, marked “the beginning of a new policy system exported by the United States between
for the construction of public buildings…[and] the World Wars.
its construction is being watched very carefully
by not only the inspectors in charge but also by Moreover, a number of American companies
contractors and the public who are interested in ventured in the invention of timesaving
this form of construction.”32 The building was an machines exploiting the potentials of concrete.
L-shaped two-story structure; the length of each In 1906, the Ideal Concrete Machinery Company
wing was 23 meters and the width 12 meters. of South Bend Indiana developed machinery
The first floor level was raised 1.5 meters above which manufactured concrete hollow blocks
ground with a well-ventilated underfloor space. in the construction site, known as the “Hollow
The interior corners at the floors and walls were Concrete Building Block.” Essentially, the machine
all rounded to facilitate cleaning and disinfection. compacts a concrete mixture into a mold to form
hollow-blocks. The machine had vertical cores,
In 1910, the Municipal Engineer had observed fold-down molds sides, and a pallet with cutouts
the remarkable increase in the adoption of so it would fit over the cores. The pallet was placed
reinforced concrete for private construction. That in the bottom of the mold and was used to lift the
year the value of reinforced concrete buildings freshly molded block out of the mold after hand
erected reached P1,144,050,an abrupt increase of tamping. The company aggressively promoted
P607,050 over the previous year.33 and marketed the machine as demonstrated in
a print advertisement depicting the global reach
Another company that made use of this steel- of the imported machinery with the Philippines
concrete mixture was Truscon, founded by Albert as one of its client base. Concrete hollow blocks,
20 es pa syo 6
as they were still manually produced but with the Inocencio de Leon’s son, Conrado, continued the
aid of a machine, were feasible building materials tradition and the mass production of precast with
in the Philippines. The abundance of manual the establishment The House of Precast in 1950.
labor resulted in the inexpensive production of
hollow blocks. These relatively low-cost blocks The use of clay tiles and brick was catalyzed by
became the fundamental building material for the research and experiments conducted by the
constructing walls and other vertical components. Ceramic Division of the Bureau of Science. The
This technology is still being used today in the former chief of the said division, Dr. S. del Mundo,
Philippines and has proven to be an economical together with the Tuason and Valdes families
building material compared to contemporary as investors, formed a corporation, the Ceramic
materials such as drywall, curtain walls and other Industries of the Philippines, in 1937. The factory,
prefabricated components. designed by Cheri Mandelbaum, was located at a
5,000 sq.m property in Barrio Potrero, Tinajeros,
Another important application of this concrete was Malabon. The machinery and equipment for
in the production of prefabricated components the plant was specially designed and built in
and precast concrete ornaments demanded France. The company soon became a leading
by the neoclassical and the art deco style. This manufacturer of clay products, chief of which were
was an important aspect of construction as a the Del Mundo roofing tile, ceramic hollow bricks
significant amount of the decorative features and blocks, fire bricks and blocks for soundproofing
(such as medallions, low-relief sculptures, and insulation. The Del Mundo roofing tiles
statuaries, inserts) were repetitive in nature were flat clay tiles with an admixture of locally
and were thus produced in multiples. Original produced asbestos for additional lightness and
sculptures and decorative panels were first resistance to heat, fire, and corrosion. One square
executed in plaster from which a mold was formed meter of roof area required 35 tiles, the total cost
for the eventual concrete casting. The ornamental of which did not exceed that of galvanized iron.
components were fabricated in Manila by a Hollow building bricks of the same clay mixture
special corps of 50 to 60 sculptors and molders were made in several sizes, so that in one square
working under the supervision of the Consulting meter there may be from 18 to 72 bricks. The
Architect then shipped to various building permeability of these clay bricks was only 20
sites in the archipelago. In such undertaking, percent that of concrete and the insulating power
the Bureau hired master sculptors and artisans of hollow clay bricks was five times that of adobe
like IsabeloTampinco, Vidal Tampinco, Ramon or concrete, and 25 percent better than even solid
Martinez, Vicente Francisco, Eulogio Garcia, brick. The hollow bricks could be painted, plastered
and Inocencio de Leon, among others, to design or otherwise treated.
the ornamental components of the building.
Iron and steel were initially imported from Europe of a metropolitan sewer, the system provided
and then the United States. In 1898, the value each household with wooden buckets, which
of imported bar iron was estimated at $750,000 were collected daily by the municipal excrement
a year.34 There was a remarkable increase in wagons. Public toilet sheds were also installed
the quantity of iron and steel imported to the in congested nipa districts. A latrine system
Philippines in 1902, valued at $2,000,00035 and for remote areas was also developed based on
continued to increase by two million more in the a vernacular toilet structure found in Antipolo,
succeeding years.36 Eventually, the demand for Province of Rizal.
steel would be addressed by American suppliers.
By 1928 for example, the Philippines imported In densely-packed neighborhoods, new communal
from the United States 23,998 tons of corrugated toilets, baths and laundry areas were provided.
roofing, 11,474 tons of structural iron and steel, In 1908, the American planners introduced the
16,316 tons of steel bars and rods, plus other concept of the Sanitary Barrio. The urban scheme
iron and steel products such as pipes, fittings, permitted nipa houses to be built on highly
nuts, bolts, washers, nails and other construction regulated blocks of subdivided lots. Each sanitary
paraphernalia. A report by Consul-General block had a built-in system of surface drainage,
Harrington in 1930 showed a considerable increase public latrine, public bath houses and laundry,
in steel products imported bythe Philippines. Steel and public water hydrants, which could be availed
bridges were erected during this period, replacing of by the residents free of charge. The legacy of
worn-down and deteriorating wooden and stone these barrios could still be seen in present-day
bridges built during the previous century. urban configuration in Paco, Sampaloc, San
Lazaro and Vito Cruz.
The Architectural Implication of Epidemics
The early years of American occupation was The success of these model communities
plagued by a succession of epidemic diseases triggered the reinvention of the Filipino house
attributed to unhygienic domestic practices of the into the tsalet, which crossbred the tropical
colonial subjects at that time. Building ordinances features of vernacular buildings with hygienic
were issued to prevent the outbreak and spread structural principles and modern concrete. This
of diseases. The onslaught of epidemics had major innovative hybrid house would influence the
architectural implications, which brought about domestic aspirations of the Filipino middle class
many technological revisions to Filipino domestic beginning in 1910 and continued even after the
space in order to minimize the indoor pollution it Pacific war. The tsalet was a single story structure
generated. In response to plague-carrying rodents, constructed of either entirely of wood or a
nipa houses and buildings were made rat-proof combination ferroconcrete and wood. The living
by sealing the gaps and interstices in bamboo areas were maintained at an elevation between
and sawali walls with cement. In response to the 1 to 1.5 meters above ground, slightly lower than
cholera epidemic, the toilet was introduced in the bahay kubo to discourage the placement of
1902 among dwellers of the bahay kubo in Manila domestic animals in the underfloor area. The
by way of the pail system or cubeta. In the absence most obvious innovation of this house was its
22 es pa syo 6
Figure 47. Plan of a tsalet Figure 48 and 49. The Ideal Sanitary House
extended porch or veranda in the principal façade, prototype house introduced a fire-resistive roofing
which could be accessed by either an L-shaped material, composed of diamond-shaped shingles
or a T-shaped stair. Unlike the bahay kubo, the molded from a mixture of equal volumes cement,
interior space was defined by wall partitions sand and rice husk and reinforced by woven
which divided it into a combined living area and bamboo. Its component cement floor and wall slab
dining area, a kitchen, a toilet and bath, and two were implanted with sawali or woven bamboo, a
bedrooms. technique analogous to a local building method
known as tabique pampango. The concrete shingle
In 1912, the Bureau of Health drew up the plans and slab units could be fabricated on site with
for sanitary habitations and insisted the tsalet minimal skill, investment and labor supplied by
prototype. These plans, drafted by George H. the homeowner himself based on the blueprints
Guerdrum, chief of the Division of Sanitary of the Bureau of Health.
Engineering, were disseminated to the public via
Health Bulletin No. 10, Philippine Habitations Consulting Architect William E. Parsons, who
(Viviendas Filipinas). Written in English and served at the Bureau of Public Works from 1905
Spanish, the bulletin instructed architects, to 1914, adhered to Daniel H. Burnham’s urban
builders, house owners and occupants in the few master plan and design prescriptions that took
simple principles of sanitary house construction. inspiration from the extant Philippine-Spanish
Schemes were drawn for the general types of sources and consciously orchestrated the fusion
urban house: single detached, semi-detached of locally derived architectural forms and the
(duplex), row house apartments (accessoria), and neoclassical idiom to dramatize the encounter
the one-story concrete chalet. and co-existence of two cultures. During his
tenure, he was responsible for the design of all
New materials were being developed to replace the public buildings and parks for the entire
the highly-flammable nipa as the staple for colony. Under the guidance of the master plan,
urban constructions, especially after the Great neoclassical monumental structures slowly
Fire of Manila in 1903. Philippine Assembly Act rose in the landscape, working to enhance the
no. 1838 sanctioned the banishment of the nipa imperial image, colonial commerce and native
roof with the invention of incombustible material discipline. The plan also stimulated the adoption
as substitute. The pinnacle of this material of Neoclassicism as the official style of the colony
experimentation was the “Ideal Sanitary House” for the next three decades.
of 1917. A refinement of the tsalet, this modular
24 es pa syo 6
ENDNOTES
24
1
Annual Report, Bureau of Insular Affairs (Manila: Bureau of Charles Moore, Daniel H. Burnham, Architect, Planner of
Printing, 1904) p. 636. Cities. 2 volumes (Boston and New York, 1921.) p. 195.
25
2
Ibid., p. 656. Wallace E. Pratt, “Portland Cement Manufacture in the
Philippine Islands” in The Mineral Resources of the Philippine
3
Far Eastern Review (May 1907) Island for the Year 1911, (Manila: Bureau of Printing) p. 3.
26
4
Edward M. Coffman, The Regulars: The American Army, 1898- Warren D. Smith, Mineral Resources of the Philippine Islands
1941 (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press, 2004), p. 83. (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1908)
27
5
Oscar King Davis, “Filipinos Progress in Spite of Critics,” New The Cement Industry of the Philippines (Manila: Philippine
York Sun (5 February 1916) Industrial Development Center, 1959)
28
6
“Philippine Facts for 1913,” Pamphlet, folder: 1900-1916 Annual Report of the Report of the Philippine (Manila:
Notes and Memoranda, box 94, William A. Jones Papers, Bureau of Printing, 1902) p. 1012.
Special Collections Dept., University of Virginia Library,
29
Charlottesville, Virginia. Bernard E. Jones, Cassel’s Reinforced Concrete: A Complete
treatise on the Practise and Theory of Modern Construction in
7
“Foreign and Domestic Commerce of the Philippine Islands,” Concrete-Steel (London: Cassel and Company Ltd., 1913)
1926, folder 14, box 14, Joseph Ralston Hayden Papers, Bentley
30
Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan The Far Eastern Review (November 1906) p. 175.
31
8
W.R. Snyder, “Meralco History” in American Chamber of Annual Report of the Bureau of Health (Manila: Bureau of
Commerce Journal (Manila: American Chamber of Commerce Printing, 1906) p. 15.
of the Philippines, 1955) p. 384.
32
The Far Eastern Review (April 1907) p. 356.
9
Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Insular Affairs
33
(Washingtion: Government Printing Office, 1913) p. 31. Annual Report of the Municipal Board of the City of Manila
for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1911. (Manila: Bureau of
10
Cable News Manila (22 February 1920) p. 1. Printing, 1911) p. 46.
34
11
Port of Manila and Other Phillippine Ports Year Book (Manila: Arthur D. Hall, The Philippines (New York, Street & Smith,
Manila Harbor Board, 1931) p.11. 1898) p. 51.
35
12
Annual Report of the Municipal Board of the City of Manila Simon Newton Dexter North, Monthly Summary of
for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1906. (Manila: Bureau of Commerce of the Philippine Islands July 1904, No.1 Series
Printing, 1906) p. 32-33. 1904-1905 (Washington: Bureau of Insular Affairs 1904) p. 21.
36 Annual Report, Bureau of Insular Affairs (Manila: Bureau of
13
Annual Report of the Municipal Board of the City of Manila Printing, 1904) p. 636.
for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1905. (Manila: Bureau of
37
Printing, 1905) p. 15. Anthony D. King, Urbanism, Colonialism, and the World-
Economy: Cultural and Spatial Foundations of the World Urban
14
Ibid., p. 19. System (London/New York: Routledge, 1990) p. 38-39.
38
15
Annual Report of the Municipal Board of the City of Manila Daniel R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and
for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1906. (Manila: Bureau of European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York:
Printing, 1906) p. 32. Oxford University Press, 1981) p. 11.
39
16
Far Eastern Review (December 1906) p. 214. Paul M. Rabinow, “France in Morocco: Technocosmopolitanism
and Middling Modernism,” in Assemblage, No. 17. (April 1992)
17
Annual Report of the Municipal Board of the City of Manila p. 52.
for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1905. (Manila: Bureau of
40
Printing, 1905) p. 23-24. Paul M. Rabinow, French Modern: Norms and Forms of the
Social Environment (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,1989) p.
18
Annual Report of the Municipal Board of the City of Manila 169.
for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1904. (Manila: Bureau of
Printing, 1904) p. 65.
19
Annual Report of the Municipal Board of the City of Manila
for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1906. (Manila: Bureau of
Printing, 1906) p. 23.
20
Handbook on the Executive Departments of the Government
of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1912) p.
27.
21
Annual Report of the Report of the Philippine Commission
(Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1907) p. 377.
22
Tribune (23 March 1927) p. 1.
23
Jeffrey W. Cody, Exporting American Architecture 1870-
2000. (London and New York: Routledge, 2003) p. 3.
26 es pa syo 6
Figure 1: Map of Nayong Pilipino (Philippine Village), Pasay City, Metro Manila. Its main features include: (1) main gate, (2) Administration, (3)
Philippine Village Hotel, (4) Aquarium, (5) Restaurant, (6) Contemporary Crafts Museum, (7) Mayon Volcano, (8) Magellan’s Cross, (9) Chocolate
Hills, (10) Datu’s House, (11) Samal Houses, (12) Mosque, (13) Philippine Museum of Ethnology, (14) Garden of Philippine Plants, (15) Gate 2, (16)
Vigan House, (17) Children’s Playground, (18) Aviary, (19) Palmetum, (20) man-made lake, (21) Manila International and Domestic Airport Runway,
(A) Tagalog Region, (B) Bicol Region, (C) Visayas Region, (D) Mindanao/Sulu Region, (E) Cordillera Region, (F) Ilocos Region. (redrawn by Edson
Cabalfin, 2015)
site. The park was conveniently located adjacent region. The architects included Luis Araneta
to the Manila International Airport (now the (Central Luzon), Carlos Arguelles (Nayong Bisaya
Ninoy Aquino International Airport) and the or Visayan Village), Lorenzo del Castillo (Moslem
Manila Domestic Airport in Pasay City, to allow Village), Gabriel Formoso (Restaurant and open-air
foreign and local tourists who have no time to see theater), Leandro Locsin (Northern Luzon house),
the entire Philippines a glimpse of the attractions Francisco and Manuel Mañosa (Bicol homes) and
with just a short trip from the airport. In the 1969 Angel Nakpil (government center). The architects
brochure for the park, Marcos invited foreign involved were among the foremost professionals
and local visitors to visit the park “and see the employed by the First Lady in other government-
handiwork of Filipino artisans and craftsmen, sponsored projects in the 1970s and 1980s.7
amidst an authentic setting of representative
samples of the different regional houses built A replica of a typical Spanish-colonial plaza
throughout the country from the historical past system composed of an open plaza fronting a
to the present.”5 The cultural park was officially church served as the park’s administrative center.
inaugurated on June 11, 1970.6 The architectures utilized traditional building
materials associated with the houses such as
The “authentic setting” described in the brochure bamboo, thatch, palm fronds (for the Visayan
was a 28-hectare park consisting of seven and Ifugao houses), wood and brick (for the Ilocos
thematic villages surrounding a six-hectare region), but nevertheless reinterpreted other
man-made lagoon. Each village represented a structures (such as the restaurant) using modern
particular region in the Philippines. Prominent materials like concrete and galvanized iron
Filipino architects were commissioned to design roofing. A road looped around the park connecting
the structures for a particular village in an the different zones. Visitors could ride a colorful
attempt to evoke the unique character of the jeepney that went around the entire site. The loop
did not follow a prescribed sequence but rather understanding of the customs and lifeways of
allowed visitors to discover cultural examples these “cultural minorities” to foreign tourists and
from the archipelago as they go throughout the more importantly, as a way of educating the local
park. city residents.10
In addition to the traditional houses and As an arts and crafts center, the park
structures simulated within the themed villages, concomitantly highlighted a select group of
important natural geological attractions were arts and crafts industries from the Philippines.
similarly reproduced, albeit in smaller scale. Artisans from Luzon comprised ornamental
Miniature versions of the Mayon Volcano in Albay carvers from Paete (Laguna), basket weavers from
(known for its perfect cone), the Chocolate Hills in Pangasinan, balisong (folding knife) makers from
Bohol, Ifugao Rice Terraces in Banaue and Lanao Batangas, cloth weavers from the Tagalog Region
Lake were located within their respective regions and woodcarvers from Ifugao. From the Visayan
in the village. These tourist destinations were region, the park showcased mat weaving from
recreated within the park, much like the regional Leyte and guitar-making from Cebu. Brassware
houses and architecture, as approximations makers from Lanao represented the crafts of the
of experiencing the key sites of the country. Mindanao region.11 Craftsmen were housed in the
Although the intention was for the architectures respective regions in the park, providing visitors a
and geological sites to adhere to a certain level of glimpse of the process of making these crafts and
authenticity, the approximations substituted the later allowing them to purchase the end products.
real ones with concrete, plaster, wood and steel,in The park, aside from being a cultural venue, was
some instances. meant to be a shopping destination as well.
To further highlight the cultural component of the Not only was the park popular among foreign
park, several exhibits and displays prominently tourists; it was also well-likedby the locals as a
showcased the different ethnolinguistic groups of field trip destination, where throngs of school
the islands. One of the major museum structures in children were ferried in by the bus loads. The park
the park was the Museum of Philippine Traditional also became a choice setting for family Sunday
Culture (later renamed the Philippine Museum of picnics. Indeed, as it was the Philippines in
Ethnology), which was inaugurated in 1971. The miniature, the park allowed people from different
Museum sought “to create a better image of the walks of life to experience the diversity of the
Filipino cultural minorities, their way of life, arts archipelago without necessarily traveling too far
and craftsmen to their countrymen and the rest or spending too much money, effort and time.
of the world.”8 Designed by Lorenzo del Castillo, The park thus conflated the intertwined activities
the anthropological museum featured nipa palm of leisure, tourism, commerce, education and
thatched roofing, reminiscent of traditional entertainment in one convenient location.
lowland houses.
Houses of the various ethnolinguistic groups
The museum was built under the behest of the portrayed to visitors a harmonious and peaceful
Presidential Assistant for National Minorities village under the benevolence of the national
(PANAMIN), the government agency tasked government. Unfortunately, this calm and
with the protection and development of what pleasant image disavowed the conflicts and
was then called “cultural minorities” or various tensions between the government and the “tribal
ethnolinguistic groups and their integration into Filipinos.” As one report argued, the Marcos
mainstream Philippine society.9 The museum government, through PANAMIN, relocated the
was thus envisioned as a way to promote indigenous groups and targeted their ancestral
28 es pa syo 6
lands for private logging, mining and farming Sulu and Tawi-Tawi in the southern part of the
concessions.12 PANAMIN allegedly enforced country.17 By including the Muslims within the
“primitivism” by denying the indigenous groups space of the miniature country, the government
basic tools to make them self-sufficient. painted a harmonious picture of the nation where
According to the report,by keeping them religious tensions are completely erased.
primitive, the government highlighted them
as tourist attractions.13 Indigenous groups It is significant to point out that aside from
also fought against government-sponsored Nayong Pilipino, there were also similar parks
infrastructure projects that encroached and established around the same time in Southeast
violated ancestral domains. For example, Asia. Contemporary to Nayong Pilipino was the
beginning in 1975, some 90,000 Kalingas and Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (Beautiful Indonesia
Bontocs of the Cordilleras in Luzon successfully in Miniature Park) that opened outside of
fought the construction of the US$ 1 billion Chico Jakarta in 1980 and the Muang Boran (Ancient
River Basin Development project that could have City) in the Samut Prakan province of Thailand
easily become the largest hydroelectric project inaugurated in 1972. The Indonesian and Thai
in Southeast Asia.14 Rendered by PANAMIN cultural parks likewise showcased architectures
as passive people, serenely engaged in crafts- and cultures from the diverse ethnolinguistic
making and living quietly in an Eden-like setting, groups of the countries. Aside from traditional
the Nayong Pilipino theme park attempted to architectures relocated to the park, the Taman
erase and gloss over the resistances of these Mini, also featured an entertainment theme
ethnolinguistic groups. park. The 80-hectare Muang Boran, located 30
kilometers from the capital city of Bangkok and
The inclusion of the mosque and Muslim village created by philanthropist Lek Viryabumhad had
in Nayong Pilipino was also a conscious attempt similar architectural displays of reconstructed
by the government to respond to the ongoing demolished structures and various traditional
conflicts between Muslims and Christians in house types.18
the country. This trope is similar to the “Moro
Villages” found in the colonial expositions of 1887 The fact that these three cultural parks emerged
in Madrid and in St. Louis Missouri in 1904.15 contemporaneously during the post-World War
Muslim-Christian conflicts can be traced back II period also reflects the close link between
to 400 years earlier when the Spaniards first the Southeast Asian nations and the similar
came to the archipelago. During the American- trope of reclaiming the past in the name of
colonial and postwar period, the tension did post-independence nation-building. Imelda
not necessarily ease due to constant fighting Marcos’ biographer Beatriz Romualdez-Francia
against the government.16 Anti-government commented in her book that Nayong Pilipino
resistance and a Muslim secessionist movement supposedly inspired Madame Soeharto of
strengthened during the 1970s, when Muslims Indonesia to create her own version of the theme
comprised five percent of the national population park in Indonesia.19 Other accounts indicated
and weremostly living in Mindanao, Basilan, that it was Disneyland that inspired the “Mini
Figure 4: Replica of Mayon Volcano, Bicol Region, Nayong Pilipino. (from Figure 5: Guitar-making in the Cebu section, Visayas Region, Nayong
Ma. Teresa Manuel, TAO: Humanism at Work in Filipino Society. Manila: Pilipino. (from Ma. Teresa Manuel, TAO: Humanism at Work in Filipino So-
National Media and Promotion Center, 1979) ciety. Manila: National Media and Promotion Center, 1979)
After the ouster of President Ferdinand Marcos in Then Philippine president Fidel V. Ramos
1986, Nayong Pilipino slowly fell into disrepair. The used this historic milestoneas a component
park was eventually closed in 2002 by Executive of “Philippines 2000,” a plan to transform the
Order No. 111 due to the safety requirements of the Philippines into a “newly industrialized country”
new Terminal 3 of the Ninoy Aquino International by the turn of the century.26
Airport being built adjacent to the park site.23
The ownership of the 15-hectare property was To implement such a grand vision, the Philippine
later transferred to the Philippine Reclamation Centennial Commission (PCC) was created by
Authority, in exchange for an alternative site for the Administrative Order No. 223 in 1991. It was
cultural park in the reclaimed area of Manila Bay.24 tasked to take charge of the preparations for the
The transfer, however, was not completed. Instead, national celebration of the Philippine centennial,
Nayong Pilipino was eventually accommodated in with the specific aim of “reinvigorating the spirit
the abandoned Expo Pilipino in Clark, Pampanga, of national unity and sense of accomplishment
which re-opened in March 2007.25 in every Filipino, in the context of the Centennial
Figure 6: Map of 1998 Expo Pilipino, former Clark Airbase, Pampanga. Its main features were: (1) parking, (2) main entry, (3) entry zone, (4) Chosen
Island, (5) Colonial Plaza, (6) Global City, (7) Fun Zone, (8) Food Plaza, (9) Department of Agriculture, (10) Freedom Ring – Amphitheater, (11)
Freedom Ring – Prosperity Plaza, (12) man-made lagoon. (redrawn by Edson Cabalfin, 2015)
30 es pa syo 6
Celebration.”27 During his term, President Fidel V. The master plan for the exposition site itself was
Ramos appointed former Vice President Salvador a product of various proposals. PCC Chairman
“Doy” Laurel (who was Vice President to President Laurel first approached the architecture and
Corazon “Cory” Aquino) as PCC chairman. planning firm of Douglas/Gallagher from Houston
and Washington to prepare a feasibility and
As a major component of the centennial master plan for the exposition. Specializing
celebrations, the Landas ng Kalayaan or Centennial in exhibition design, the Douglas/Gallagher
Freedom Trail (CFT) endeavored to rehabilitate office had designed exhibits at the Smithsonian
key historical monuments, shrines and sites Institute and Museum of Jewish Heritage.32
connected with the Philippine revolution of 1896. Another firm, Intelog Consulting from South
Diverse historical sites located in various parts of Korea, who was responsible for the Taejon
the country, where events transpired from 1861 Exposition in 1993, was later hired to rework the
to 1899 were conceptually threaded together exposition master plan.33 According to Expocorp
to create a cohesive and consistent narrative president Atty. Teodoro Peña, the storyline was
about the struggles and triumphs of Filipinos being maintained but “the details of the site plan
in their fight for independence from Spain. The has been changed considerably, this being done
trail was composed of 23 historical sites located in keeping with the budget.”34 Later, Prosperidad
in the various islands of Luzon, Visayas and Luis (of Luis and Associates), professor at the
Mindanao, emphasizing the national scope of the University of the Philippines and later president
revolution.28 The sites were chosen by a group of of the United Architects of the Philippines, was
Filipino historians who aimed to create a coherent hired as architect-of-record for the exposition.
story of events from disparate localities that were landscape architect Mary Ann Espina (of Espina,
directly or indirectly linked with the revolution. Perez-Espina Associates) designed the landscape
The historic shrines and sites were rehabilitated architecture of the park.35 In December 1996,
and underwent architectural and landscape Asia Construction and Development Corporation
conservation. In addition, way-finding devices, (Asiakonstrukt) won the bid to construct the
signage, exhibition texts and the guided tours exposition over three other firms.36
were introduced.29
Upon arriving at the Expo site, visitors are
The centerpiece project was the 1998 Philippine first greeted by a gateway structure that,
National Centennial Exposition or Expo Pilipino unfortunately, was reminiscent of Disneyland
in Clark, Pampanga. As the flagship project, it parks with its turrets and arched canopies.
was the Philippines’ attempt at an international Immediately apparent from the entrance was a
exposition in the 60-hectare former air force base large frame structure measuring 150 meters long
of the United States. With the theme “Rekindling and 75 meters high, painted with blue, red and
the Spirit of 1898: Embrace the Past, Envision white colors resembling the national flag, and
the Future,” the exposition featured different billed as the “World’s Largest Flag.”37
theme parks, a lagoon, exhibition pavilions and
multi-media exhibits.30 More than a focal point of Inside, the theme park recalled early 20th century
the independence celebrations,it was also hoped world’s fairs with areas such as the “Colonial
that the infrastructure and the flow of tourists Plaza,” “Chosen Islands,” “Global Plaza” and
would serve as a catalyst for future development “Millennium Hall.” Following a linear historical
in the region. narrative, the parks represented various points
in Philippine history, transporting visitors from
In contrast to the Centennial Freedom Trail, Expo the pre-colonial past, to the Spanish-colonial
Pilipino was a convenient one-stop area for the era, then to the imagined future. In a bold sweep,
celebration. It was envisioned that Filipinos and visitors zoom through the nation’s history. A man-
foreign guests would follow the Trail’s circuit and made lagoon, much like the Philippine exhibits in
finally arrive at the exposition grounds at Clark as 1887 Exposicion General de las Islas Filipinas in
the apex of the celebration. If the Freedom Trail Madrid, Spain and the 1904 Louisiana Purchase
was mostly a nostalgic view of the significant Exposition in St. Louis, Missouri, USA, and the
events of the past, the Expo was imagined as a much later Nayong Pilipino in Manila, formed the
progressive look to the future. The Trail and Expo, central feature in the exposition site.38 Water as
together with the other centennial programs, a theme is quite evident in the exposition as a
sought to reinvigorate Filipino nationalism. way of emphasizing the archipelagic nature of the
Indeed, the Commission promoted “Filipinism” country. Bridges physically connect the different
or the “emerging ideology that cultivates the areas, but also metaphorically suggest the
attainment and celebration of Filipino nationhood” interconnection of the past, present and future.
intended to inspire Filipinos to have a “deep
appreciation of his past, an active participation in The “Chosen Island” or Lupang Hinirang, evocative
the present, and a positive vision of the future.”31 of the ethnological exhibits at the 1904 St.
32 es pa syo 6
The United States, though absent from the
Colonial Plaza, was represented alongside other
countries in the “Global Plaza.” From the past,
visitors were led to the “Global Plaza” where one
encountered “Friendship Pavilions” or exhibitions
from countries such as China, Japan, the United
Kingdom, Singapore, the United States, Indonesia,
Brunei, Vietnam, Korea and Russia. The exhibition
in the United States Pavilion featured a pictorial
survey of the American influence on Philippine
life, primarily focusing on education. The displays
highlighted primary education and the first
schoolhouses, colleges and normal schools in Figure 11: Maria Makiling tableaux, “Chosen Island” section, 1998 Expo
the country.47 In this representation, the United Pilipino. (Photo by Val Rodriguez, Philippine Daily Inquirer)
But there were also numerous criticisms about technical malversation or misapplication of public
the centennial celebration. For example, Professor funds.”62 At the time of Centennial celebrations, the
Jaime Veneracion, former chairperson of the UP Asian Crisis that began in 1997 had just reached
Lupon ng Sentenaryo (Centennial Group), criticized its apogee, resulting in regional job and industry
the extravagant cost of the project and cited the losses as well as instability in fiscal returns.
elitist bias of the celebration.58
Bankoff and Weekley further maintained that the
As scholars Greg Bankoff and Kathleen Weekley failure of the exposition lay not so much in that it
argued, Expo Pilipino was a “recolonization of was a financial fiasco but more importantly that it
the past,” as the process of colonization by the did not critically question the assumptions of the
imperial powers was this time recreated by the nation-building process:
national government in its assemblage of various
groups around the Philippines and the replication Expo Pilipino was as much a fictive history of the
Philippines as any that have preceded it. It was an
of vernacular architecture and historical attempt to invent a national past that depicted all
landmarks.59 The same primitivist and exoticizing the ethnic communities of the Philippines as part of a
tropes of display and spectacle that were used in common historical experience with shared origins in a
the late 19th and early 20th century world’s fairs pre-Hispanic culture. Moreover, it strove to persuade
these peoples that the nation-state is their best hope
definitely permeated throughout the exposition. in leading them towards greater social, economic and
cultural progress.63
The entire 1998 exposition was fraught with
problems, not only theoretically but also The organizers and planners of the 1998 exposition
financially and politically as corruption and suffered the same uncritical perspective as
intrigue plagued the process and production of the designers and organizers of the early 20th
the centennial celebration.60 After the closing century Philippine Villages in the colonial World’s
of the exposition in January 1999, no less than Fairs. The use of vernacular architecture, ethno-
Ramos, the primary advocate of the project and linguistic displays and natural geological features
who ended his term in July 1998, was probed for were thought to be apolitical representations of
allegations of corruption and anomalies by the the Philippines, but the organizers failed to see
Senate Blue Ribbon Committee (headed by Sen. the highly politicized process of exhibition and
Aquilino Pimentel) and later by an adhoc and display. Resorting to the pre-colonial vernacular
independent citizen’s committee headed by Sen. architectures as design reference did not
Rene Saguisag (appointed by President Joseph necessarily free the exhibitions of the problems
Estrada).61 At the end of the senate investigation, associated with primitivism and exoticism.
the senate committee recommended that the
former president, along with five other Cabinet Identity Politics and Nation Building
members, former generals managing the Clark By looking at Nayong Pilipino and 1998 Expo
base, and the PCC chairman be prosecuted “for Pilipino, one could argue that despite being in the
34 es pa syo 6
post-colonial period or the era after the colonial audience or population segment, whether for
experience, the Philippines has not fully achieved political or commercial purposes.
the postcolonial situation, or a complete process
of decolonization. Although considered as post- This act of condensing can be connected to what
colonial representations of the Philippines, these political scientist Benedict Anderson describes
two case studies show that the countryhad not as the creation of “homogenous empty time”
escaped the colonial narratives reminiscent of and the subsequent homogenization of space as
the 1887 Exposicion General de las Islas Filipinas prerequisite of nation-hood.64 In the formation of
in Madrid and the 1904 St. Louis Fair. Both the nations, Anderson argues that for a community to
1887 and 1904 colonial expositions showcased imagine a sense of unification, technologies, such
indigenous Filipinos in reconstructed houses as newspapers, enabled to create simultaneity in
set within a park-like setting. The Filipinos and space and time.65 This article thus also furthers
their indigenous houses rendered in earthy palm, Anderson’s argument by proposing theme parks,
grass, wood and bamboo were set in contrast to much like expositions and ephemeral events,
the gleaming glass and steel structures of the aretechnologies that facilitate the creation of
colonizers found elsewhere in the fairgrounds. homogeneous space and time. For the post-
By doing so, Filipinos were depicted as primitive independence Philippines to be considered
and exotic, dialectically opposed to the civilized modern, its government thus utilized these theme
Europeans, and therefore justified the presence of the parks to create a unified and syncretic image.
Spanish and American colonizers in the Philippines.
Related to Anderson’s notion of “homogenous
Aside from the display of Philippine material culture empty time” is the concept of what historian Anne
through the houses, cultural artifacts and crafts, McClintock labels as “anachronistic space” and
living Filipinos were brought in to complete the “panoptic time” as ways by which colonialism is
aura of authenticity projected by the exhibits. The visualized. She defined “panoptical time” as “the
ethnographic displays in the colonial expositions image of global history consumed – at a glance
not only legitimized the colonial involvement in – in a single spectacle from a point of privileged
the islands but also underscored the supposed invisibility.”66 Within the context of imperialism,
“savagery” of the Filipinos. These ethnographic this is achieved by arraying the development of
spectacles involved “natives” performing daily humankind through what she called a “measurable
tasks and symbolic rituals within the replicated spectacle” or a visual display that summarizes the
villages. Much later in the post-independence supposed evolutionary relationship of peoples.
theme parks, the “natives” were replaced with “Anachronistic space,” McClintock continues, is
professional performers, such as dance troupes where the colonized are projected as “prehistoric,
and singing groups to illustrate Philippine talent atavistic and irrational, inherently out of place in
and culture. Although not exactly the same, the the historical time of modernity.”67 In this schema,
live performances of Filipinos– whether in a “geographical difference across space is figured
cordoned village or a theatrical stage—the idea as a historical difference in time” as a strategy by
of including actual people harkened back to the which discourse of the primitive and the civilized
living tableaux of colonial expositions. Based on is spatialized.68
the close affinity of the colonial expositions with
the post-independence theme parks, one can This sense of arraying of cultures as primitive,
begin to ask: has the Philippines really escaped an embodiment of “panoptical time” and
the colonial rhetoric and narrative? “anachronistic space,” which McClintock argued as
embodied in the imperial project, was also made
Nayong Pilipino and Expo Pilipino both illustrate evident in the postcolonial expositions and theme
the strategy of condensing the country as part of parks. Both the Nayong Pilipino and Expo Pilipino
postcolonial nation-building processes. Nayong employed vernacular architecture inhabited by
Pilipino, by grafting different examples of houses, supposed “natives” as displays arrayed and ready
cultures and natural geographical features into to be consumed by the post-colonial tourist and
one theme park, condensed the country under a viewer. The display of ethnic groups at Nayong
single homogenous national space. Expo Pilipino, Pilipino froze these “cultural minorities” into
similarly grafting different historical periods essentialized identities that seemingly did not
and cultures, condensed the country into one change through time. Moreover, these ethno-
homogenous national time. A sense of syncretism linguistic groups were projected as a historical
is achieved as various time periods, cultural groups that did not necessarily fit the modernity
contexts and geographical locations are conflated of the postcolonial republic nation. By relegating
and consumed within one bounded area. By doing them to segregated zones, the same colonial
so, disparate elements, cultures, peoples and tropes of visualizing conflated space and time are
historical periods are made accessible to a certain regurgitated in the postcolonial context.
12
Sally Swenson, “Philippines” in Daniel Schirmer and Stephen
Rosskamm Shalom, eds., The Philippines Reader, pp.200-201.
13
Ibid.
36 es pa syo 6
14 25
Ibid., pp.203-204; Joanna K. Cariño, “The Chico River Basin “Nayong Pilipino finds new home in Clark”, Manila Times,
Development Project: A Case Study of National Development (March 4, 2007).
Policy”, paper presented at the Third Annual Conference of the
26
Anthropological Association of the Philippines, Manila, April 22 Greg Bankoff and Kathleen Weekley, Postcolonial National
to 27, 1980; see also for similar conflicts in Southeast Asia, Identity in the Philippines: Celebrating the Centennial of
Eduardo Tadem, “Conflict over Land-Based Natural Resources Independence, (England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2002),
in the ASEAN Countries” in Conflict over Natural Resources p.37; for a summary of President Ramos’ “Philippines 2000”
in South-East Asia and the Pacific, Lim Teck Ghee and Mark J. program and its effects, refer to Rosario Mendoza Cortes,
Valencia, eds., (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, “Fidel V. Ramos, 1992-1998”, Philippine Presidents: 100
1990). Years, (Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1999), pp.294-322;
Patricio Abinales and Donna Amoroso, State and Society in the
15
Enrique Taviel de Andrade, Historia de La Exposicion de las Philippines, (Quezon City: Anvil, 2005), pp.244-253.
Islas Filipinas en Madrid El Año de 1887 con Un Explicacion
27
de suposiciongeografica de comolashemosadquirido y un “Philippine Centennial Commission: A Bridge of the Filipino’s
compendio de la historia de las Marianas, Carolinas, Filipinas y Past”, A Special Commemorative Issue of the Philippine Star (12
Palaos: suproduccion, importacion, 2 Vols., (Madrid: Imprente June 1998), pp.S-17,S-20; National Centennial Commission,
de Ulpiano Gomez Y Perez, 1887); Mark Bennitt, ed., “The Handbook for Communicating the Philippine Centennial
Philippine Exposition and Porto Rico Exhibit” in History of of 1998, (Manila: National Centennial Commission, 1996);
the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, (St. Louis, MO: Universal Administrative Order No. 368 (13 November 1997); “Creation
Exposition Publishing Co., 1905); Luis Ángel Sánchez of a National Organization Committee of the Centennial
Gómez, Un Imperio en la Vitrina: El Colonialismo Español en Celebration of Philippine Independence”; Executive Order No.
el Pacífico y la Exposición de Filipinas de 1887 (An Empire 128 (04 October 1993): “Reconstituting the Committee for
in Showcase: Spanish Colonialism in the Pacific and the the Preparation of the National Centennial Celebrations in
Philippine Exposition of 1887), (Madrid: Consejo Superior de 1998”; Administrative Order 223 (13 June 1991): “Creation of a
InvestigacionesCientíficas, Instituto de Historia, 2003). Committee for National Centennial Celebration”.
16 28
Cesar Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon City: Asian “Landas ng Kalayaan: The Centennial Freedom Trail,” Manila
Center and University of the Philippines Press, 1974); Miriam Times (August 25, 1996), p.8.
Coronel Ferrer, “Autonomous Regions: The Search for Viable
29
Autonomy in Muslim Mindanao/Southern Philippines” in For detailed descriptions, scope and illustrations on the
Philippine Politics and Governance: An Introduction, Noel M. rehabilitative works on the Centennial Freedom Trail sites
Morada and Teresa S. EncarnacionTadem, eds., (Quezon City: refer to Planning Resources and Operations Systems, Inc.,
U.P. Diliman Department of Political Science and University of “The Centennial Freedom Trail: Feasibility Studies Report”,
the Philippines Press, 2006), pp.459-486. unpublished report by Planning Resources and Operations
Systems, Inc., dated March 16, 1996; Planning Resources
17
Lela Noble, “The Philippines: Muslims Fight for an independent and Operations Systems, Inc., “The Centennial Freedom Trail:
State”, Southeast Asia Chronicle, no. 75, (October 1980), pp.12- Terminal Report”, unpublished report by Planning Resources
17 as cited in Sally Swenson, “Philippines” in Daniel Schirmer and Operations Systems, Inc., dated March 24, 1999.
and Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, eds., The Philippines Reader,
30
pp.193-199. Junep Ocampo, “Past, Present, Future Perfect: Expo Pilipino
Aims to Make Every Filipino Proud”, Starweek: The Sunday
18
Maurizio Peleggi, The Politics of Ruins and the Business of Magazine of the Philippine STAR (June 7, 1998), pp.4-5,13;
Nostalgia, (Bangkok: White Lotus Press, 2002), p.78; Lawrence “Expo Pilipino: A Magnificent Landmark,” Mirror Weekly (June
Chua, “Honey, I Shrunk the Nation-State: The Scales of Global 22, 1998), p.24.
History in the Thai Nationalist Theme Park” in Archi-Pop:
31
Mediating Architecture in Popular Culture, edited by D. Medina “A Primer on the Philippine Centennial”, Today (August 23,
Lasansky, (London: Bloomsbury Press, 2014), pp.75-88. 1996), p.22.
19 32
Beatriz Romualdez Francia, Imelda: A Story of the Philippines, “Centennial Expo - The Freedom Ring: How to Build a White
(Manila: Solar Publishing Corporation, 1992), p.316. Elephant”, Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1999
[www.pcij.org/stories/1999/expo2.html]; “Gov’t paid P90M for
20
AbidinKusno, Behind the Postcolonial: Architecture, Urban Expo design that was junked”, Philippine Daily Inquirer, (15
Space and Political Cultures in Indonesia, (London and New November 1999).
York: Routledge, 2000) pp.74-78.
33
Lino Sanchez, “The Centennial Expo: 100 Years of Philippine
21
Kerima PolotanTuvera, Imelda Romualdez Marcos, (Cleveland, history in the making”, Manila Bulletin, (16 November 1996),
Ohio: World Publishing Company, 1969), pp.227-231. p.B-12.
22 34
Architectscope, December 1971. Ibid.
23 3
Executive Order No. 111 (26 June 2002): “Authorizing 5 Prosperidad Luis, “The Dreams and Bolts of Which a Ring
The Transfer of 8.6 Hectares of Nayong Pilipino Foundation is Made: The Design and Construction of the Freedom Ring,
Property Covered By TCT No. 18445 To The Manila International Philippine Centennial Exposition,” Unpublished Manuscript,
Airport Authority”. 1999.
24 36
Executive Order No. 615 (02 April 2007): “Mandating the Kitch Ortego, “Asiakonstrukt and Expo Pilipino”, Manila
Transfer of the Nayong Pilipino Cultural Park to the 15-Hectare Bulletin, (29 September 1998), pp.10,B-14; “Laurel explains
Property of the Philippine Reclamation Authority Area in Expo Pilipino deal”, Business Daily, (12 October 1998).
Parañaque, and the Transfer of the 15 Hectares of the Nayong
37
Pilipino Foundation Property to the Philippine Reclamation Lino Sanchez, “The Centennial Expo: 100 Years of Philippine
Authority”. history in the making”, Manila Bulletin, (16 November 1996),
p.B-12.
48 61
See for example discussions of the contradictions of Greg Bankoff and Kathleen Weekley, Postcolonial National
representing the United States as a benevolent benefactor Identity in the Philippines: Celebrating the Centennial of
through displays and photographs, such as Benito Vergara, Independence, pp.164-167; Rep. Rene V. Diaz, “Centennial
Displaying Filipinos: Photography and Colonialism in Early Postscript: The Grand Vision of the Centennial Expo”, (June
20th-Century Philippines (Quezon City: University of the 21, 1999), pp.26,32; for the official report refer to “Senate
Philippines Press, 1995) and Carla Sinopoli and Lars Fogelin, Committee Report No. 30” (retrieved from the Senator Aquilino
Imperial Imaginings: The Dean C. Worcester Photographic “Nene” Pimentel official website: http://www.nenepimentel.
Collection of the Philippines 1890-1913 (CD-ROM) (Ann Arbor, org/cgi-bin/build.pl?section=bluerib;id=CRF-30).
MI: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1998).
38 es pa syo 6
62
Antonio Lopez, “Centennial Shenanigans: Ramos is under
investigation for corruption”, Asiaweek (30 April 1999);
Administrative Order No. 53 (24 February 1999): “Creating an
Ad-Hoc and Independent Citizens’ Committee to Investigate
all the Facts and the Circumstances Surrounding Philippine
Centennial Projects, including its Component Activities”;
“Centennial Expo - The Great Cost of Saving the Centennial”,
Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1999 [www.
pcij.org/stories/1999/expo3.html].
63
Greg Bankoff and Kathleen Weekley, Postcolonial National
Identity in the Philippines: Celebrating the Centennial of
Independence, pp.158-159.
64
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections
on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, (London and New
York: Verso, 1983), p.33. See also Thonchai Winichakul, Siam
Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu, HI:
University of Hawaii Press, 1997).
65
Ibid., p.35.
66
Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and
Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (London: Routledge, 1995),
p.37.
67
Ibid., p.41.
68
Ibid.
KELLEY O’BRIEN
Kelley O’Brien was initially trained as an architect and
produces interdisciplinary work that negotiates the
boundaries of art, architecture and design. Upon receiving
her Masters in Three Dimensional Design from Cranbrook
Academy of Art, she moved to Quezon City in the Philippines
to pursue research into the connections of human
consciousness and kinetic architecture by examining the
informal communities that surround one of the largest
landfills in the world. As part of a Fulbright grant, she is
currently working on a series of installation works and
community based projects in Payatas, Quezon City.
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
The author argues that Metro Manila’s informal In this paper, the author argues that a social system
settlements of are best understood not merely in is most effectively represented by mapping its
terms of their architectural structures, but rather “kinetic architecture” of social relations and lived
by their environments that are causally linked experience and not by its “traditional” or static
to human consciousness. Informal settlements architecture of physical structures, buildings
are dynamic, unstable and constantly evolving, and spaces. Definitions of the key terms “kinetic”
representing what Rahul Mehrotra defines as and “static” architecture and their application
“kinetic architecture” that identifies directly with in describing the environment in Manila are
its inhabitants. Mehrotra speaks of the static demonstrated. In conclusion, it demonstrates
city as having been created from the formal, that Manila is best understood through its
traditional, monumental structures of the utopia system of “kinetic” architecture of dynamic lived
that is to come. Kinetic architecture’s rejection experiences and not merely through the “static”
of static formalism in favor of experience allows architecture of its buildings.
these informal settlements to transcribe the users
as interactions in space. The author then shows The author’s central claim is that traditional
how human consciousness, through Nicholas or “static” architecture is an inadequate
Humphrey’s description of the “extended present,” representation of the social structure because it
is the location where past and present overlap is only a reflection of certain and limited elements
through consciousness and experience. The ability of culture and history. As an expression, rather
to link cognitive and social systems through than an extension of social relationships, the
interaction in the physical environment will then structures of traditional architecture are quickly
allow for a more complete comprehension of reduced to mere metaphors, lacking the ability to
architectural typologies than is currently presented identify directly with individuals and their present
by traditional static analysis. The paper concludes community. Utopian or monumental structures,
by showing how the unique culture of informal for example, become static as the culture reflected
settlements directly reflects their environment and shifts and changes due to responses to external
therefore human consciousness. environmental stimuli. The kinetic nature of
culture results in a constant state of change that
directly links the state of mind and experience of
its members. Static architecture is incapable of
expressing this constant shift and relocation of
culture as it pertains to present interaction with
environments.
42 es pa syo 6
been embedded in our understanding of our moment in which we experience sensations
bodies, minds and consciousness, creating an as having two distinct times: the past and the
extension of space from internal to external. present. The “temporally thick” moment of the
This ]extension of consciousness is understood present, in which we are able to process sensation
through the relations and experiences of spatial and experiences as they happen through our
and social environments. understanding of the past, is what makes up
consciousness. Consciousness becomes not
According to Hugh Campbell, we know who we only the sum of activities of thinking, doing and
are by understanding where we are. Campbell experiencing but also of our awareness of this
draws connections between consciousness as activity. Our sense of self is therefore premised on
a spatial and locative system by examining the our ability to be aware of ourselves, the space we
“spatial self”5 through an expanding series of occupy, and the objects we interact with.
scales from the internal space of the mind to the
external space of the world our bodies inhabit. Kinetic architecture is the extension of human
By investigating the “qualities which make us consciousness. This extension creates the
human – the proportions of our bodies, our link between internal and external space and
capacity for movement and above all our ability perception, giving form to the sensorial experience
to sense, think and understand ourselves,”6 the that is consciousness itself. Kinetic architecture is
interdependent relationship of self and space, a continuous reaction to its current environment,
specifically in architecture, can be understood. as well as to the historical context that was
its formation. Through constant evaluation of
In “Seeing Red,” Nicholas Humphrey7 has stimuli from static architecture and its formal
attempted to define what consciousness is and culture, kinetic environments adapt and change
how it operates in relation to our experiences to continuously redefine and relocate themselves
of the world. He investigates the separation within the urban landscape of Metro Manila.
of sensation and perception as being both
independent and responsive to each other. He Kinetic Manila
states that through evolution, the process of Manila residents need not go far to encounter
perception has distanced itself from action kinetic architecture. Food vendors and their carts
and reaction, creating a gap in which sensation next to the LRT lines, hawkers’ tarps covered with
can happen. Sensation evolved to become phone accessories on pedestrian overpasses,
awareness and control of actions. The ability to sari-sari stores, homes of informal settlers and
respond to specific and continuous actions is all those who interact with them and engage
what consciousness is – an awareness of self. their services are part of the kinetic make-up
(Figure 2). The collapsed roles of owner, operator
Humphrey states that sensation is constant and worker allow for greater ease of adaptability
and always active. He explores the immediate and immediate change based on the current
44 es pa syo 6
articulate through metaphors and the language Aestheticizing Space
that regulates them. Jameson notes that global Jameson speculates onthe role film and video
capitalism, which itself is an intangible concept, art may play in aestheticizing the spaces of
can only produce spaces that are “inaccessible capitalism, leaving the potential adaptation
to any individual subject or consciousness.” He of cognitive mapping to individual artists
argues that although kinetic spaces, human to realize. Alternative methods for mapping
consciousness and global capitalism are kinetic environments can be viewed as the
inaccessible, there are ways to comprehend and creation of relationships between and across
express these realities: spaces through film, installations, performances
and/or interruptions of social environments.
“Those fundamental realities are somehow ultimately Being trained as both an architect and an art
un-representable or, to use the Althusserian phrase,
are something like an absent cause, one can never
practitioner, the author’s practice is an attempt to
emerge into the presence of perception. Yet this ab- identify and comprehend kinetic architecture by
sent cause can find figures through which to express cognitively mapping the social relationships and
itself in distorted and symbolic ways: indeed one of lived experiences of these specific communities.
our basic tasks as critics of literature is to track down
and make conceptually available the ultimate re-
Through a discussion of select on-going works,
alities and experiences designated by those figures, narrowing in focus, the author will articulate how
which the reading mind inevitably tends to reify and the aesthetics of cognitive mapping can take form.
to read as primary contents in their own right.”13
During a nine-month tenure in Metropolitan
Kinetic spaces cannot be represented through Manila, the author aimed at revealing the spatial
metaphors, as social conditions are in traditional and experiential conditions of kinetic architecture,
architecture. Metaphors and narratives are specifically focusing on the community of Payatas,
regulated by the language of global capitalism located in Quezon City. Through extensive research
and therefore cannot escape the representational into the political, economic and architectural
modes of expression. What Fredric Jameson history of the Philippines, an understanding of the
defines as “cognitive mapping” is an attempt to environmental, cultural and spatial implications
invent new aesthetic strategies for revealing the of informal communities was formed. First-hand
spatial and experiential conditions of the system experience was gathered through involvement
of capital. By examining the relationships between with organizations and individuals as well as
physical and psychological spaces,cognitive living with several families in the area. The
mapping can be used to visualize how individuals multi-tiered approach to research allows for a
understand their environments. Intangible basic understanding of context in which this
space and experience of the kinetic must be community is situated, being simultaneously past
mapped through an aesthetic practice in order to and present, individual and communal, formal and
be understood. These “maps” are not metaphors informal. A comprehension of the kinetic nature
but relationships formed between space, time of both individual and collective experience will
and people. frame the perspective of this community.
46 es pa syo 6
Sharing Time
A local NGO runs a daily after school program in
the Payatas B area that provides supplementary
education for the children of the community. The
program’s emphasis is on alternative learning
methods and critical thinking, encouraging
children not just to learn and memorize but
how to think for themselves. A major goal of the
program is to support the children’s creativity and
develop their individuality. At the end of each
session children share their thoughts on anything
with the group. Uncensored and encouraged
to express anything they might be feeling, the
results are often mixed. Ranging from “My sister is
mean and doesn’t share her Coke with me,” to “My
favorite game is Monopoly,” these expressions
and opinions provide insights into the lives of
Payatas children.
3
Mehrotra, R. (2008). Negotiating the Static and Kinetic
Cities: The Emergent Urbanism of Mumbai. Other Cities, Other
Worlds: Urban Imaginaries in a Globalizing Age.
4
Ibid. p.214.
5
Campbell, H. (2007). In Here and Out There: Consciousness
and Architecture Building Material, Winter Edition 17, p.19.
6
Ibid. p. 24.
7
Humphrey, N. (2006). Seeing Red: A Study in Consciousness.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
8
Alcazaren, P., Ferrer, L., and Icamina, B. (2011).
LungsodIskwater: The evolution of informality as a dominant
pattern in Philippine cities.
9
Ibid. p.185.
10
Ibid. pp.146-147.
11
Jameson, F. (1988). Cognitive Mapping. Marxism and the
Interpretation of Culture. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois
Press, p.348.
12
Ibid. p.351.
13
Ibid. p.350.
14
Ibid.
15
Garcia, C. (2013) “How Jollibee beat McDonald’s in the
Philippines.” abs-cbnnews.com. http://www.abs-cbnnews.
com/business/02/11/13/how-jollibee-beat-mcdonalds-
philippines (accessed November 6, 2014).
16
Bernardo, J. (2004). Payatas: Sense of Place in Contested
Space. PhD diss.: University of the Philippines.
17
Lico, G. (2008). Arkitekturang Filipino: A History of
Architecture and Urbanism in the Philippines. Manila, Ph:
University of the Philippines Press.
48 es pa syo 6
Grassroots Approach for
Filipino Community Gardens:
An Evaluation of the Luntiang Barangay Landscape Design Framework
Applied in Villa San Isidro, Rodriguez, Rizal
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
Grassroots involvement as a tool in designing Community gardens are shared spaces
Filipino communities was used in the project intended for communal interaction, community
“Luntiang Barangay: A Landscape Design Workshop empowerment, garden design expressions and
Using Indigenous and Edible Plants for the Filipino environmental awareness. As an approach to
Communities.” With funds from the Philippines promoting these spaces in the grassroots level,
Association of Landscape Architects (PALA) and the Philippine Association of Landscape Architects
National Commission for Culture and the Arts (PALA) and the National Commission for Culture
(NCCA), the project was initiated and community and the Arts (NCCA) initiated the Luntiang
landscapes were designed in the proposed site Barangay Landscape Design Workshop (LBDW).
of Villa San Isidro in Rodriguez, Rizal. Thirty
participants comprising three groups from the The LBLDW was an answer to the call for a
community underwent the workshop module and grassroots level approach in designing community
were guided by landscape architects and landscape gardens specifically in the resettlement sites
architecture students from the University of within the Greater Manila area. The workshop
the Philippines Diliman College of Architecture goal was to create opportunities for Landscape
(UPCA). This study aims to assess the landscape Architects to interact with the local barangays
design framework of the workshop according to the through design, fostering a strong sense of
intended attributes of a community garden. Using nationhood through the sharing of experiences
landscape design analysis tools, the researcher and knowledge in indigenous and edible plant
evaluates the potentials and issues of the site, the species, culminating in the design of their
workshop design outcome and proposes landscape community gardens. The workshop was also
design guidelines for Filipino community gardens created to encourage community partnership,
with Villa San Isidro’s community gardens as model. environmental stewardship and active public
participation in creating healthy open spaces.
with potential for communal use. As part of the The study compared the informal and formal
Workshop, community members were given a landscape design processes applied in VSI to
chance to participate in the planning process by amalgamate a proposed approach to designing
having them design the chosen open spaces into Filipino community gardens. From identification
community gardens. of possible design guidelines for community
gardens, the study further assessed the resulting
Rationale variations of the design outcome to produce
The collaborative engagement of community landscape design guidelines incorporating the
members and landscape architecture volunteers aspects of community participation, healthy
in the design process is a procedure that is places and Filipino spatial systems.
not common in the Philippines. The Workshop
is an example of an informal approach to The sub-problems are:
designing community gardens for a resettlement
community. Inclusive design measures through 1. Do the designs of the VSI community
active community participation result in a gardens adhere to the goals of the project?
landscape focused on the community members’
ideas and concepts. 2. What characteristics of healthy places
are present in the proposed landscape
The question of applicability of the grassroots designs at VSI?
approach utilizing the informal process in the
Filipino setting emerged as open spaces were 3. What are the prevailing characteristics
transformed into community gardens that did not showing Filipino spatial systems in the
follow predetermined formal landscape design proposed landscape designs?
processes: rather than an aesthetic character,
the community members’ design solutions were 4. What informal and formal landscape
utilitarian. The outputs of the workshop need to design processes are applied to VSI and
be evaluated to identify and find solutions to the what are its implications to the outcome?
design process gaps and issues.
50 es pa syo 6
5. How are the landscape design principles nearby communities) were not assessed. The
applied at VSI? research focused on the implications of the
outcome of the landscape design process applied
The objectives of this study are: to the VSI community gardens. Only gardens
identified for the LBLDW project were included
1. To distinguish the applicability of in the study. Selected experts who participated
community participation in the landscape in the project evaluated the landscape design
design process for community gardens; process outcome.
The study used several research processes to and evaluated to interpret the participants’
gather and extract patterns and important data on knowledge on community landscapes as a result
the community garden design approach applied in of the seminar. Visual assessment included
the proposed community gardens. the community members’11 psychophysical and
experiential paradigms to the proposed designs.
Qualitative Desk Research
Facts from books and other published journals Findings and Analysis
as well as online articles were considered in the
creation of the research framework. (see Figure 2) The Informal Landscape Design Process for
VSI’s Community Gardens
Action Research
A participant’s behavior in the workshop is The informal grassroots approach was utilized for
an important indicator of the community’s the landscape design process workshop. A similar
involvement in the design process. First-hand approach done by Julieta L. Santos12 was adapted
experience of the researcher is useful in assessing to create the flowchart of activities for the project.
the gaps and variations in the design process. In October 2013, the first VSI community
engagement was held with members of the
Exploratory Research volunteer organization, the barangay leader and
From the given data, a study site was evaluated 10 barangay representatives. Here, the project
as a model for the landscape design guidelines was presented to the community and visions and
for Filipino community landscapes. Photos of the problems about the community open spaces were
outputs of the 2-day workshop were collected discussed, such as:
52 es pa syo 6
• Lack of maintenance for the open spaces • Lack of community awareness regarding
in the community; the potential of these open spaces for
community gardens;
• Garbage and litter problems in streets,
sidewalks and communal areas; • Individual homeowners using open spaces
for garden plots; and,
• Using open spaces as tricycle stops,
basketball courts and for market • Flooding at some open spaces and lack of
expansion; vegetation.
54 es pa syo 6
After the workshops, the designers were given
a chance to participate in a community build to
implement their proposed designs. The following
are the implemented designs (Figure 6 to 8):
Figure 6: Implemented Landscape Design of Community Garden – Figure 7: Implemented Landscape Design of Community Garden –
Phase 1. (Sources of photos: C. Nadal and P. Paningbatan) Phase 2. (Sources of photos: C. Nadal and P. Paningbatan)
The chosen areas at Phases Two and Three show a Landscape Design Assessment of the Formal
network that may be used to create connections and Informal Design Processes for Community
between housing units and the outdoor gardens. Gardens at Villa San Isidro
What was challenging with the site were its The researcher also asked community design
openness, an existing water channel at Phase experts to evaluate the effectiveness of the
Two, the lack of vegetation and the sidewalk being informal and formal design processes in
lower than the floor elevation of the existing soil addressing the goals of community gardens.
in the open area. As a solution, the researcher Three experts were chosen: a landscape architect
produced a conceptual design that adhered to who participated in the workshop, a community
the needs of the community with a provision for a architect and community development
linear park for strolling. worker and a landscape architect and research
56 es pa syo 6
Agree, 2 - Disagree, 1 - Slightly Disagree, and 0 -
Not at All.
This section refers to the Characteristic Profile Table 5: Characteristic Profile adapted from
adapted from Hall and Porterfield’s Community Filipino Spatial Components.
58 es pa syo 6
Components identified by Lichuaco and De Leon goals through a survey of the experiment variable
show that the informal design process outcome in the design process – the community designers.
can provide a more Filipino spatial design, with In the survey conducted on the 24 designers
11.33 points over the 10.33 points (7% point who attended the workshop and participated
average advantage over the 68.86% point in the community build, the satisfaction rate
average) of the formal design process outcome. or their feeling of happiness reached 95.8
percent (a total of 23 community designers, with
This section refers to the Characteristic Profile one whose answer was considered void). The
showing the landscape design principles applied learning component for the workshop series was
in the community garden designs. Table 6 shows relatively high as well, with an average of 69.4
the characteristics considered in the analysis of percent saying they gained knowledge in edible
the informal and formal design output. plant species, sustainable living using aesthetic
and functional landscapes and maintenance
of quality surroundings. Relating the design
solution as a way to solve prevailing site issues,
Table 8 shows a comparative analysis of how
both landscape design approaches may address
the needs of the community.
60 es pa syo 6
community designers and professionals proposed guidelines in the community spatial
will have equal sharing on intended character of community gardens:
solutions to the site. Aesthetic and
utilitarian approaches will be broadened 1. Community gardens must prioritize
in scope and goal setting must be applied spaces for food production and garden
in the workshop process. By doing so, the plots. The site chosen must have ample
community designer engages in a manner conditions for edible plants to thrive.
similar to how a professional addresses
site issues. 2. By promoting healthy and sustainable
living, community gardens must provide
3. By gearing towards both the aesthetic a source of livelihood and food allowing
and utilitarian conceptual design phases, active, equal communal interaction and
the community garden design workshop participation during implementation,
phase in the afternoon session shall only maintenance, and harvest.
be for site inventory and analysis. Another
whole day session for design is suggested 3. Community gardens must promote a
to be added to the methodology where sense of place prioritizing the use of local
each designer can propose designs for the flora and hardscape materials.
garden. The culmination shall be a design
fusing all the ideas of the community 4. Pedestrians must be highlighted in the
designers and landscape architects. design of community gardens.
Proposed community gardens must have the 5. Community gardens must act as outdoor
following design principles applied: rooms for users, allowing diverse types
of users and ages to participate in the
1. Designs must have a sense of scale and activities thereof or in the maintenance of
proportion. the garden.
8. All principles of design are properly 1. Community gardens must have features
applied in the community gardens. promoting physical containment. If
possible, provide low walls to segregate
the active spaces from the more passive
Healthy-Quality Community Strategies for areas.
Community Gardens
As a goal to uplift the character of community 2. Community gardens must be flexible.
gardens, the proposed strategies were adapted Spaces must accommodate possible
from Eitler, McMahon and Theorig’s Building changes in the design, primarily in crop/
Healthy Places, Hylton’s Quality Community, Hall vegetation rotation, paving adjustments,
and Porterfield’s Community Organizing Elements and provisions for additional facilities.
and Spatial Component. The following are the
13
Philippine Association of Landscape Architects (2014).
Luntiang Barangay Landscape Design Workshop Module.
REFERENCES
Hylton, T. (1995). Save our Lands, Save our Towns: A Plan for
Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, PA: RB Books.
62 es pa syo 6
Lichuaco, D. (2000). “A Comparative Analysis of Western
and Philippine Spatial Systems: Towards the Development
of Philippine Architecture”. NSFAD ‘95. QC: UP College of
Architecture.
ABSTRACT
Growing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) leading tool was applied to Antipolo City in Rizal Province.
to climate change has been a global concern for The results are not so encouraging though,
decades. Research data show that CO2 (carbon indicating that Antipolo is in fact emitting more
dioxide) accounts for 75 percent of GHGs, which carbon than it can reduce (a deficit of over 20 billion
has led many cities to further push efforts to reduce kilograms). Obviously the city is in need of more
carbon emissions. The Philippines is no different, intervention, but the positive side is that because
trying to set in place policies and mechanisms to of the tool, it is now possible to direct efforts at the
keep emissions in check. However, one criticism right reduction activities. Beyond this pilot study,
levelled at Philippine-prepared plans is the absence the bigger and more important task is applying
of specific targets to lower GHG emissions within the tool to other local government units (LGU) to
a given timeframe. Another is the absence of establish a scientific method for determining each
baseline data against which the impacts of action unit’s contribution to carbon emission figures and
plans can be measured. Addressing these two gaps to pinpoint specific actions that can be directly
can provide a ground-breaking scientific method addressed to ease GHG levels.
for evaluating programs. This will assure that
resources in the efforts against climate change
are deployed where they will be most effective.
The current research aims to do just this: rectify
the data gaps by developing an assessment tool
that can quantitatively track carbon emissions
and reductions. The assessment tool adopted
GHG emission and reduction factors developed
in other countries modelled after the Tsukuba
Environmental Style in Japan. As a test case, this
64 es pa syo 6
Sustainable Development that reported “World GHG emissions due to human
Since the early 1970s, the United Nations had activities or anthropogenic GHG emissions have
been working towards providing a productive grown with an increase of 70 percent between
and healthy environment in the light of rapid years 1970 and 2004.”
population growth and the corresponding
pressure on the world’s natural resources. The Asia Low Carbon Societies (ALCS) project aims
Beginning with the Stockholm Conference to explore achievable development pathways
in 1972, numerous planning initiatives have to low-carbon societies from medium to long
escalated through sustainable development term and from national and sub-national levels.
treaties at United Nation’s conferences. These The project recognizes leapfrog development
initiatives range from planning strategies strategies grounded by research and implemented
customized by city governments like the Green at different scales to shift Asian societies to low-
Initiatives of New York, to planning approaches carbon emissions and low-resource consumption
of the Low Carbon Cities Program promoted by while maintaining solid economic growth. The
the Government of Japan. ALCS project acknowledges that effectiveness
of low-carbon development strategies rests on
Overview of Low Carbon Development or specific local conditions and other development
Low Carbon Cities and Societies factors, some of which are the economic and social
Today, a number of cities in Asia such as Tsukuba development level, renewable energy sources and
(Japan), Putrajaya (Malaysia) and Shanghai land area.
and Baoding (China) are taking a sustainable
development approach to address global warming To aid in the effort of lowering emissions, Japan
by promoting Low Carbon Cities (LCC) or Societies. has set a target to reduce its 1990 carbon dioxide
levels by 60 to 80 percent by 2050 and Malaysia
As a quick backgrounder, climate change is its 2005 level by 40 percent in 2020. The Low
caused by an increase in the greenhouse effect. Carbon City Initiative of China launched initial
GHGs such as CO2, methane, nitrous oxide goals of saving “20 percent from 2010 energy
and ozone allow sunlight to enter the earth’s consumption.”
atmosphere freely, absorb infrared radiation and
trap its heat. After a certain time, the amount of Achieving Low Carbon Development
energy sent by the sun to the earth’s surface is Different cities have drafted similar frameworks
radiated back into space, leaving the temperature to achieve low-carbon development. In general,
of the earth’s surface roughly constant. However, the frameworks consists of the following steps:
GHGs emitted by human activities such as identifying the emission source or the activities
fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes and that give off GHG emissions, particularly carbon
deforestation limit the ability of the atmosphere dioxide; measuring the levels of GHG gas emitted
to release into space the energy given by the sun from the identified sources; reducing emissions
to earth. Thus, the amount of heat trapped in our through specific strategies and programs; and
planet gradually increases. reporting the reduction in emissions to serve as
basis for other city governments, communities
Measurements made by the Joint Research and other entities as they create their own plans.
Center of the European Commission in 2010 This report is also an assessment tool to evaluate
reveal that CO2 comprises more than 75 percent the success of the framework.
of the world’s anthropogenic GHG emissions;
the rest of the gases make up the remaining 25 Identify Emission Source
percent. This means a low-carbon lifestyle based The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
on a low-carbon development strategy is the best (IPCC) is an organization set up by the World
solution to the problem. Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). It
Definition of Low Carbon Development was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 for
Kainuma, Masui, Asuka, Kanie, Moriguchi, and its remarkable tasks in preparing assessments
Hayashi1 reported: “Asia accounts for more with realistic response strategies in all aspects of
than half of the global GHG emissions making climate change and its impacts. Based on 2007
it imperative for Asian countries to develop global data, the IPCC has recorded human activities
low-carbon cities or societies. The low-carbon and their corresponding share in GHG emissions
development approach aims to reduce global as: “26 percent comes from energy supply – the
GHG emissions by 50 percent in 2050 in order burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity
to keep global mean temperature change and heat; 19 percent comes from burning fossil
within two degrees centigrade of pre-industrial fuels on-site at facilities for energy; 17 percent
temperatures.” This is supported by the is contributed by land use, land-use change and
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change2 forestry; 14 percent is emitted by agriculture; 13
66 es pa syo 6
emissions calculator available at four different lowering carbon through the visualization of
levels: global, national, facility, and individual.8 carbon dioxide emissions; a low-carbon traffic
system through the introduction of new traffic
The Putrajaya Green City Project technologies and a conceptual breakthrough of
Malaysia has launched a sustainable development transportation; a low-carbon rural city using water
initiative called the Low Carbon Cities Framework and greenery; and an experimental low-carbon
(LCCF) with Putrajaya and Cyberjaya as showcase town by forming model blocks and introducing
cities. LCCF is a national framework and new energies. Noteworthy in this initiative are
assessment system to guide and support holistic its bold emission reduction actions starting with
sustainable development in Malaysia. The 2013 the medium-term goal of reducing GHG emissions
document “Low Carbon Cities Framework and per capita versus as a whole city, bold projects
Assessment System” calculates equivalent GHG promoting nanotechnology energy-saving
emissions of certain human activities to promote technologies and use of algal biomass energy
awareness on how these GHG can be reduced. The and the manifesto which prescribes a doable set
LCCF also introduced a carbon assessment and of activities that an individual can do to reduce
user manual which allows the user to calculate the carbon dioxide in a year.
baseline as well as the reduced carbon count. The
framework identified four focus areas that have the Shanghai and Baoding, China
most carbon impact: urban environment, urban According to World Wildlife Fund China, the low-
transport, urban infrastructure and buildings. carbon cities initiative in China aims to improve
energy efficiency in the industry, construction
The Malaysian project developed a 12-point and transport sectors.10 Pilot projects in Shanghai
action plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. include new eco-building demonstrations,
In chronological order, these are: Integrated City energy efficiency improvement of existing
Planning, Low-carbon Transportation, Cutting- large commercial buildings and the 20 ways to
Edge Sustainable Buildings, Low Carbon Lifestyle, 20 percent energy-saving campaign. Baoding
More and More Renewable Energy, The Green is implementing networking on sustainable
Lung of Putrajaya, Cooler Urban Structures and energy knowledge management and technology
Buildings, Community and Individual Action to cooperation, encouraging investment in and
Reduce Urban Temperature, Use Less Consume export of sustainable energy products, and
Less, Think Before You Throw, and Integrated capacity building in city planning and industrial
Waste Treatment. park development.
Each of these action plans has an equivalent With numerous emission reduction programs
carbon dioxide emission reduction goal. According being reported by communities, cities and
to the estimates stated in Putrajaya Green City organizations around the world, it is apparent
2025: Baseline and Preliminary Study, the top that there are many possible actions to reduce
three action plans that will contribute to carbon carbon emissions: from the simple switching-off
dioxide reduction are Cutting-Edge Buildings, of lights during office breaks to exploring the use
Low-carbon Transportation and Integrate City of algal biomass energy. The key to formulating
Planning and Management – actions that are strategies to reduce emission is to come up with
realized in the city level.9 actions applicable to a definable unit – whether
city, community or the individual. This is also the
The Tsukuba Environmental Style thrust of ICLEI, that is, to help local governments
Japan aims for transition from a fossil-fuel- understand global sustainability challenges by
dependent, industrial society to a low-carbon localizing their impacts and customizing solutions
one and promote concrete actions for LCC. The so that citizens feel that they also need to be a
2014 study “Japanese low-carbon cities – a role part of the effort.
model in the Asia-Pacific region” enumerates
the following actions: technology innovation and Report Emission Reduced
diffusion of existing technologies; establishment This last step in developing low-carbon societies,
of a domestic emission trading system and carbon cities or communities is important as it serves
tax; policy measures by local governments; and both as an assessment of the actions implemented
individual behavioral changes. and a knowledge base for others. Cities can report
their initiatives to IPCC, CDP, ICLEI, and other
The Tsukuba Environmental Style is an initiative organizations working on GHG emission reduction
of Tsukuba City advocated in 2008 to reduce and climate change reporting. Knowledge-sharing
carbon dioxide emissions per capita by 50 percent through reporting emissions will also identify
by 2030. The initiative has started four pillars aspects in the development of low-carbon societies
of integrated implementation: environmental that require further study, particularly localizing
education focused on building awareness of emission inventory and reduction strategies.
68 es pa syo 6
downstream, especially Marikina City. Antipolo’s to enhance both its internal capacity and tools to
forestland, if not protected, may contribute to implement low-carbon development strategies.
increased flooding and landslides affecting nearby
low-lying cities and municipalities. At present, Antipolo is implementing measures
supporting low-carbon development, such
Antipolo has long recognized its role and has taken as: energy-saving resolutions (e.g. regulated
several steps and initiatives geared towards the use of lights, air-conditioning units, scheduled
protection of its environment. These are embodied inspections and joint inspectorate teams to
in the updated Comprehensive Development Plan save on gasoline consumption, among others);
(CDP) and Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) “No Segregation, No Collection” policy in the
of the city into which the Forest Land Use Plan city center which will eventually cascade to the
(FLUP) was also integrated. whole city; preservation of protected areas and
continuous river/creek cleaning and rehabilitation,
Proposed Low Carbon Development with the rehabilitation and improvement of the
Strategies for Antipolo City Hinulugang Taktak Protected Landscape (HTPL)
Antipolo takes pride in having created a strategy also known as the Hinulugang Taktak Falls as
focused on developing an urban city in a rural the banner project; urban greening initiatives
setting. Low carbon development strategies converting small idle lots into pocket parks; “No
complement the kind of growth the city wants to Plastic and Styrofor” policy; desludging activities;
achieve. The development framework is already and information, education and communication
embodied in the two updated and mandated plans campaign on proper environmental practices in
of the City: the Comprehensive Development cooperation with the 16 barangays of the city.
Plan for 2014-2016 and the Comprehensive
Land Use Plan for 2010-2020. Climate change While these initiatives are very positive steps,
adaptation measures and disaster risk reduction their contribution to the overall reduction of GHG
and management are also integrated in the two emission has not yet been determined. This is an
mandated plans. Departments and program offices issue not only for the City but also for other LGUs who
(e.g. Planning Office, Disaster Risk Reduction do not yet have the technical knowledge to measure
Management Office, Agriculture Office, etc.) are reduced carbon emissions. There is, therefore, a clear
already in place to implement the provisions of need to implement a tool that will determine the
the plans. However, while the city government effectiveness of low-carbon initiatives.
personnel are competent, Antipolo still needs
Figure 3: Antipolo Cathedral with the new City Hall c. 2013. The Central
Business District in the Old Poblacion has become built up. (Source: City
Planning and Development Office of Antipolo)
70 es pa syo 6
Table 1: Carbon Emission Account (Red Sheet) and Carbon Reduction
Account (Green Sheet) for Cities (next page spread).
The Annual Carbon Calculator for Cities emission reduction: through use of solar energy,
The Annual Carbon Calculator for Cities (ACCC) through use of non-motorized transport, through
is an assessment tool that aims to compute city- recycling solid wastes, through open or green
level carbon emissions. The tool has two parts: the spaces, and other programs or projects of the
red sheet or the carbon emission account and the city that can be multiplied to available emission
green sheet or the carbon reduction account. The reduction factors. These areas of measurement
red sheet has four areas of measurement: energy contain equivalent emission factors based on
or electricity consumption, transportation or fuel studies on carbon emission reduction activities,
consumption, solid waste disposal, and emissions processes and computations by the UN IPCC,
in system processes on electric consumption, Malaysia’s Low Carbon Cities Framework and
water consumption and solid waste management. Assessment System, and the USEPA.
These areas of measurement are based on the UN
IPCC study on major sources of carbon emissions. Both the red and green sheets have five columns,
The green sheet has five areas of measuring carbon namely: Carbon Emission Activity or Carbon
72 es pa syo 6
Figures were not available for all areas of consumption is equivalent to 218,857,062.54
measurement and not all available data were kilograms of carbon.
from the same year.
The Antipolo City Government had data on the
Electricity consumption data was available only gross income from all transport fuel sales for
for 2011 and in that year, Antipolo City used 2013, which amounted to P141,000,000.13 To
457,630,191.00 kilowatts. To convert power estimate carbon emission from transportation,
consumption into kilograms of carbon emission, income is divided by the average fuel price to
the total kilowatts is weighted by the different arrive at the volume consumed – in this case,
components of the fuel source of the city’s 3,292,969.16 liters. This number is then applied
power generator. In 2011, this mix was 58.5 to the fuel emission factors generating the result
percent natural gas, 28.4 percent multi-fuel of 237,044,385.02 kilograms of carbon emitted by
(coal, hydro, etc.), 2.3 percent geothermal, 0.10 transportation.
percent biomass and hydro. Only the first two
components were used in the equation because For solid waste, data on the number of kilograms
they were the only ones with a significant level of disposed in 2006 was used.14 Items sent to
emission. Doing the math, Antipolo’s electricity landfills that emit carbon are glass and glass
bottles, styrofoam, molded plastic, wood scraps, Adding all these up, the total carbon emissions
food waste, mixed paper, mixed metals, plastic for Antipolo amounted to 20,590,501,863.84
wrapper and garden waste. In total, these gave off kilograms. Although the data comes from different
19,806,564,692.50 kilograms of carbon. years, this result still gives a solid indicator of
the situation. The exercise is also conducted to
The last area of computation is emissions through encourage other LGUs to collect data regularly to
system processes on electricity and water ensure more accurate monitoring.
consumption and solid waste management. For
this section, 2011 data on electricity consumption For the reduction side of the tool, there were
in kilowatts and the 2013 level of water only two activities with available data: reduction
consumption in cubic meters were available. through solid waste management and through
Multiplying these figures by the corresponding open or green space. Information on solid waste
factors resulted in a total carbon emission of management was gathered from data on food
328,035,723.78 kilograms. waste and mixed recyclables diverted to animal
livestock/feed collectors and materials recovery
facilities. Applying the appropriate factor, the tool
74 es pa syo 6
found that these efforts resulted in a reduction of ENDNOTES
316,118,195 kilograms of carbon.
1
Kainuma, M., et al. (2011, November). Asia Low Carbon
Societies Research Project.
Carbon sequestration through open or green
space in Antipolo is possible because of 20,000 2
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014). Climate
hectares of protected forest. These green spaces Change 2007: Synthesis Report.
account for a reduction of 104,878,806 kilograms 3
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2014).
of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The Climate Change.
amount of carbon reduced through both activities
totaled 420,997,001 kilograms. Clearly, solid 4
Iskandar Malaysia Regional Authority and Universiti
waste management and the maintenance of large Tecknologi Malaysia - Center for Innovative (2011). “A Low-
Carbon Asia: From Malaysia to Asia”.
open spaces have a great positive impact on the
carbon situation. However, the computations 5
Carbon Disclosure Project Cities Program (2012).
show that Antipolo actually has a carbon reduction Measurement for Management: CDP Cities 2012 Global Report
deficit of 20,169,504,862.84 kilograms; in other including Special Report on C40 Cities.
words, the city emits more than it can reduce. This 6
Kainuma, M., et al. (2011, November). Asia Low Carbon
demonstrates the urgency for efforts to mitigate Societies Research Project.
climate change. If a city with 20,000 hectares of
7
forest still emits an excess of 20 billion kilograms International Council of Low Environment Initiatives - The
Global Cities Network (2014). ICLEI Local Governments for
of carbon, cities without such open spaces are in Sustainability.
more dire situations.
8
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2014).
Since this assessment tool exists, it now becomes Climate Change.
possible to make recommendations on the exact 9
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Green Technology
nature of the programs that need to be undertaken Corporation, Putrajaya Corporation, Kyoto University, Okayama
to reduce Antipolo’s carbon emissions. Among the University, and National Institute for Environmental Studies
recommendations are activities that promote use of Japan (2011, August). Putrajaya Green City 2025: Baseline
and Preliminary Study.
of renewable sources of energy, improve practices
on solid waste management and adopt ways to 10
World Wildlife Fund China (2014). Low Carbon City Initiative,
reduce energy use, improve traffic management WWF China.
and preserve (or even increase) open space. 11
Senate Economic Planning Office, Senate of the Philippines
(2013, March). GHG Emissions at a Glance.
CONCLUSION
The reduction of carbon emissions is a clear 12
Baticados, E.J. (2011). ASEAN – staging its role in “eco-
goal cities should strive for. However, it is often revolution”.
difficult to determine exactly which activities 13
Data obtained from the Business Permit and Licensing Office
drive emissions and what efforts should be of Antipolo City
encouraged to help reduction. Even trickier
14
is knowing if reduction initiatives are in fact Data obtained from the Waste Analysis and Characteristics
Survey (WACS) conducted by technical personnel from the
effective. It is difficult primarily because of the City Environment and Waste Management Office (CEWMO) of
lack of baseline data on which to base growth or Antipolo City with assistance from Procter and Gamble (P&G)
decline of emissions.
15
Research funded by a grant from the Sumitomo Foundation
15 in Japan
This study done in Antipolo is a significant first
step in applying a functional assessment tool
to determine the specific contributions of each REFERENCES
emission and reduction activity and to provide
Baticados, E.J. (2011). ASEAN – staging its role in “eco-
data such that when these activities are measured revolution”. Retrieved June 18, 2014 from http://www.aaet-
again in the future, there is scientific basis for asean.org/upload/EL%20Jirie%20N.%20Baticados,%20
saying whether or not carbon reduction efforts Essay,%20Philippines.pdf
have been successful. The figures generated
C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, AECOM, Carbon
by this assessment tool show where the local Disclosure Project (2014). CDP Driving Sustainable Economies.
government should focus its efforts to support Retrieved July 1, 2014 from www.cdp.net
programs created by the national government
in addressing concerns on climate change. By Carbon Disclosure Project Cities Program (2012). Measurement
for Management: CDP Cities 2012 Global Report including
adapting the tool presented in this study, LGUs Special Report on C40 Cities. Retrieved June 18, 2014 from
can regularly monitor the effectiveness of action www.cpd.net.
plans. This gives them knowledge on what
initiatives are more successful in providing a City Environment and Waste Management Office, Antipolo City
(2006). Waste Analysis and Characteristics Survey (WACS).
solid basis to rationalize changes and to improve
programs where necessary.
Kainuma, M., Masui, T., Asuka, J., Kanie, N., Moriguchi, Y., and
Hayashi, Y. (2011, November). Asia Low Carbon Societies
Research Project. Tsukuba City, Japan.
76 es pa syo 6
Urban Renewal of the City of Manila
and its Impact to Environment and Physical Design:
Where Can We Go From Here?
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
Urban Renewal is said to be one of the alternative Urban renewal or redevelopment is said to be one of
actions for mitigating the negative impacts the alternative actions for mitigating the negative
of urbanization and urban decay. This study impacts of urbanization and urban decay.1 Some
investigated the impacts of urban renewal factors of the positive effects of urban renewal are: higher
on the environmental setting and physical design median income, higher property values, higher
of the City of Manila. It reviewed redevelopment rates of employment and fewer poor families.2 It
plans, zoning ordinances, previous studies and is said to contribute to sustainable development
conducted an ocular inspection of the City’s major as it enables social equity, the viability of
areas. Despite being limited to the City of Manila, the economy and encourages environmental
urban planners may find the study useful in responsibility3 among those benefitting from it.
formulating redevelopment plans of cities in the Furthermore, urban renewal can be large-scale or
light of sustainability. Moreover, the study can small-scale: a comprehensive plan for an entire
present policy makers with better ideas on how the city or a megalopolis is large-scale, while pockets
development planning of a city can be managed, of redevelopment or rehabilitation within the
say by boosting the economic sector, and how boundary of a city is small-scale. Small-scale
they can keep the environmental and historical urban renewal (SSUR) should be in line with the
conditions at par with each other. large-scale urban renewal (LSUR).
78 es pa syo 6
Existing ordinances for the protection and Table 1 summarizes the household population
conservation of open spaces and heritage of Manila, Metro Manila and the Philippines
sites were investigated to see how these were from 1980 to 2010. According to the National
implemented by the local government. It looked Statistics Coordination Board, the percentage
into the degree of compliance with set rules and change in population of the City between 2000
regulations and whether the effects of urban and 2007 was 5.0 percent.17 This is higher than
renewal were positive or negative. the percentage changes for Metro Manila (2.1%)
and the Philippines (2.4%). The local government
Brief Background on the City of Manila estimated that the City of Manila has at least
The City of Manila, the capital of the Philippines, 333,547 households with an average size of 4.7
lies on latitude 14°38’ North and longitude members.18 With respect to population density,
120°60’ East. Manila, with a total land area Table 2 shows that the City of Manila has a very
of 4,045.8 hectares including its reclaimed high population density compared with those
areas, is strategically located along the eastern of Metro Manila and the Philippines. Assuming
coast of Manila Bay with a coastline length of that immigration from rural to urban areas
190 kilometers. The City is bounded by seven causes a faster rate of increase in population
cities, namely: Navotas and Caloocan on the than natural birth, exponential projections of
North, Quezon on the Northeast, San Juan population densities of Manila City for 2020 and
and Mandaluyong on the East, Makati on the 2030 were estimated to be at 88,202,673 and at
Southeast, and Pasay on the South (Figure 1).16 105,386,787, respectively.19
Figure 1: Map of the City of Manila and its District Boundaries. (Map
generated by R. S. Caguimbal, using National Statistics Office data for
boundaries)
a
2010 population density figures were authors’ computations based on Table 1.
Table 2: Population densities per square kilometer: Manila City, Metro
Manila and the Philippines (1980 to 2010) (Sources: National Statistical
Coordination Board, 2010 Philippine Statistical Yearbook; National
Statistics Office, Household Population of the Philippines, 2010)
In the 13th century, Manila’s environment consisted parkways to provide venues for recreation in every
of a fortified settlement and a trading center near part of the city; (2) to develop a street system and
the mouth of the Pasig River, which bisects the secure direct and easy communication within and
City into north and south. The official name of outside of the city; (3) to provide a location for
the city under its Malay aristocracy was Seludong/ buildings that will cater to various activities; (4)
Selurung, suggesting that it was the capital of to develop waterways for transportation; and (5)
Ancient Tondo. Tagalog inhabitants later named to develop summer resorts.21
it Maynila, based on nilad, a flowering mangrove
plant that grew on the marshy shores of Manila Burnham’s plan aimed to make Manila a city of
Bay.20 The City of Manila is the historical, cultural, natural and architectural wonders complemented
political, economic and educational center of the with parks, plazas and fountains (Figure 2).
country. History and culture can be observed in However, this plan was not fully implemented
the city’s physical character: notable ancestral because then President Manuel Quezon
houses in the districts of Binondo, Ermita and reallocated the project funds for irrigation
Quiapo; old churches and Spanish buildings infrastructures in Quezon province.22 The imprint
within Intramuros; neo-classical buildings from of Burnham’s plan for Manila is visible in Rizal Park
the districts of Lawton to United Nations Avenue; or Luneta, including the physical structures of the
modern eclectic buildings confined in Escolta; and National Museum and the Department of Tourism.
neo brutalism architecture along Roxas Boulevard. It is also visible in the developed waterfront along
Roxas Boulevard (Figure 3).23
Results and Discussion
During the Marcos Administration in the mid-1970s,
Large-Scale Urban Renewal Plans: the Burnham Plan was revisited because one of
City of Manila and Metropolitan Manila its priorities was infrastructure development.
Manila was to be transformed into a progressive
Urban renewal plans and projects that and modern city. Infrastructure and facilities then
shaped the City of Manila established were the following: Cultural Center
Manila has undergone many phases of urban of the Philippines, Folk Arts Theater, Philippine
renewal, and two notable phases were the period International Convention Center, Manila Film
of the late American colonization in the 1900’s, Center, Coconut Palace and Central Bank of the
and the era between 1970 and 1980. In 1905, Philippines. Ironically, it was during this repressive
Daniel Burnham proposed a plan for Manila, with political climate that the golden age of Philippine
the aim of improving five aspects of the city: (1) architecture, arts and culture flourished.24 Two
to develop a waterfront and locate parks and milestones, the late American colonization and
80 es pa syo 6
Figure 3: Developed Portion of the City of Manila based on Burnham Plan.
(Source: Palanca, 2013, July 14. On what Manila could have been. [Blog
Figure 2: Original Blueprint of Burnham’s Plan for the City of Manila. post]. Retrieved 25 September 2013 from http://jumbodumbothoughts.
(Source: Morley, 2012) blogspot.com/2013/07/on-what-manila-could-have-been_14.html)
82 es pa syo 6
that once the Foundation has completed the (Figure 8). The parking facility blocks the vista of
park’s development, it shall be turned over to the the Metropolitan Theatre, another Art Deco by
City of Manila. In turn, the City government will Filipino national artist, Juan Arellano.
maintain, operate and secure it solely as a forest
park at its own expense.36 However, in 2005, Loss of Architectural Heritage
the AFP was closed to the public to give way for Manila is a beautiful city with great architectural
the construction of an administration building designs showing its rich culture and history.
for the City of Manila Schools Division (Figure The glorious neo-classical buildings (Figure 9)
7). Today, the said building occupies one third built during the American colonization along the
of the park’s original land area.37 The Rizal Park, districts of Lawton and Taft Avenue, the 1940 art
Roxas Boulevard and the Cultural Center of the deco structures (Figure 10) along the streets of
Philippines are three parks in the City of Manila Escolta and Avenida and part of Taft Avenue, and
that also need to be currently preserved.38 the neo-brutalism architectures (Figure 11) of the
1970’s along Roxas Boulevard are architectural
Mehan Garden was open to the public as a park until and historical heritages that are also protected
1960. However, its maintenance was neglected by Republic Act No. 10066, Section 47, Article
and it slowly deteriorated. The Garden has a rich 7.42 This law provides the guidelines in preserving
history. It was the Jardin Botanico (Botanical and conserving historical sites and facilities and
Garden) during the Spanish era. Even earlier, it was prohibits the demolition or modification of any
the site assigned by the Spanish authorities as building 50 years or older without permission
living quarters for Manila’s Chinese population.39 from the National Commission for Culture and
In 2002, the Manila City government chose the Arts.43 However, the fate of these structures
Mehan Garden as the site for the City College of still rests in the hands of incumbent government
Manila, but the construction plan was opposed by officials, who seem to consider demolitions of
heritage and environmentalist groups, citing that architectural heritages to be the only option
the Garden is part of Philippine history. Moreover, for new developments. A case in point was July
it was declared a historical and archeological site40 15, 2000 – the day the Jai Alai Building along
by the National Historical Institute.41 Presently, Taft Avenue was demolished to give way to the
the park no longer functions. It is located between construction of the new Hall of Justice for the City
two structures, the University of Manila in its of Manila. Conservationists negotiated with city
south and a multi-story parking facility in its north officials to save the building as it was one of Asia’s
Figure 6: Inside Arroceros Forest Park (upper photos), with the century-
old tree inside forest park (bottom left) and the entrance of Arroceros
Park (bottom right). (Source: Flores, 2012)
84 es pa syo 6
Figure 9: Don Roman Santos Building in Lawton.
(Source: P. J. A. Perez, 2012)
Figure 11: Cultural Center of the Philippines (top) and Central Bank
of the Philippines (bottom). (Sources: http://betterphils.blogspot.
com/2012/11/national-theater-festival-at-ccp-hopes.html & P. J. A. Perez,
2012)
Figure 10: From top to bottom: Buildings in Escolta facing Pasig Figure 12: Old Jai Alai Building (top) and One tower condominium
River; Escolta Capitol Theatre by national artist Juan Nakpil; Madrigal project of DMCI Homes on former location of old Jai Alai building
building, Escolta; Interior of First United building, Escolta. (Source: P. J. (bottom). (Sources: Mempin, 2009 & R. S. Caguimbal, 2014)
A. Perez, 2010)
86 es pa syo 6
Figure 15: Changes in land surface temperature in Metro Manila in
1989, 1993 and 2002. (Source: Pereira, 2004)
Figure 16: Hot spots in Metro Manila in 1989, 1993 and 2002. (Source:
Pereira, 2004)
has had an increase in temperature by 0.8°C56 With respect to the urban renewal mobilization
and can be said to have been caused by the of the comprehensive plan, a combination of
continuous waterproofing of land surfaces57 and different criteria in planning to produce a more
the construction of high rise buildings, where a practical and aesthetically pleasing location is
balance with the natural landscape has been lost. provided. Consequently, 10 development concepts
Figures 15 and 16 illustrate the changes in land were formulated for urban renewal. These include:
surface temperature and the hot spots in Metro (1) business improvement districts, (2) mixed
Manila. use development, (3) multi-use development, (4)
transportation oriented development, (5) great
Overemphasized Economic Growth in streets ‘Sense of Place,’ (6) new urbanism adopting
Manila City Ordinance 8119 the ‘traditional neighborhood design’ into the
Many development and urban renewal projects modern urban environment, (7) pedestrianization,
have been considered in the MCLUPZO of 2006, (8) histo-cultural conservation, (9) roof gardens
otherwise known as Ordinance 8119. Among these and (10) environmental design.
are the enhancement of the built environment by
adding open spaces, playgrounds and parks or These development concepts, however, imply
roof gardens in some commercial areas, the re- that the main objective of the government is
establishment of the Old Burnham Plan and the economic growth and histo-cultural conservation
continuous rehabilitation of the Pasig River. and environmental design only come in second.
88 es pa syo 6
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge Julius M. Bañgate of UP College of
Engineering (Department of Geodetic Engineering) and Robert
L. Rodriguez of UP School of Urban and Regional Planning for
support in some of the maps.
ENDNOTES
1
Farid, K. (2011). “Urban sprawl vs. urban renewal: What
role for town and country planning instruments in ensuring
sustainable cities? Case of Algeria.” Procedia Engineering 21,
760-766. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.2075
Figure 17: Bicycle sharing in Pasig City. (Source: Clean Air Asia, n.d.) 2
Collins, W. and Shester, K. (2010). The economic effects
of slum clearance and urban renewal in the United States.
Retrieved 29 August 2013 from http://www.accessecon.com/
Heritage Act can be revisited. This may be followed pubs/VUECON/vu10-w13.pdf
by a study on the physical setting of the site,
3
including its environment, culture and history as Lee, G. and Chan, H. (2008). “Factors affecting urban renewal
in high-density city: Case study of Hong Kong.” Journal of
well as determining what can be built and how it Urban Planning and Development, 134 (3), 140-143.
can be built. Secondly, project conceptualization
can encompass the envisioning of the project’s 4
Ejumundo, K.B. (2013). Urban development and renewal
present and future role in the society. in Nigeria: The potency of public private partnership. The
International Institute for Science, Technology and Education,
3(4), 81-85.
The project’s impacts to the environment also
need to be anticipated in order to come up with 5
Wulandari, D. and Usman, F. (2010). “Engagement of urban
solutions rather than merely mitigating plans. upgrading and urban renewal in Jakarta.” International Journal
of Academic Research, 2(5), 296-301.
For instance, with the issues on flooding and
effects of the urban heat island, there is a need 6
Nel Io, O. (2010). “The challenges of urban renewal: Ten
to develop more green areas, e.g., parks with lessons from the Catalan experience.” Análise Social, 197, 685-
pedestrian-friendly streets, within the districts 715.
of Intramuros, Binondo, Avenida and Quiapo. 7
Wulandari, D. and Usman, F. (2010). “Engagement of urban
Walkable green pathways may be promoted for upgrading and urban renewal in Jakarta.” International Journal
pedestrian interaction and movement, and the of Academic Research, 2(5), 296-301.
concept of “Bicycle City” may be introduced by 8
Chavan, S. (2013). “Urban development and environment.”
the local government. More recently, the Metro Indian Streams Research Journal, 3(3), 1-4.
Manila Development Authority introduced a
‘Share-a-Bike’ Program along Roxas Boulevard, 9
Ibid.
from Raja Sulayman road to Burgos Avenue, as 10
Urban Land Institute (2013). Ten principles for sustainable
a form of exercise for individuals.61 Earlier bicycle development of Metro Manila’s new urban core. Retrieved 23
programs in other parts of Metro Manila were December 2013 from http://asia.uli.org/wp-content/uploads/
the ‘Bicycle-Friendly City’ Program of the city 2013/04/10PrinciplesManila_2013.pdf
government of Marikina62 and the ‘Tutubi Bike’ 11
Lee, G. and Chan, H. (2008). Factors affecting urban renewal
program (Figure 17) for employees of the Pasig in high-density city: Case study of Hong Kong.
City local government63 in partnership with the
Asian Development Bank and Clean Air Asia.64 12
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July 2013 from http://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.
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Even if the aims of these three bicycle programs
can be said to differ from one another, more 13
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bicycle programs within the City of Manila could Excellence. Retrieved 30 June 2013 from www.urbandesign.
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transport to minimize, if not eliminate, traffic 14
Farid, K. (2011). Urban sprawl vs. urban renewal: What
and congestion, and further contribute to the role for town and country planning instruments in ensuring
preservation of the architectural character sustainable cities? Case of Algeria.
present in the districts. Simultaneously, it can 15
Business Dictionary (n.d.). Urban renewal. Retrieved 10 July
reduce the concentration of air pollution in the 2013 from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/
busiest area of the city. Finally, the project can urban-renewal.html
cover the effectiveness and cost implications
16
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(MCLUPZO) 2005-2020 (2006). City of Manila Ordinance No.
carry out an urban renewal project with the least 8119, Republic of the Philippines.
disturbance to the already existing environment
and physical design. 17
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37
19
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38
20
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39
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40
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23
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41
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24
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43
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25
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26
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31
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47
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34
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35
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50
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ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
This paper aims to recommend measures to enable In 2015, the Association of Southeast Asian
local architectural schools to set an equivalency Nations (ASEAN) Regional Integration opens the
with the curriculum of internationally accredited door to more liberal trade and commerce for its
schools. Equivalency in curriculum is a step member nations. It shall free up the flow of goods,
towards the fulfilment of the requirements set by services, capital and skilled labor and level up the
the Canberra Accord, a document signed in 2008 competition in all fields, including architectural
by seven accreditation/validation agencies in service. This integration shall also put to test
architectural education that seeks to set uniformity the competency of the graduates of ASEAN
in the criteria and guidelines for accreditation and universities, as the challenge has intensified,
validation of educational credentials of member not only regionally, but internationally, as well.
countries. For this study, the curricula of the B.S. For this reason, an academic institution should
Architecture program offered by the University ensure its graduates are competitive and
of the Philippines (UP), Mapua Institute of ready to ride the fast-paced track of national
Technology (MIT) and University of San Carlos development and globalization. According to the
(USC) are compared to the curriculum of Seoul late Victor Ordonez, a symptom of inadequacy
National University of Korea (SNU). The evaluation in the quality of the higher education is the low
was done in the categories of Communication, passing rate in licensure exams. Employers also
Cultural Context, Design, Technology, Professional lament the insufficiency of prepared graduates.1
Practice and General Education. The comparison The lack of architects with specialization is the
is based on the number of units for each category rationale for hiring foreign architects. Based on
and the course syllabi and structure. The weighted a study conducted by Department of Labor and
percentage of the comparison was obtained and the Employment Bureau of Labor and Employment
reasons for the differences were determined. Based Statistics (DOLE-BLES), the Philippines has a
on the analysis, both the Philippine schools and the shortage of practitioners in several professions,
SNU seek to establish a curriculum relevant to the one of which is architecture.2
evolving need of architectural education. However,
each institution presents different approaches To establish an equivalency for a high-quality
and foci. This paper is an initial step towards a architectural education, accreditation bodies
procedure to globalize the local curricula. It seeks are created to evaluate the validity of a school’s
to provide recommendations to set an equivalency program and its standing with other similar
for the international accreditation of Philippine institutions around the world. In the Philippines,
architectural schools. the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), an
agency attached to the Office of the President,
92 es pa syo 6
regulates colleges and universities with the
exception of autonomous institutions such as UP. 1. Social processes, including the
CHED has the Federation of Accrediting Agencies in socialization of human beings, are not
the Philippines which holds under its umbrella the linear and they cannot be modeled through
Philippine Association of College and Universities linear planning. In other words, learning
Commission on Accreditation (PACUCOA) and and development of personality cannot
the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, be considered as one-way processes
Colleges and Universities (PAASCU). of establishing educational aims and
deriving specific objectives from an ideal
Internationally, however, accreditation for of education proclaimed or imagined by
architectural universities is set by the Canberra some authority.
Accord, a document signed in April 2008 by seven
accreditation/validation agencies in architectural 2. Social institutions, among them school
education. The members of the Accord serve as curricula and programs, are more likely
mentors to countries who have yet to set their to be effectively rearranged if, instead
accreditation body, such as the Philippines. of the common way of administrative
reorganizations – from top to bottom – a
International accreditation covers several fields: well-founded and co-ordinate system of
a self-assessment system, degree and curriculum, development from bottom to top can be
student information, human resources and used.
operating system, physical, information and
financial resources, research and development 3. The development of new curricula and
and criteria for student performance.3 This programs is more effective if it is based on
study focuses on the analysis of the curricula the principles of democratic guidance and
of educational institutions with unique on the well-founded distribution of work.
characteristics. The first school is the UP College The emphasis is on the partnership based
of Architecture (UPCA) which is a state university on competence, and not on administration.
not under the sanction of CHED. The second is
the Department of Architecture of the MIT, a 4. The renovation of curricula and programs
private school offering more units than any other is not a short-term effort but a long
architectural institution in the country. The third process, lasting years.5
is the Department of Architecture of the USC in
Cebu, a private Catholic university. The fourth is
the SNU of Korea which is accredited by KAAB, This stresses the need to update the curriculum
and thus has met the standards of Canberra to promote dynamism and responsiveness
Accord. Comparing and analyzing the curricula to society’s changing needs and demands. It
of Philippine schools with an internationally should answer the current demand for suitable
accredited one aims to identify the differences knowledge though activities and experiences
and recommend measures to create equivalency. and wholesome influences.6
This study will likewise be meaningful in the
continuing revision of the curricula of Philippine Often, universities offering an architecture
architectural schools seeking accreditation from program have a curriculum centered on design,
an international body in accordance with the visual communication, structures and technology,
standards of the Canberra Accord. history and theory and professional practice.7 The
curriculum seeks to address society’s demand to
Review of Related Literature adapt the design of the built environment to the
The curriculum of an academic institution is ever changing need of providing comfort, creativity,
a structured process by which the goals and sustainability and an overall conscientious living.
objectives of an educational system are attained. As such, architectural schools seek to update and
It includes the scope that has to be learned, improve their curricula to pass a global standard
the procedure by which it should be done and that will affirm its direction.
the evaluation to assess its effectiveness. This
is affirmed by a model developed by Ralph In 2013, Jin-Wok Kim published the paper “A
Tyler identifying the conditions for an effective Comparison Study on Accredited Architectural
curriculum as: clearly identified objectives, Education Contents between US and Korea”. He
instructional strategies and content, an organized compared the education contents of two member
learning experience and a verifiable instrument of countries of the Canberra Accord, the United
assessment and evaluation.4 Hilda Taba further States (US) and Korea, and analyzed the data
expanded this model to identify the four principles found in the Architectural Program Report of six
in curriculum development as: universities (University of Washington, University
The Accord embraces the principles of the Charter It is important that these criteria are assessed
for Architectural Education of United Nations through a peer group review. A self-evaluation
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization - is likewise required, supported by official
International Union of Architects (UNESCO-UIA), documentation and properly communicated to
which ensures that a student gains the aptitude the accreditation body.
and competency as embodied in the following:
94 es pa syo 6
Korea Architectural Accrediting Board As of the second semester of Academic Year (AY)
The Korea Architectural Accreditation Board 2013-2014, UPCA had 26 full-time professors
(KAAB) was founded in January 2005 to establish and 17 lecturers, as well as 887 undergraduate
the criteria to standardize the educational students. It has continuously shown a good
programs and accreditation of professional performance in the Architecture licensure exams.
degrees in architecture in Korea. For the purpose
of this study, KAAB procedure and criteria were Mapua Institute of Technology
considered in the assessment since the board has School of Architecture, Industrial Design
signified its willingness to assist the Philippines in and the Built Environment
organizing its accreditation body, as manifested in The MIT is a private institution known for its
a visit to Korea in August 2013. engineering and architecture programs. The
school has two large campuses – the first within
The KAAB is an independent and autonomous the walls of historic Intramuros in Manila and
corporation organized through the collaboration the second along the bustling Gil Puyat Avenue
of the Federation of Institutes of Korean in Makati. The School of Architecture, Industrial
Architects (FIKA), the Architectural Institute Design and the Built Environment is housed in the
of Korea, the Korean Institute of Registered South building of the Intramuros campus.
Architects and the Korean Institute of Architects.
Its establishment was approved by the Ministry The Institute’s architecture course is accredited by
of Construction and Transportation in 2005 and PACUCOA. In 2002, under the new management of
has since been regarded as the only accreditation the Yuchengco Group of Companies (YGC), Mapua
body for higher education in architecture. It has converted its academic year from the semestral
established its credibility through the process of to the quarterly system. In the third quarter of AY
the Canberra Accord. 2013-2014, the Department of Architecture had
10 regular, 3 full-time and 7 lecturers for a total of
The Academic Institutions 20 faculty members. It had 830 students in the
The following Philippine institutions offering same period.
an undergraduate architecture program are
briefly described prior to their comparison to University of San Carlos
the Korean institution. College of Architecture and Fine Arts
The USC in Cebu City is the oldest school in the
University of the Philippines country. It offers a wide range of professional
College of Architecture courses and was chosen by the Department of
The UPCA is a state-run college which was Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) in 1991 as
declared by CHED as a National Center for one of the most outstanding tertiary schools in
Excellence in Architecture in 1999. It offers a the Philippines.
five-year Bachelor of Science in Architecture
(B.S. Architecture) program, a four-year Bachelor The College of Architecture and Fine Arts offers
of Landscape Architecture program, Master of degree programs in Architecture, Landscape
Architecture and Master of Tropical Landscape Architecture, Interior Design, Advertising Arts,
Architecture.10 It has implemented a ladder- Cinema, Fashion Design and Painting. In AY
type curriculum since 1980. Prior to obtaining a 2006-2007, it started offering post graduate
diploma in B.S. Architecture, students who have studies in Urban Design, Landscape Architecture
completed all first and second year courses are and Architectural Science. Its physical facilities
awarded a Certificate in Drafting Technology include the design studios for architecture and
while those who finished the third year courses fine arts students distributed in three levels,
are given a Certificate in Building Technology. composed of 340 stations for third and fourth
year students and an atrium/exhibit hall. The
In 2005, the College transferred to its current B.S. Architecture degree has 33 full-time faculty
location, the CA Complex in the UP Diliman campus. members and 998 students.
Existing infrastructure includes Building 1, which
houses drafting and laboratory activities, and Seoul National University
Building 2, which holds the administration office, Department of Architecture and
the library and the lecture classrooms. Currently Architectural Engineering
being constructed are the UPCA Amphitheater The SNU is Korea’s first national university. It
and the UP Arki Mindanao Auditorium, while in is located in Southern Seoul. Its main campus
the pipeline is the seven-story Studio Laboratory is located in Kwanak with satellite campuses
Building. in Yeongun. The university has 16 colleges, a
graduate school and five professional schools
96 es pa syo 6
On History and Theory courses, SNU, MIT and Design
USC divide their classes into periods while UP Design courses are the core of the architecture
divides its history classes based on areas of study: curriculum in all schools under this study. As
Philippine architecture, Asia and the Pacific and such, it has the most weight in comparison to all
World architecture. Of the four schools, SNU, courses. All schools offer 10 major design courses,
UP and Mapua have a particular subject on local with several electives related to architectural
architecture. On City/Planning courses, SNU design. SNU has the most number of mandatory
offers the least with three mandatory units and design units, comprising 34 percent of its total
nine electives. Its sole urban design subject deals curriculum. When SNU revised its curriculum
with broad concepts and practices. Aside from in 2002, it identified the design courses, with
basic urban design, the Philippine schools tackle five credits per semester, as the core of the
related subjects like urban planning, site planning, curriculum. This was a major restructuring since
housing, landscaping and community architecture. before 2002, design studios were given only three
In addition to the basics or fundamentals, Mapua credits per semester with elective courses during
offers the most number of city/planning units at the third academic year. Lead professors identify
43, with a specialization course on urban design. the educational principles for the said academic
year, appoint the tutors and then decide on the
Technology project theme through a planning process. Mapua
The category Technology is divided into three: is second with a 20.1 percent weight, followed by
Structure, Environment and Construction courses. UP at 17 percent and USC at 16.2 percent.
Most of the subjects under this category are related
to engineering concepts, engineering design In the first year, SNU, UP and USC design courses
and methods of construction. All universities give the basics of design and an introduction to
require courses on the structural design of timber, the relationship of space and anthropometrics.
concrete and steel. Mapua has the most subjects Students are given simple design problems such
under this category (49 units), while SNU has as a bridge, a work station or a model housing unit.
the least (24 units). A major difference between SNU, however, is specific in incorporating “nature
SNU and the local schools is that SNU integrates and its specific character” in the design. MIT does
the basic engineering theories of statics and not start its design class until the second year.
strength of materials into a study on technology,
while the Philippine schools give more weight to For the second year design courses, SNU delves
these fields with specific subjects on statics and into the total design process including site
strength of materials (UP and USC) and statics of planning, program analysis, building materials
rigid bodies and mechanics of deformable bodies and structural systems. Mapua is just starting
(Mapua). Furthermore, Philippine schools require its design courses and while it is teaching design
classes on surveying. SNU likewise integrates fundamentals, it likewise includes interior design,
acoustics, plumbing and lighting into one subject, vernacular architecture and ecological design.
architectural environmental planning, whereas UP teaches basic design with values and culture
these fields are tackled in separate courses by the and relates architecture with ethical, political
Philippine schools. and cultural concerns. At this point, while all
universities present a more moderately complex
Professional Practice side of architecture, the local schools stay on
Subjects under professional practice in all four the nexus of the socially-related component of
case studies are concerned with building codes architecture, while SNU is already starting with
and regulations and the norms of professional infusing design with technology.
practice. SNU only has nine units of professional
practice despite of the regionalization of code and The third year design courses for the four case
regulation for practice of architecture.12 SNU does studies are similar as they emphasize program
not have a specific subject on research methods analysis involving group behavior and coexistence
but incorporates it directly in its other courses. in space. Mapua deals with space planning
based on the user’s organizational structure,
There are more courses under this category landscaping and community architecture. USC
in Mapua’s curriculum because in their fourth tackles the activities of man in his socio-cultural
year, students are required to do internship environment and UP highlights design in the
for 200 hours or the equivalent of three units. context of the environment, technology and
Mapua also offers project management as a sustainability. Projects are predictably more
specialization course in addition to architectural complex such as mountain resorts, high rise
practice and management. structures and airports.
In the fourth year, SNU tackles culture in design as a studio, Philippine schools have lecture hours
through the revitalization of a historic site. This in some of its design courses. In UP and USC, a
program encompasses urban reconstruction student doing his thesis has an adviser other than
through the creation of new urban space woven the thesis faculty. In all schools, informal advising
into the existing historic fabric. Mapua and USC is encouraged, though there is formal advising
likewise take up urban conservation at this level. usually at the start of the semester.
UP, on the other hand, integrates these courses in
the lower years. It is assumed that at this point, Connection to the Profession
the student is able to facilitate the whole design All the local schools have venues like career talks
process, including engineering design, through and visits to building materials manufacturing
two single design projects per semester. plants to connect the students with actual
practice. All students are encouraged to join
The fifth year level design course in the four architectural design competitions. While
institutions is the thesis course. At this level, a internship in architectural firms is required for
single complex structure is researched, analyzed, licensure exams in both the Philippines and
programmed and translated into architectural Korea, only Mapua requires a 200-hour internship
design. All works are critiqued through a program within its curriculum.
presentation to a jury.
In SNU, the alumni play an active role in the
assessment of the program as the Department
Context of Education Development Committee holds a regular
Studio Culture meeting every semester to update and discuss
The amount of design studio time required for development issues and internship programs.
each school averages at nine to 10 hours per The alumni are also invited to exhibit their
course, with the exception of Mapua whose current works in the university hall to encourage
Designs 7 and 8 have 18 studio hours per week. the students.
SNU’s studio schedule is notably characterized
as a close coordination of student-professor Evaluation System
through a faculty-student ratio of 1:15. Each Mapua requires exit examinations for each
student is given an approximate four-square category: building utilities, building technology,
meter work station and is continuously mentored theory and history and structural design.
by his design professor. For Philippine schools, Exit examinations in the third year level are
the average faculty-student ratio is 1:30. UP prerequisites for higher courses and are intended
and Mapua do not have exclusive studio rooms to gauge the student’s aptitude and willingness
and student consultations are held either in the to continue with the program. Exit examinations
classrooms, in the faculty rooms or in consultation prescribed for the fourth and fifth year levels are
areas. USC has a studio laboratory but the areas designed to gauge the student’s ability to pass
are not exclusive for a specific student. Unlike the licensure examination for architects. Mapua
SNU whose design courses are done exclusively likewise administers online evaluation of the
98 es pa syo 6
professors per quarter, the results of which are
considered for remuneration processing. 3. Architecture Education, Qualification to
Practice and Education; and
In USC, a Certificate of Drafting Technology is
granted at the end of the second year, a Certificate 4. Architecture Education and Society.13
of Building Technology and Utilities on the first
semester of the fourth year and a Certificate These principles cover the skills that a student
of CADD on the second semester of the fourth has to gain in architectural design, allied fields,
year. The university administers an instrument programming, technology, construction method
to evaluate the professors, while the department and research and most importantly, stress the
has an evaluation of the design teachers only. necessity of encouraging “diversity, innovation
and development.” This final section of the study
In UP, a Certificate of Building Technology provides suggestions arising from the findings in
is awarded to students after completing the the preceding sections.
required 121 units. It administers an evaluation
through an online survey where the students rate A streamlined program centered on
the course, themselves and the professor. The architectural design
results of these evaluations are used to determine From the discussion on the design courses above, it
the re-appointment of lecturers and as inputs for may be seen that design courses in each year level
workshops of the different laboratories. are contained in a framework that aims to give the
students an avenue for growth in understanding
In SNU, the students submit their evaluation the principles of the profession and the skills to
of the course and the professors online. These facilitate it. Starting with simple structures in the
assessments are reviewed by the faculty who first year, the complexity grows as the student
may choose other methods of assessment like reaches the final year, culminating in a single
“exit” interviews and other survey instruments. A project integrating the other architectural courses.
comprehensive evaluation system is the basis for Being the core of the curriculum, it appears that
faculty achievement and is considered for wage the design course should have a theme backed up
restructuring and for the giving of awards for with design principles per year level. This theme
outstanding performance. gives the direction of the other courses as well. In
this way, a student is ensconced in an organized
Conclusion and Recommendations: web of learning with clear objectives and target
Bridging the Gap accomplishment within a specific period. Courses
The analysis done in this paper shows that the offered in the curriculum should be periodically
study of architecture encompasses disciplines reviewed and the goals updated to check for
covering the artistic, technical, philosophical, redundancy and insignificance.
legal, and at times, religious. Though the pacing
and range are different for each institution, a A scientific technical and technological support
review of the mission of each institution reveals a As gleaned from the discussion on technology
similarity: to produce knowledgeable, discerning above, technical courses in structural, acoustics,
and responsible graduates with works that will lighting, mechanical and electrical design must
translate into physical structures vital in nation be formulated so that they aptly support the
building. It may be assumed that these differences architectural studies and cultivate interest and
may be attributed to the divergence in culture, the desire to understand in an engaging way.
economic standing, government regulations and Technology, likewise, is a tool to a globalized
architectural practices. However, in the pursuit of understanding of architecture and must be
globalization, bridging the gap between local and introduced early in the course to nurture its
internationally accredited architectural schools is learning and be properly and immediately utilized
necessary. in the succeeding levels of studies. Digital
drafting should be introduced as early as possible,
The curriculum of an architectural school must without losing the skill for manually-prepared
imbibe the core principles of UNESCO-UIA, presentation drawings.
the Canberra Accord and the KAAB, which, in
particular prescribes that a program must address A verifiable assessment/evaluation system
the following: A critical lesson learned from this study is that the
written curriculum has to be verified against the
1. Architecture Education and the learned curriculum. An evaluation system must be
Institution; set in place, specifically an easy-to-access system
with defined goals and clear cut procedures. It
2. Architecture Education and the Students; should be well documented with clear standards,
100 es pa syo 6
ENDNOTES REFERENCES
1
Ordonez, V.A. (2009). Accreditation in the Philippines: A Case Canberra Accord. (2009). Canberra Accord Rules and
Study. Procedures. Canberra Accord.
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Santos, M. (2014). DOLE hit for allowing foreign workers into CBSE (2014). iCBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education,
local labor market. India). Retrieved March 11, 2014, from icbse.com.
3
KAAB (2010). Korean Architectural Accreditation Board CHED (n.d.). Commission on Higher Education. Retrieved
Conditions & Procedures. March 11, 2014, from www.ched.gov.ph.
4
Veness, D. (2010). Educational Reflections: Models and Clarke, F. (2012). The Architect’s Role in Urban Regeneration,
theories of curriculum design. Economic Development and Sustainability. Pelli Clarke Pelii
Architects.
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Krull, E. (2003). Hilda Taba (1902-1967).
Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering
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Dushi, G. (n.d.). Need and importance of curriculum may be (2012). Department of Architecture & Architectural
summed up as follows. Engineering. Retrieved April 4, 2015, from www.architecture.
snu.ac.kr.
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University of Detroit (2013). University of Detroit School of
Architecture. Dushi, G. (n.d.). Need and importance of curriculum may
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Kim, J.W. (2011). A Comparison Study on Accredited Preserve Articles.
Architectural Education Contents between US and Korea.
KAAB (2010). Korean Architectural Accreditation Board
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Canberra Accord. (2009). Canberra Accord Rules and Conditions & Procedures. Seoul, Korea: KAAB.
Procedures.
Kim, J.W. (2011). A Comparison Study on Accredited
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UP College of Architecture (2013). College of Architecture Architectural Education Contents between US and Korea.
University of the Philippines. Architectural Research Volume 13, No. 2, 13-21.
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Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering Krull, E. (2003, December). Hilda Taba (1902-1967). Prospects
(2012). Department of Architecture & Architectural (UNESCO International Bureau of Education) Vol. XXXIII , pp.
Engineering. 481-91.
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Kim, J.W. (2011). A Comparison Study on Accredited Mapua Institute of Technology (n.d.). Mapua Institue of
Architectural Education Contents between US and Korea. Technology. Retrieved March 6, 2014, from www.mapua.edu.
ph.
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KAAB (2010). Korean Architectural Accreditation Board
Conditions & Procedures. Ordonez, V.A. (2009, January 8). Accreditation in the
Philippines: A Case Study. Retrieved March 12, 2014, from
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Clarke, F. (2012). The Architect’s Role in Urban Regeneration, Victorordonez.com/Phil.Accreditation_rev_7dn.doc.
Economic Development and Sustainability.
PAASCU (n.d.). PAASCU Philippine Accrediting Association of
Schools, Colleges & Universities. Retrieved March 12, 2014,
from www.paascu.org.ph.
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
The study aims to improve the properties of The paper first presents a brief historical
interlocking compressed earth blocks (ICEB) account on the development of earth-building
that are currently used as an alternative to technology, with ICEBs as one of its recent
concrete hollow blocks (CHB) in low-cost housing development, and the growing use of indigenous
construction. Durian husk and sugarcane bagasse building materials (IBM) as a strategy in
are agricultural wastes that have been identified sustainable development. This provides the
as potential additives to the common ICEB because context and background upon which the
of their tensile and cement-like characteristics. research anchors its relevance and significance.
This experimental study produced 18 samples
of pillar-type, hybrid ICEBs infused with varying The next section describes the experimental
amounts of durian husk fiber (DHF) and sugarcane design in terms of: the quantity and quality
bagasse ash (SBA). To the raw material – lime from requirements of the raw materials, tools and
Makilala in Cotabato, durian husk from Davao City skills, and the procedure in product development.
and sugarcane bagasse from Hagonoy in Davao Following this, a report on the hybrid ICEB samples
Del Sur were added. The mixture was compressed produced discusses its (1) physical characteristics,
at a molding pressure of 1 to 2 N/mm2 using the (2) mechanical properties, (3) building assembly
manually-operated Cinva-Ram Compressed Earth uses, and (4) cost. Observations from the results
Block Press Machine (CR machine). The sample are used to demonstrate the potential of hybrid
blocks were then subjected to Dry Compressive ICEBs as an alternative building construction
Strength (CS) tests, Modified Capillary Absorption material for low-cost housing. Several issues for
(MCA) tests and product costing computations. further studies are also enumerated to augment
The study concluded that the use of DHF and SBA the identified weaknesses of the hybrid ICEB as
improved the physico-mechanical properties of well as other points of research interests that may
the common ICEB by increasing its compressive lead toward sustainability in building materials
strength and improving water resistivity at and technology.
a competitive price. In total, this study is a
demonstration that the use or re-use of waste Earth Building
resources is an attainable strategy to build more Earth buildings, or structures that use a
sustainable and earth-preserving structures. cementitious mixture of organic materials such
as mud, dung and plant fibers, date back to
early civilizations with extreme hot climates
such as those in Egypt, Tibet, Middle East, Africa,
China and Peru as well as in the tropics such as
Vietnam, Indonesia and Thailand.1 These earth
102 es pa syo 6
buildings are known to have high-heat capacity, were some of the natural resources used as
local availability, high fire-resistivity and low aggregates and stabilizers.4
production cost. However, historic earth building
technologies such as cob, turf and pise’ de terre Several products have been developed which
construction and sun and kiln-drying had been used natural resource as either natural pozzolana
suppressed by industrialization and the shift to (replacing cement) or fiber reinforcement.
modern materials and technology. 2 In the 1960s Some notable examples are the EcoCement,
and 1970s, however, the use of raw soil in building a combination of rice husk ash and sugarcane
emerged again in the form of Compressed Earth filtercake to replace cement in concrete; the
Blocks (CEB).3 The CEBs’ production has been inclusion of sisal fibers and cassava powder as
modernized with the use of manual and hydraulic plant-fiber reinforcement in CEB, the inclusion
press machines as well as the inclusion of of abaca in fiber-cement boards, and others.
cement into the mixture. The CEBs are masonry These natural resources, which have been used
units with uniform characteristics obtained by as additives, have been presently recognized as
static and dynamic compression of soil. They are Indigenous Building Materials (IBM). In Mindanao,
placed together through the use of mortar, steel IBMs were found abundant and accessible from
reinforcement and other stabilization techniques. agricultural wastes. Among many, durian husk was
ICEBs, or specialized CEB, were developed to determined to be a potential tensile plant fiber
minimize the use of mortar and increase the reinforcement5 and SBA as natural pozzolana.6
collective strength of the masonry block. ICEBs
have dowels on the top and bottom surfaces, Product Development Process
created by the molding process to serve as Quantity and Quality
locking mechanisms, thereby considerably Requirements of Raw Materials
reducing the use of mortar and steel connections. Raw materials used in production include:
However, because it is erodible, ICEBs still need lime, cement, water, DHF, SBA, and (integral)
specific building installation precautions for waterproofing (see Table 1). The type of lime soil
its protection. These include the use of wide is crucial as it mainly defines the compressive
overhangs and laying them four inches above strength of the block. The lime soil suitable
the exterior ground. The blocks’ erodibility can for ICEB production is generally sandy with 20
be augmented by the use of stabilizers, which percent clay content (African Regional Standard
can increase not just the collective strength ARS 674 Technical Specifications for Ordinary
of the block assembly but also the intrinsic Compressed Earth Blocks/ARS). For this research,
strength and compactness of the block itself. In the soil samples were tested by the Regional Soils
the past, plant fibers, straw and animal manure Laboratory in Davao City.
Table 1: Quantity and Quality Requirements of the Raw Materials for the hybrid ICEB.
The lime soil sample from Barangay Sinkatulan in columns, required eight kilograms of the mixture
Makilala, Cotabato, that was the most satisfactory, to fit into CRP machine, a patented device also
was composed of 61.8 percent sand, 20.8 percent used in Indonesia for the sole benefit of the HPFPI
silt and 17.4 percent clay material. Since the clay and PACSII communities.
content is below the requirement, the mixture
should be reinforced with stabilizers, in this case, Research-defined quantities specified for the
fiber reinforcement and natural pozzolana. DHF and SBA are 50 and 100 grams, respectively.
Nine volume ratios were set for the experiment
The computation of the ratio between the including the common ICEB sample. For each
materials (Table 2) and list of tools (Table 3) is ratio, two samples were produced for each type of
based on the common ICEB as provided by the test, namely, the CT test and the MCA test.
Homeless People’s Federation of the Philippines
(HPFPI) and Philippine Action for Community- Production Process
led Shelter Initiatives, Inc. (PACSII), community The production process consists of: (1) Preparation
organizations that are the beneficiaries and of raw materials, (2) Mixing of raw materials to
producers of ICEB in Davao City. Each ICEB sample produce the charge, (3) Molding using press
block, in this case a pillar-type block used for the machine, (4) Field testing, and (5) Curing. The raw
104 es pa syo 6
Figure 1: Process of Durian Husk Fiber Extraction.
materials – lime soil, concrete and waterproofing bagasse is collected and sun dried; (2) it is
admixture – are readily extracted from commercial incinerated at 600°C for two hours until it is
packages and weighed in accurately according to completely blackened; (3) the incinerated ash is
the different volume ratios. The more crucial part cooled; (4) after cooling, every 20 grams of ash
of the preparation process is the extraction of the is ground for approximately five minutes until its
DHF and the SBA. texture is very fine; and (5) ground ash is sieved to
segregate remaining course granules (see Figure 3).
Durian Husk Fiber Extraction
The process of extracting the fiber from the Hybrid ICEB Molding Process
durian husk is locally practiced by KATAKUS, Inc., After the production of the DHF and SBA, they
a women’s group based in Katipunan, Panabo City, are mixed with other raw materials and molded
Davao Del Norte who produce novelty items such into the block. In the first step, all materials
as lampshades, papers and candleholders from must be well distributed into the mound before
plant fibers such as durian husk, abaca waste and mixing. The manual mixing action takes from
banana bracts. Considerations during production 10-15 minutes, or however long it takes to make
were: (1) durian peelings should not be more than the color and texture of the mixture even. Then,
three days old; (2) boiling is uncovered; and (3) eight kilograms of this mixture, also called charge,
washed durian fibers should be sun-dried. Fibers is weighed and loaded into the CP machine. To
could also be bleached to lighten its brown color. minimize voids, the mixture is manually set by
For use in ICEB, however, fibers are not bleached stirring the charge slowly until the machine is full.
(see Figure 1). Then, the lever is pulled until its end point. Two
presses are required to ensure full block molding.
SBA Extraction As a field test, the hardness of the ICEB is checked
SBA has been used as fertilizer, natural pozzolana using the penetrometer. If the required limit state
and soil conditioner.7 The process of producing is not exceeded, the block is transferred into an
the ash is rather straightforward: (1) sugarcane air-drying tray. Handling the block that had just
been pressed should be as shown in Fig. 4 to measure the strength gained by the block after
prevent damage. Before stacking, the block is air- the 28-day curing period. The block is placed
dried for a day in a shaded area. Then the curing on its actual laying position. A pillar block plate
process could begin. is placed on the top surface to distribute the
load on the block. The compressive machine
Hybrid ICEB Curing Process loads the blocks at a rate of 300 psi/minute.
After air-drying for one day, the hybrid ICEBs The machine stops loading the block when the
are stacked together. The batch is sprinkled material fails as evidenced by cracks on the block.
with water three times a day: in the morning, at Then the compression results are analyzed. For
noon and in the late afternoon to ensure that comparison, CHBs and Firebrick sample blocks are
the block’s moisture is uniform. The blocks are also subjected to the compressive strength test.
continuously sprinkled with water until the 14th
day from its molding. Then, the blocks are covered Modified Capillary Absorption Test
in polyethylene sheets for a week. Afterwards, the The MCA test measures the water resistivity of the
blocks are air-dried until the 28th day. block samples. This test requires the blocks to be
partially submerged in water at a depth of 5mm.
Material Testing Process The sample block is placed on metal wedges, and
Compressive Strength Test a 16” x 16” x 1” aluminum tray is filled with water
After the hybrid ICEB block samples are cured, until it is 3mm above the metal wedge. The tray
the compressive strength test is performed to needs approximately 250ml of water. The blocks
106 es pa syo 6
Figure 6: Compressive Strength Tests on the Firebrick, CHB, and ICEB.
are immersed for one hour while maintaining the Properties of the Hybrid ICEB
water level. After an hour, the block is removed Physical Characteristics
from the tray of water, tilted until no water is The samples produced are first observed for
dripping from it. The final weight is recorded and damages such as cracks and fissures, as these are
the results are calculated. The water absorption indicators of lesser compressive strength and low
coefficient (Cb) of each block is, by convention, quality (see Table 4). Generally, ICEBs are textured
expressed by the formula: to minimize cost. The natural color of the ICEB is
dependent on the color of the lime soil. In this
case, since the lime soil is light gray, the samples
are also of varying shades of gray. The bagasse ash
which is black also contributes to the final color
of the material. The durian fiber, especially in the
where,
100-gram ratio, is very visible, creating fine brown
mh – md = mass of water, in grams, absorbed by spots on the surface.
the blocks during the test
Table 5: Uses in a Structure According to Compressive Strength of CEB. (Source: ARS, 1996)
* The Category according to the ARS (African Regional Standards, 1996) cannot be applied for this material since this is not a
CEB (Compressed Earth Block). It is either fired (as the firebrick) or without natural soil content (as the CHB).
** Passed ARS Standards, but local laboratory specification of >725.19 is also considered, more conservative designation is
recommended i.e. to use for one-storey structures only.
108 es pa syo 6
Table 7: Uses in a Structure According to Water Absorption of CEB. (Source: ARS, 1996)
* The Category according to the ARS (African Regional Standards, 1996) cannot be applied for this material since this is not a
CEB (Compressed Earth Block). It is either fired (as the firebrick) or without natural soil content (as the CHB).
Table 8: Comparison of Water Absorption Limit of the ICEB, Firebrick and CHB.
Among the materials, the highest values were from the batch - LCB50 and LCD100, for one-
achieved by the Firebrick, followed by the CHBs, story structures and LCB100D100W for two-
then the ICEBs. The African Regional Standard story to three-story structures – have good water
(ARS) has three categories of resistance that resistivity.
represents the mechanical strength of a CEB and
identifies its possible use in a structure. Results Conclusion
of the compressive strength test can categorize The experimental study has shown that: (1) the
CEBs as either a load-bearing or non-load bearing physical appearance of the common and hybrid
material. The categories are shown in Table 5. ICEB slightly vary in texture and color, and (2)
the compressive strength of all the blocks have
Product Cost passed the minimum standards for all different
The production and construction costs are mechanical constraints set for CEB Production.
shown here to benchmark the hybrid ICEB with Among the CEB blocks, block LCB100D100W,
other masonry materials. Only the direct cost is with 100 grams each of DHF and SBA, had the
considered in estimating the product cost, and highest dry compressive strength surpassing
the construction cost is estimated at a 1m x 1m the minimum standards for mechanical
CHB and Hybrid ICEB wall. Only three samples constraint Category 3 where it could be used as
Table 10: Summary of Properties and Price of ICEB and Other Masonry Materials.
110 es pa syo 6
ENDNOTES
1
Loken, S., Spurling, W., and Price, C. (1991). Guide to resource
efficient building elements.
2
Lewis, M. (2008). Architectura Elements of Architectural
Style.
3
Riza, F.V., Rahman, I.A., Mujahid A., and Zaidi A. (2011).
Preliminary Study of Compressed Stabilized Earth Brick
(CSEB).
4
Loken, S., Spurling, W., and Price, C. (1991). Guide to resource
efficient building elements.
5
Charoenvai, S., Khedari J., Hirunlabh J., and Daguenet
M. (2005, April 17-20). Impact of Rice Husk Ash on the
Performance of Durian Fiber-based Construction Materials.
6
Srinivasan R. and Sathiya K. (2010). Experimental Study on
Bagasse Ash in Concrete.
7
Ganesan, Rajagopal, K. and Thangavel, K. (2007). Evaluation
of bagasse ash as supplementary cementitious material.
REFERENCES
African Regional Standard (1996). Compressed Earth Blocks
Standards. Center for the Development of Industry. CDI and
CRATerre_EAG Publication ISBN 2-906901-19-9
tomes written with exhaustive explanations if only as that Architects, merely by virtue of their professional
the means to legitimize their existence as educational training, have a ‘historical right’ to plan interior space.”
material. Interior Design in the Philippines: A Retrospect
of Spaces and Culture contains such a breadth of facts The writing of Interior Design in the Philippines: A
on interior design in the Philippines that it could have Retrospect of Spaces and Culture is a concrete step
been, but is not, your typical school book. for the profession and the discipline to reclaim what
has been deemed ground lost to time and non-
Raquel Baltazar-Florendo and Edith Oliveros wrote acknowledgement. Future editions of the book, with
the book with an apparent strategy in mind: to cover updates and refinement, are quite obviously in the
a whole range of topics with utmost economy while offing. Every increment will not only be a step to catch
targeting manifold purpose. As an educational resource up; indeed, it will all the more secure interior design in
for students of interior design, the book contains the its rightful place among equals.
whole range of information – histories, precedents,
cases, impacts, contexts – related to the study of interior
design. As vanguard outlining the evidences of Filipino
identity, the book explains, through many examples,
112 es pa syo 6
locations. The structures were transported to Las Casas
Filipinas de Acuzar, an open-air museum and resort in
Bagac, Bataan.
Philippine Heritage Homes: With that, no matter how few the number, Philippine
A Guidebook heritage homes can endure. Aiding the battle against
Jaime C. Laya oblivion is the language in the guidebook that tells the
Maria Cristina V. Turalba history of the heritage home and a colorful chronicle of
Martin I. Tinio Jr. its original occupants. Throughout the guidebook is a
seamless narrative that is both factual and engaging.
Publisher: Anvil Publishing Inc. Easing understanding of these interesting stories are
ISBN: 9789712728709 several guidebook devices. First, there is the identity
Year of Publication: 2014 card which describes the provenance of the heritage
Bibliographic Infomation: 135 pages, paperback home. Second, side notes containing relevant quotes,
factoids of interest and directions to visit the heritage
The nighttime image of Casa Alberto glowing with homes appear on almost every page. Third, the narrative
strategic architectural lighting is enhanced by the is aptly complemented with interior and exterior images
luminosity of the full moon. The image is featured of the heritage home featured.
twice: on the home’s allotted identity card on page 80,
and cleverly, on the guidebook’s front cover. It is slightly unfortunate though that a number of
images were taken at a low resolution. However, the
Philippine Heritage Homes: A Guidebook by Jaime C.
Laya, Maria Cristina V. Turalba and Martin I. Tinio Jr.
various aspects of the houses portrayed, and more
importantly, the authors’ message, are stark and
book reviews
features this and 19 other homes built from the 18th uncompromising: “To catch a glimpse of the daily life of
to the early 20th centuries and located in northern and our ancestors gives us a better appreciation of who we
central Luzon, Metro Manila and the southern Tagalog are and how we came to be so.”
region in the Philippines.
Cherishing what we have speaks to how we recognize
The heritage homes featured are the very few that ourselves as individuals and as a people. The authors
could be plucked from extinction from the already expressed hope that the guidebook could help
fast disappearing domestic architectural heritage of nationalism flourish, wherein “…our countrymen,
the Philippines. Seven of the homes presented – Casa particularly the young, [become] more appreciative of
Luna (La Union), Casa Candaba (Pampanga), Casa their ancestors’ lives, efforts and achievements.” Every
Jaen I (Nueva Ecija), Casa Bizantina (Manila), Casa page of the guidebook exemplifies this well-founded
Hidalgo (Manila), Casa Unisan (Quezon) and Casa conviction: our architectural heritage, and more
Alberto (Laguna) – are no longer found in their original importantly, who we truly are, can never be lost.
Think now how such a hefty tome was translated into terms
that children can understand. Only after seven years, we
now have Cabalfin and Montenejo’s children’s book What
Kids Should Know About Philippine Architecture.
who the Filipino truly is. Montenejo’s drawings were fashioned to appeal not only
to children’s sensitive eye to detail, but to architecture
Answering the primeval question of cultural identity is professionals’ as well. Relative proportions, architectural
more than difficult for the Philippines. It is comprised of details, representation of materials – all these were
many indigenous peoples, all distinct from one another. The faithfully portrayed by Montenejo in a cartoon-like style,
lifestyles and cultures of these peoples altogether make with heavy outlines, solid colors and a streamlining of
the country greatly variegated. Convoluting this existing details without loss of meaning.
mix are the many encounters with foreign cultures, either
passively through trade or aggressively as the colonized. Finally, the academic discussion can proceed to its next
Nowadays, technology and social networks are breaking levels. We are no longer stuck in the rut of architectural
down boundaries, bringing cultural encounters ever closer. identity. However, the next steps are more formidable: Can
we preserve what we have? Do we stand prey to calamity
Academic studies on cultural identity and local forever? How are we part of the global discussion?
architectures have been typically attacked on an individual
basis, usually in the context of individual cultures and Hopefully, our hard-earned maturity can bring us forward.
defined increments on the historical timeline. This And we are not alone in this quest: we are accompanied
stance of relativism is a safe platform, for it honors the by our children. We are armed with knowledge and values
distinctiveness of an indigenous people or community as that we can pass on. It is no longer what kids should know;
well as the influence of a particular style or colonizer. it is about where we all should go.
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Isaac Julien’s Enigma (2014)
exhibition reviews
Over the last century, film and architecture have played
out a relationship forged in space, mutually informing
each other’s medium. Both architectural and cinematic
practice thrive on an apprehension of space, with each
discipline employing spatial categories of analysis, filmographic practices; video works, installations,
topographies, sites, settings and locations. shorts and full-length films produced in the last
four decades by an array of international artists
Film is almost unthinkable without architecture, which and filmmakers, including Cocoy Lumbao from the
so often gives it its semblance of dimensions, setting Philippines, Saskia Olde Wolbers from Netherlands,
mood, character, time and place of action. It offers a John Gerrard from Ireland, Jozef Robwski from Poland,
representation of movement through space in real and Tacita Dean from the United Kingdom. The
time, approximating the architectural experience of selection of works is based, according to the show’s
the moving subject in an immersive milieu. Like film, curator Clare Carolin – previously the curator of Modern
architecture has the potential to create, stage, or Art Oxford and the Hayward Gallery in London – on
frame events so they assume discursive density and “their intense concentration on the appearance of the
signification. The most interesting contribution of built environment and the rejection, or in some cases,
cinema to architecture is how film creates a distinct subversion, of explanatory narrative.”
synthetic space through the accretion of fragmentary
images over time through montage, and how sequences The dimly lit gallery spaces at MACAD,
of spatial occurrences can develop into a narrative and compartmentalised into acoustically-isolated
critical discourse. spaces to showcase each film, recreate the cinema
environment in a range of formats and modes of
The exhibition The Surface of the World: Architecture presentation. These range from 16mm film like John
and the Moving Image, presented by the Museum Smith’s The Black Tower (1987) in which an unseen
of Contemporary Art and Design in Manila (MCAD) narrator relates a monotonous urban routine haunted
investigates the relationship between the built by the presence of a black water-tower, to time-lapse
environment and the moving image via a range of composites – Isaac Julien’s Enigma (2014) composed of
2500 still photographic images of the Dubai cityscape Smith’s film, gradually signals the narrator’s descent
filmed over 24 hours; dual-channel film projections: into mental breakdown and death, suggesting at the
Julian Rosefeldt’s The Stunned Man (Trilogy of Failure deep existential fissures lurking beneath the banality
II) (2004) in which in parallel projections, a stuntman- of 20th century urban life.
actor, doubly builds and destroys the everyday domestic
environment of his alter ego; and computer generated Contrastingly, Elizabeth Price’s film: At the House
simulations, such as John Gerrard’s Cuban School of Mr. X (2004), views like a thesis on desire and
(Sancti Spiritu) (2011), a meticulous slow-moving conspicuous consumption, navigating the interior
virtual portrait of an actual 1960s school, recreating spaces of the mid-century residence of an anonymous
daily light conditions over a continuous 365-day solar art collector: a showcase home, in which the camera
cycle. Akin to a series of episodic spatial plots being lingers over sumptuous surfaces and the textures of
unreeled inside the gallery space, the progression of the objects of luxury.
viewing compartments means the audience can freely
explore and navigate their own sequences through the The exhibition questions the changing notions of
films, privileging plural narratives and multiplicity of time and space, portrayed through the conflation of
signification. Taken as whole, these films articulate the the architectural and filmic, in which moving images
spatial and visual experiences of 20th century urbanism evoke an experience of urban modernity that is
through leitmotifs of modernity: urban dystopia and disenchanting and fleeting, generating rapid stimuli
marginality; the urban experiences of hope and loss, for further change.
yearning and nostalgia, terror and fear, crime and
violence; the mapping of identity and difference; and In From My Window (1978-1999) for example, the artist
the spectacles of contemporary consumption. Jozef Robakowski’s presents a collection of filmed clips
of his tenement’s courtyard in an area of Łódz known
In Gerrard’s Cuban School, the Soviet-inspired locally as Manhattan, recording the movements of
architecture of the empty school, incongruous against the residents, socio-political events and changes
the tropicality of the Cuban landscape, seems to subtly occurring over three decades. The courtyard becomes
allude to the demise of political vision and ideological a symbolic arena of urban contestation, the film rather
obsolescence. Similarly Tacita Dean’s Palast (2004), uses symbolically ending with images of the construction
close-ups of fragmentary images of monuments and of a new hotel that ultimately obscures the view from
qualities of light reflected back by of the bronze-tinted Robakowski’s window.
glass surfaces of the Palast der Republik in Berlin, to
The one-day time-lapse composite of 2500 stills of
[RE]views
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Time Space Existence
07 June to 23 November 2014
14thVenice Architecture Biennale
Palazzo Mora, Venezia
Jose Danilo Silvestre and Gerard Rey Lico (curators)
exhibition reviews
An anticipated collateral event to the larger Venice
Architecture Biennale of 2014 directed by Rem
Koolhaas, the curated exhibition Time Space Existence,
organized by Karlyn de Jongh for the Global Art
Affairs Foundation (headed by installation artist Rene
Reitmeyer), and held at the historic Palazzo Bembo,
Palazzo Mora, and Palazzo Michielover the summer
of 2014 brought together over a hundred architects
and firms from six continents to share in the curator’s was to look reflexively at the catastrophe that the
vision of “an enormous impact on the way we humans country experienced in late-2013: Typhoon Haiyan,
experience our surrounding, experience Time-Space. and the physical destruction it wrought upon the
They influence our daily existence and leave a mark on people of Samar and Leyte. Taking the main exhibition
the earth from this current Time and often this ‘mark’ title as their own eponymous takeoff, Silvestre and
even outlives the architect himself. Architects should Lico depart from the mostly autobiographical design
be very conscious about the impact their activities narratives that typified their fellow exhibitors, and
and decisions have on people and other living beings divide their exhibit into the three separate terms:Time
as well as on our environment as a total. By combining Space Existence. The division aimed to encompass
different architectural thoughts and approaches, this both the spatial and temporal experience of Samar-
exhibition aims to enlarge human awareness of our Leyte to historical typhoon damage (with Lico focusing
personal existence as a human being within a specific on the photographic folio of Father Jose Algue that
space and time.” documented the effects of a massive typhoon in
Tacloban, Basey, Guiuan and other locales in October
One of the the invited contingents to the 2014 Time 1897; and Silvestre focusing on design solutions to the
Space Existence exhibition was the Philippine team of effects of the November 2013 typhoon), keeping the
architects Danilo Silvestre and Dr. Gerard Rey Lico, who human dimension of this experience relevant through
represented the University of the Philippines Diliman, the community’s rebuilding efforts as seen in both the
and whose own interpretation of the exhibition theme post-typhoon documentation of 1897 and 2013-2014.
of memories. Architectural fragments, as they are bamboo sticks. The self-built bamboo house maximizes
entwined with negotiating of physical use, personal the local resources available to the people of Samar and
memory, and social rhetoric, possess more significance Leyte, while utilizing the built wisdom of traditional
than when they were part of a whole. As archives of bahay kubo architecture whose profile is updated
memory, architectural fragments have always been through computer-aided design to be more resilient to
infused with nostalgia, transcending the conditions of typhoon winds.
decay as an impetus for rebirth. Fragmentary artifacts
resulting from devastation conjures the persistence By integrating the economic and built realities of
of life after catastrophic episode and optimism in an the people of Samar and Leyte in their post-disaster
unknown future.” recovery and reconstruction, Silvestre and Lico
foreground architecture’s goals of serving society
This optimism is charted by Silvestre’s design solution through realistic and democratic design solutions,
for longer-term memory-making and sustainable and make design relevant to the everyday search for
shelter. The first is in the form of a proposed memorial human survival and progress. Situating this design
design to be built around the hulk of M/V Eva Jocelyn, problem within the cavernous First World salons of
one of the ships that ran aground and plowed into Palazzo Mora, Silvestre and Lico also invest Philippine
houses during the height of the storm surge in Tacloban architectural discourse abroad with the urgency and
City (the ship has since been broken up for scrap). timeliness of global warming and enhanced disasters
Titled Anibong Memorial (after the city district where that other vulnerable coastal communities, such as the
the ship ran aground), Silvestre proposed to preserve lagoon-built Venice, should reflect long and hard upon.
the Eva Jocelyn (reinforced by trapezoidal buttresses)
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A SHARED HERITAGE:
Quezon City and the University of
the Philippines Diliman
09 February to 09 March 2015
University Theater, University of the Philippines Diliman
Gerard Rey Lico (curator/designer)
exhibition reviews
Architecture is integral to the birth of a nation and
the creation of its national identity: buildings and
monuments not only constitute the built fabric of landscape coincided with this movement, the ravages
society, they reflect the intersection of culture, politics, of World War II providing an opportunity to install a new
economics and aesthetics. Architecture is a mechanism set of ideologies for the nation. The systemic erasure of
by which the state unites diverse cultures, societies colonial structures and imagery during the war brought
and geographies into one monolithic entity: the nation. about a tabula rasa on which a progressive image of the
It empowers the imagined community, allowing the Philippines could be founded upon.
ideals and aspirations of a nation to manifest. Through
The exhibit follows the Philippines’ attempt to
architecture, the collective myth of provenance is
negotiate its post-colonial identity. It emerges as a
expressed in a concrete form.
nexus of iconography outlining the dawn of a new
As the nation’s seat of power, the capital city is the Malayan in a grand design that can be truly claimed
symbolic theater for national identity. Its value lies in as the people’s own. Quezon City, the new nation’s
its reflection of progress, an expression of the nation’s capital, and the University of the Philippines (UP),
larger desire for urbanism. The capital is a catalyst for the national university, exemplified the principles
national development and the bridge between the of the modern nation. By denouncing the legacy of
nation-state and the global arena. Itis a proclamation American Neoclassicism in pre-war Manila, these new
of worthiness and rightful existence in the world scene. environments empowered the people to new ambitions
free from prior colonial thought.
Architecture became a vital medium by which
emerging nations, freed from the shackles of foreign The realization of a new Philippines was thrust upon
rule, established their autonomous presence in a the Modern style. Modernism, its unornamented style
untainted by the vestiges of the colonial past, became
post-colonial world. Structures and edifices provided a popular choice among emerging nation-states in the
imagery by which decolonized peoples could begin post-war era. Its unadorned geometry was fresh, new and
to redefine their identity. The Philippine post-war devoid of historicity and memory. Modernism’s sleek, linear
Plan taking center stage. Viewers are drawn to this and the university.
monumental plan: with the masterful strokes of Architect
Juan Arellano, Quezon’s vision of a dignified capitol springs The exhibit provides an alternative discussion on the
to life. Vibrant swathes of color depicting yet untouched creation of a national identity highlighting the relevance
lands north of Manila signified the hopes and aspirations of architects and master planners and enumerating the
of a people venturing through a post-war landscape: for the process in which the idea of the capitol was developed and
Filipino, it was to become their promised land. effectuated. The government used Modern architecture to
project an advanced and sophisticated nation, but more
Complementing this schematic is a copy of the 1949 Master importantly, the architecture became venues inthe search
Plan designed by the Capital City Planning Commission of a national identity. The exhibit’s idealist approach omits
(CCPC) headed by Arellano. The plan is a revision of the the present reality and instead plunges the viewer into the
1941 Master Plan also designed by Arellano with fellow grand design of visionary pioneers, reflecting on dreams,
architect Harry Frost. While Quezon himself died in exile including some not quite fulfilled. “The state is invisible;
in the United States, his dreams were eventually realized it must be symbolized architecturally before it can be
by President Elpidio Quirino’s signing of Republic Act loved, imagined before it can be conceived.” A Shared
No. 333, that moved the permanent seat of the national Heritage captures the essence of the endeavor of post-
government to Quezon City. The CCPC oversaw the nation’s independence architecture in crafting a built environment
top architects as they designed the city and its civic that, as Gerard Lico wrote, “stimulates the nationalistic
structures, including the UP Campus. sprit, inspires patriotism, and invokes faith in the unknown
future of the national imagination.” It approaches design
The highlight of the 1949 Master Plan was Constitution optimistically, focusing on the brilliance of Quezon City
Hill, an outcrop overlooking the greater Quezon City area and the UP Diliman campus, serving as an inspiration for
and accommodating the three branches of Government. future generations of designers, visionaries and thinkers.
120 es pa syo 6