Introduction

Duplexing and Multiple access Technique: Introduction

In Telecom network conventionally each user is connected to the Telephone

exchange individually. This dedicated pair starts from MDF, where it is connected to
the appropriate Equipment point and ends at the customer premises Telephone.(with
flexibility at cabinet/pillar/ distribution points DPs)

DUPLEXING

Duplexing is the technique by which the send and receive paths are separated
over the medium.

There are two types of duplexing.

 Frequency Division Duplexing FDD

 Time Division Duplexing TDD

Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)

 Different Frequencies are used for send and receive paths and hence there will be a forward
band and reverse band
 Duplexer is needed if simultaneous transmission(send) and reception methodology is adopted
 Frequency separation between forward band and reverse band is constant
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

 TDD uses different time slots for transmission and reception paths
 Single radio frequency can be used in both the directions instead of two as in FDD.
 No duplexer is required, Only a fast switching synthesizer,RF filter path and fast antenna switch
are needed. It increases the battery life of mobile phones

Multiple Access Techniques

The technique of dynamically sharing the finite limited radio spectrum by

multiple users is called Multiple Access Technique. By adopting multiple access
techniques all users can not get the services simultaneously and some amount of
blocking is introduced by the system. This is known as GOS( Grade of Service).

Generally there are 3 types. They are

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

 Frequency Division Multiple Access
 

 FDMA is a familiar method of allocating bandwidth, where a base

station is allowed to transmit on one or more number of pre assigned carrier
frequencies and a mobile unit transmits on corresponding reverse channels. No
other base station within range of the mobile will be transmitting on the same
forward channel, and no other mobile within range of the base station should
be transmitting on the same reverse channel. Both the base and the mobile
usually transmit continuously during a conversation, and fully occup y their
assigned forward and reverse channels. No other conversation can take place
on these channels until the first conversation is completed.

Features Of Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)

 No Precise coordination in time domain is necessary in FDMA System.

 It is well suited for narrow band analog systems.
 Guard spacing between channels causes wastage of frequency resource.Otherwise good
modulation techniques are to be employed to avoid such guard spacing.
 The transmission is simultaneous and continuous and hence duplexers are needed .Continuous
transmission leads to shortening of battery life.

FDMA Analogy

It may be easier to visualize FDMA by imagining a cocktail party where two

people wish to converse with each other. Then everyone in the room must be silent
except for the speaker. The speaker may talk as long as they wish, and when they
finish someone else may start speaking, but again only one at a time. New speakers
must wait (or find another party) for the current speaker to finish before st arting.
Everyone in the room can hear and understand the speaker, unless they are too far
away or the speaker's voice is too soft.

If the intended listener is close enough, the speaker may decide to whisper.
Conversely, if the listener is too far away, the speaker may have to shout. Since no
one else should be talking, this presents no problem. If someone talks out of turn, the
listener will probably be confused and not be able to understand either speaker.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

 TDMA is a more efficient, but more complicated way of using FDMA
channels. In a TDMA system each channel is split up into time segments, and a
transmitter is given exclusive use of one or more channels only during a particular
time period. A conversation, then, takes place during the time slots to which each
transmitter (base and mobile) is assigned. TDMA requires a master time reference to
synchronize all transmitters and receivers.

TDMA was the first digital standard to be proposed, and a smooth transition
took place between analog mobile systems to digital mobiles, by allowing
simultaneous existence of analog and digital base stations.

Features of TDMA

 There can be only one carrier in the medium at any time, if a simple TDMA scheme is followed.
 Transmission is in bursts and hence is well suited for digital communication.
 Since the transmission is in bursts, Battery life is extended.
 Transmission rate is very high compared to analog FDMA systems .
 Precise synchronization is necessary.
 Guard time between slots is also necessary

TDMA Analogy

In TDMA, everyone in the room agrees to watch a clock on the wall, and speak
only during a particular time. Each person wishing to talk is given a set period of
time, and each person listening must know what that time period will be. For
example, everyone may agree on time slots with a duration of ten seconds. Speaker
number one may talk for ten seconds starting from the top of the minute.

The listener who wishes to hear this speaker must also be made aware of the
schedule, and be ready to listen at the top of the minute. Speaker number two may
speak only from ten seconds after the minute until twenty seconds after. As with
FDMA, only one person at a time may speak, but each speaker's time is now limited
and many persons may take their turn. If someone in the room cannot see the clock,
they will not be able to speak and will have great difficulty understanding the
speakers.

Time and Frequency Division Multiple Access

 Both methods of FDMA and TDMA are
combined to achieve higher capacity in
practical systems. A channel gets a certain
frequency band for a certain amount of
time. The Best example for such system is
GSM.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA is fundamentally different than TDMA and FDMA. Where FDMA and TDMA
transmit a strong signal in a narrow frequency band, CDMA transmits a relatively
weak signal across a wide frequency band. Using a technique called direct sequence
spread spectrum, the data to be transmitted are combined with a pseudo-noise code
(a pre-determined binary sequence that appears random) and transmitted broadband.
CDMA under Interim Standard 95 uses a bandwidth of 1.25 MHz.

The pseudo-noise code (PN code) is a series of binary "chips" that are much
shorter in duration than the data bits. Since the chips appear to be in a random
pattern, and there are many chips per data bit (in IS-95 there are 128 chips for each
data bit), the modulated result appears to normal (FDMA) receivers as ba ckground
noise.

A spread spectrum receiver with a different PN code will not be able to recover
that signal, and if the PN codes were chosen incorrectly, will hear nothing but noise.
This relative immunity to interference, whether from outside sources or other spread
spectrum transmitters, gives CDMA systems the ability to pack many users into the
same frequency space at the same time. It also gives a measure of security to each
signal, since each user will have a different PN code. CDMA also does not requi re
different base station radios for each user - the same radio may serve multiple users
with just a change in PN code.

Cellular Concepts - Introduction

Even though multiple access techniques allowed multiple users to share the
medium simultaneously, due to constraints in providing resources, an amount of
blocking will exist. The amount of blocking is called “Grade Of Services”(GOS).
GOS is a measure of the probability that a percentage of the offered traffic will be
blocked or delayed. It is commonly expressed as the fraction of calls or demands that
fail to receive immediate service. The aim is to achieve the GOS equal to 0
Based on GOS and resource availability (no. of carriers/no. of timeslots/both) the
traffic handling capacity of the system is calculated. If this total traffic is divided by
traffic per subscriber, we get number of subscribers supported by the system. For
these purposes Erlang B table (Blocking calls cleared ) is useful.
cellular Concepts - What is a cell?

Cell is the basic geographic unit. They are base stations transmitting over that
small area. Cells are usually represented on paper as hexagon. In reality the shape is
not so because of the landscape and man-made structures. The base stations can be
employing omni directional or directional antenna.

Cell size depends on sub density and demand in that given area. To start with
cell can be of maximum size 30Km radius and subsequently can be split into smaller
cells. Usually in rural areas the cells are big and in urban will be smaller.

Cellular Concepts

Different types of cells

 Macro cells
 Micro cells
 Selective cells
 Umbrella cells

Macrocells

The macrocells are large cells for remote and sparsely populated areas.

Microcells

These cells are used for densely populated areas. By splitting the existing areas
into smaller cells, the number of channels available is increased as well as the
capacity of the cells. The power level of the transmitters used in these cells is then
decreased, reducing the possibility of interference between neighboring cells.
Cellular Concepts

Selective Cells

It is not always useful to define a cell with a full coverage of 360 degrees. In
some cases, cells with a particular shape and coverage are needed. These cells are
called selective cells. A typical example of selective cells is the cells that may be
located at the entrances of tunnels where a coverage of 360 degrees is not needed. In
this case, a selective cell with a coverage of 120 degrees is used.

Umbrella cells

A freeway crossing very small cells produces an important number of handovers

among the different small neighboring cells. In order to solve this problem, the
concept of umbrella cells is introduced. An umbrella cell covers several microcells. The
power level inside an umbrella cell is increased comparing to the power levels used in
the microcells that form the umbrella cell. When the speed of the mobile is too high,
the mobile is handed off to the umbrella cell. The mobile will then stay longer in the
same cell (in this case the umbrella cell). This will reduce the number of handovers
and the work of the network.

Cellular Concepts - Cluster size and interference

The cells in the adjacent clusters using the same set of frequencies are called
co- channel cells. The interference depends on the reuse distance between them

Cellular Concepts

Co Chl Interference is a function of “Q”

Q =D / R is known as Reuse Ratio
Higher Q --- Reduced Co-Chl Interference Desirable
Lower Q ----- Increased Co-Chl Interference Undesirable
Also Q =D /R = 3N N=cluster size

N Q= 3N
1 1.73
3 3.00
4 3.46
7 4.58
9 5.20
12 6

Higher value of Q is achievable in big cluster size. But more no.of cells lead to
less RF bandwidth per cell and hence less traffic handling capacity.
Lesser value of Q in small cluster size leads lesser number of cells per cluster and
more number of RF channels per cell and hence more traffic handling capacity.

Introduction

The GSM network is shown in the figure with the major interfaces indicated as
Um, Abis and A

GSM Interfaces

The air interface is used for exchanges between a MS and a BSS.

Abis
 This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been
standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio
frequency allocation in the BTS.(2M link)

A interface is between the BSS and the MSC. The A interface manages the
allocation of suitable radio resources to the MSs and mobility management. (2M link
CCS7)

GSM Interfaces-Physical Channel and Logical Channel

Physical Channel

The carrier number and the repetitive time slot number determine Physical
Channel (e.g.) time slot 3 on carrier number 4. The duration of timeslot in GSM is 577
micro secs (15/26 ms). The transmission is digital and is in bursts and hence in GSM,
physical channel, timeslot and burst refer to the same.

Logical Channel

The content or message of physical channel is logical channel. One or more

logical channels can be mapped to one physical channel. For example, on one of the
physical channel used for traffic,traffic is sent by using TCH (traffic channel) message
while a handover message is transmitted using FACCH (Fast Associated Control
Channel message).

 Traffic channels TCH

 Broadcast channels BCH
 Common Control Channels CCCH.
 Dedicated Control Channels DCCH.

GSM Interfaces-Traffic Channels

Traffic channels are used to send data or services. Once the call set up
procedures are completed on the control channels, MS tunes to a traffic physical
channel. It uses the Traffic Channel logical channel. Traffic channel carries speech or
data traffic.

Speech is encoded into 13Kbps digital stream by using a special algorithm

called Regular Pulse Excited- Linear Predictive Coder with Long Predictor Loop.
Basically information from previous samples which does not change very quickly is
used to predict the current sample. The coefficients of linear combinations of previous
samples, plus an encoded form of the residual, the difference between the predicted
and actual sample represent the signal.

Traffic channels are classified into two types

  Full Rate TCH/F:It transmits full rate speech (13Kbps). A full rate TCH occupies one physical
channel
 Half Rate TCH/H :It transmits half rate speech(6.5 Kbps). Two half rate TCHs can share one
physical channel to double the capacity

There are enhanced full rate coders, (12.2Kbps) which improve the speech
quality but still occupy one full rate TCH. Data rates supported by speech coders: A
full rate traffic channel can support data rate of 9.6Kbps and a half rate channel 4.8
Kbps.

GSM Frame Structure and Burst Types:

GSM, one time slot duration is 0.577ms(15/26ms). One TDMA frame carries 8
timeslots and hence duration of one frame is 4.612ms.

Separate multiframes are defined for traffic and control signals.

A 26-frame TDMA multiframe is defined for carrying TCH, SACCH and

FACCH.Duration of this multiframe is 4.612x26=120ms(15/26x8x26).

A 51-frame TDMA multiframe is defined for control multiframe for carrying

BCCH, CCCH, SDCCH and its associated SACCH. The duration of such multiframe is
4.612x51=235ms.

A superframe is defined which consists of 51 traffic multiframes or 26 control

mutiframes and duration of superframe is 6.312s.It represents smallest cycle for
which the organization of all channels is repeated.

A hyperframe is defined which consists of 2048 superframes. The duration of

such frame is 3Hrs 28mts 53 secs and 760 msecs (2715648 frames). This represents
the smallest cycle for frequency hopping and ciphering.

GSM Bursts

Burst is the content of the timeslot. The duration of timeslot is 577 micro secs.
It consists of usable bits and guard period. The burst are classified into.

 Normal Burst
 Dummy Burst
 Frequency Control Burst(F-Burst)
 Sync Burst(S-Burst)
 Access Burst

F-Burst is associated with FCCH, S-burst with SCH and Access Burst with RACH.
All other logical channels use normal burst. Dummy Burst is used to fill the empty
physical channel in TS0 in BCCH carrier, if necessary.
Normal Bursts

It consists of 148 usable bits and guard period corresponding to 8.25 bits.(30.5
micro secs).

Burst period= time slot duration- guard period= 577-30.5 =546.5 micro secs.

It consists of three tail bits each at the beginning and end, encrypted data bits
57 each as two blocks and a midamble of 26 bits as training sequence, a known
pattern used for adoptive equalization at BTS and MS. The flag bits are used to
indicate whether the particular block of 57 bits belong to TCH or FACCH during pre -
emption.

Different Modes of Operation

The different logical channels are used to take MS from “Off mode” to “Idle
mode” and then to “Dedicated mode”.

Off Mode

MS is in the Switched Off condition .It cannot receive incoming paging

messages or cannot make outgoing call and No dedicated channel is associated with
it.

Idle Mode

MS Switched On and it is attached to the network and can receive incoming

paging messages, can make outgoing call, but there is no dedicated channel
associated with it

Dedicated Mode

MS is in conversation and a dedicated channel is associated with it.

A bis Interface

It is connectivity between BSC to BTS and 2 Mbps link is established for this
purpose. Every timeslot of 64Kbps can be sub divided into four 16 Kbps and the traffic
of 13Kbps from BTS with the associated signaling information is multiplexed as
16Kbps and inserted in the timeslots. Hence each timeslot on 2Mbps Abis can
accommodate four physical channels of Um. For one carrier we need two slots.
Additionally we require exclusive timeslots for signaling purposes related to the
transceivers of each sector (TRX) and for O andM purposes.

Consider a BTS with three sectors with 4 Carriers in each sector (4/4/4), then
the timeslot calculations are as follows:

In each sector each TRX needs 2 slots. Hence four TRXs need 8 slots. We need
one slot for TRXs signaling purposes and one for O and M purposes in that sector.

Therefore total slots needed per sector= 8+1+1=10

Three sectors need 30 slots and TS0 is reserved for FAW and the total comes
31. With one spare timeslot added it tallies to 32 slots of 2Mbps link. Hence one
2Mbps link to BTS can take a maximum load until the BTS reaches a configuration
4/4/4

GSM RADIO LINK

Introduction

BTS and MS are connected through radio link this air interface is called Um. A
radio wave is subject to attenuation, reflection, Doppler shift and interference from
other transmitter. These effects causes loss of signal strength and distortion which
will impact the quality of voice or data. To cope with the harsh conditions, GSM make
use of an efficient and protective signal processing. Proper cellular design must
ensure that sufficient radio coverage is provided in the area.

Types of signal strength variations

The signal strength variation for mobile is due to different types of signal
strength fadings.

There are two types of signal strength variations

 Macroscopic Variations

Due to the terrain contour between BTS and MS the fading effect is caused by
shadowing and diffraction (bending) of radio waves.

 Microscopic variations

Due to multipath, Short-term or Rayleigh fading. As the MS moves, radio

waves from many different paths will be received.
Macroscopic Variations

Macroscopic Variations can be modeled as the addition of two components that

make up the path loss between mobile and base station.the first component is the
deterministic component(L) that adds loss to the signal strength as the distance(R)
increases between base and mobile.this component can be written as

where n is typically 4.

The other macroscopic component is a Log normal random variable which takes
into account the effects of shadow fading caused by variations in terrain and other
obstructions in the radio path. Local mean value of path loss=deterministic
component+ log normal random variable

Microscopic Variations

Microscopic Variations or Rayleigh Fading occur as the mobile moves over short
distances compared to the distance between mobile and base. These short term
variations are caused by signal scattering in the vicinity of the mobile unit e.g. by hill,
building or traffic. The result is that not one but many different paths are followed
between transmitter and receiver (Multipath Propagation). The reflected wave will be
altered in both phase and amplitude. The signal may effectively disappear if the
reflected wave is 180 degree out of phase with the direct path signal. The partial out
of phase relationships among multiple received signal produce smaller reduction in
received signal strength.

Effects caused by Rayleigh fading

Reflection and multipath propagation can cause positive and negative effects.

Coverage Extension
 Multipath propagation allow radio signal to reach behind hills , buildings and
into tunnels.

Constructive and destructive interference

Signals received through multi paths may add together or destroy each other

Transmitting/Receiving Processes

There are two major processes involved in transmitting and receiving

information over a digital radio link;coding and modulation.

Coding

Coding is the information processing that involves preparing the basic data
signals so that they are protected and put in a form that the radio link can handle.
Generally the coding process includes the Logical Gate exclusive OR(EXOR).

Coding is included in :

 Speech coding or Trans coding

 Channel coding or Forward Error Correction coding
 Interleaving
 Encryption
 Multiplexing(Burst formatting)

Speech coding techniques

Human speech is band limited between 300Hz to 3400Hz and undergoes

Frequency Modulation in analog systems. In digital fixed PSTN systems band limited
speech is sampled at the rate of 8KHz and each sampled is encoded into 8 bits leading
to 64Kbps (PCM A-Law of encoding).Digital cellular radio cannot handle the high bit
rate used for PSTN systems. Smart techniques for signal analysis and processing have
been developed for reduction of the bit rate.

There are 3 classes of speech coding Techniques

 Waveform coding

: Speech is transmitted as good as possible in wave form coding.PCM is an example

of waveform coding. Bit rate ranges from 24 to 64kbps and the quality of speech is
good and the speaker can be recognise easily.

 Parameter Coding
 : Only a very limited quantity of information is sent.A decoder built up according to
the speech production model will regenerate the speech at the receiver.Only 1 to
3kbps is required for the speech transmission. The regenerated speech is intelligible
but it suffers from noise and often the speaker cannot be recognised.

 Hybrid Coding

: Hybrid Coding is a mix of waveform coding and parameter coding.It combines the
strong points of both technique and GSM uses hybrid coding technique called RPE-
LTP(Regular Pulse Excited-Long Term Prediction) resulting in 13Kbps per voice
channel.

Speech Coding in GSM (Transcoding)

The 64kbits/s PCM transcoded from the standard A-law quantized 8bits per
sample into a linearly quantised 13bits per sample bit stream ,that correspond to a
104kbits/s bit rate. The 104kbits/s stream is fed into the RPE-LTP speech encoder
which takes the 13 bits samples in a block of 160 samples (every 20ms). RPE-LTP
encoder produces 260bits in every 20 ms, resulting in a bit rate of 13kbits/s. This
provides a speech quality acceptable for mobile telephony and comparable with
wireline PSTN phones.In GSM 13Kbps speech coding is called full rate and
alternatively half rate coders(6.5Kbps) are also available to enhance the capacity.

Channel Coding /Convolutional Coding

Channel coding in GSM uses the 260 bits from speech coding as input to
channel coding and outputs 456 encoded bits. Out of the 260 bits produced by RPE-
LTP speech coder, 182 are classified as important bits and 78 as unimportant bits.
Again 182 bits are divided into 50 most important bits and are block coded into 53
bits and are added with 132 bits and 4 tail bits, totaling to 189 bits before undergoing
1:2 convolutional coding, converting 189 bits into 378 bits. These 378 bits are added
with 78 unimportant bits resulting in 456 bits.

Encryption /Ciphering

The purpose of Ciphering is to encode the burst so that it may not b e

interpreted by any other devices than the receiver. The Ciphering algorithm in GSM is
called the A5 algorithm. It does not add bits to the burst, meaning that the input and
output to the Ciphering process is the same as the input:456 bits per 20ms.Detail s
about Encryption is available under the special features of GSM.

Multiplexing (Burst Formatting)

Every transmission from mobile/BTS must include some extra information along
with basic data. In GSM a total of 136 bits per block of 20ms are added bringing the
overall total to 592 bits. A guard period of 33 bits is also added bringing 625 bits per
20ms.

Modulation
 Modulation is the processing that involves the physical preparation of the signal
so that the information can be transported on a RF carrier. GSM uses Gaussian
Minimum Shift Keying technique (GMSK). Carrier frequency is shifted by +/ - B/4 ,
where B=Bit rate. However using the Gaussian filter reduces the bandwidth to 0.3
instead of 0.5.

MOBILITY MANAGEMENT

Network Attachment

Network attachment is a process of selecting an appropriate cell(radio

frequency)by the mobile station to provide the available services, and making its
location known to the network

The process starts when the mobile station is switched on, and ends when the
mobile station enters the idle mode. In idle mode the mobile station does not have a
traffic channel allocated to make or receive a call, but the Public Land Mobile
Network(PLMN) is aware of the existence of the mobile station within the chosen cell.

PLMN Selection Mechanism

Automatic Mode

In automatic mode the mobile station will choose which PLMNs to try all by
itself. The automatic mode is based on the existence of the preferred list,which is
stored in a non-volatile memory in the SIM.This list includes a number of PLMN
identities in order of performance and is under control of the user.The most preferred
is usually the home PLMN.The list is filled in by the user through a mechanism to be
specified by the mobile station manufacturer.The automatic mode is normally used
when the mobile station operates on its home PLMN(that is the PLMN the mobile
station subscribed to)

Manual Mode

In manual mode the user is presented a list containing all found PLMN's.The
user chooses one of the PLMN's from the list.

Call to an active Mobile Station

As an active Mobile Station(MS) moves around in the coverage area of a Public

Land Mobile Network(PLMN),it reports its movements so that it can be located when
required using the Locations Update procedure.

When a Mobile Services Switching Center(MSC) in the network needs to

establish a call to an MS operating in its area the following Happens:

 A page message it broadcast which contains the identification code of the MS.Not every Base
Station Controller(BSC) in the network is requested to transmit the page message. The broadcast
 limited to a cluster of radio cells that together form a location area.The last reported position of
the MS identifies the location area to be used for the broadcast.
 The MS monitors the page message transmitted by the radio cell in which it is located and,on
detecting its own identification code,responds by transmitting a page response message to the
Base Transceiver Station(BTS).
 Communication is then established between the MSC and the MS via BTS that received the page
response message.

Network Configuration

The configuration of a Public Land Mobile network(PLMN) is designed so that an

active mobile station moving in the network's area is always able to report its
position.A network consists of different areas:

 PLMN area
 Location area
 MSC area
 VLR area
 PLMN Area
 A PLMN area is the geographical area in which land mobile communication
services are provided to the public by a particular PLMN operator.From any
position within a PLMN area,the mobile user can set up calls to another user of
the same network,or to a user of another network.The other network may be a
fixed network,another GSM PLMN,or another type of PLMN.Users of the same
PLMN or users of other networks can also call a mobile user who is active in the
PLMN area.When there are several PLMN operators,the geographical areas
covered by their networks may overlap.The extent of a PLMN area is normally
limited by national borders.

Mobility Management-Location Update Scenario

In the following location update scenario,it is assumed that a MS enters a new

location area that is under control of a different VLR(referred to as the "new VLR")
than the one where the MS is currently registered(referred to as the ("old VLR").The
following figure shows the steps of the mobile location update scenario
 The MS enters a new cell area,listens to the Location Area Identity(LAI) being
transmitted on the broadcast channel(BCCH),and compares this LAI with the last
LAI(stored in the SIM)representing the last area where the mobile was registered.

 The MS detects that it has entered a new Location Area and transmits a Channel Request
message over the Random Access Channel(RACH)
 Once the BSS receives the Channel Request message,it allocates a Stand-alone Dedicated
Control Channel(SDCCH) and forwards this channel assignment information to the MS over the
Access Grant Channel(AGCH). It is over the SDCCH that the MS will communicate with the BSS
and MSC.
 The MS transmits a location update request message to the BSS over the SDCCH.Included in
this message are the MS Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity(TMSI) and the old Location Area
Subscriber(oldLAI).The MS can identify itself either with its IMSI or TMSI.In this example we will
assume that the mobile provided a TMSI.The BSS forwards the location update request message
to the MSC

 The VLR analyzes the LAI supplied in the message and determines that the TMSI received is
associated with a different VLR(old VLR).In order to proceed with the registration.The IMSI of the
MS must be determined.The new VLR derives the identity of the old VLR by using the received
LAI,supplied in the location update request message. It also request the old VLR to supply the
IMSI for a particular TMSI
 Hand Over
 The process of automatically switching a call in progress from one traffic
channel to another to neutralise the adverse effects of the user movements.
Hand over process will be started only if power control is not helpful anymore.
 The Hand Over process is MAHO(Mobile Assisted Hand Over).It starts with the
Down Link Measurements by the MS(Strength of the signal from BTS,Quality of
the signal from BTS).MS can measure the Signal Strength of the 6 best
neighboring BTS down link(candidate list)


 CALL MANAGEMENT

Mobile To Land Call Scenario (Mobile Origination)

Phases of Mobile To Land Call . The following table lists the phases of a Mobile
To Land Call

 Request for services;the MS requests to setup a call

 Authentication : the MSC/VLR requests the AUC for authentication parameters,Using these
parameters the MS is authenticated.
 Ciphering : using the parameters, which were made available earlier during the authentication,
the uplink and the downlink are ciphered
 Equipment Validation :the MSC/VLR requests the EIR to check the IMEI for validity
 Call setup :the MSC establishes a connection to the MS.
 Handover(s)
 Call release;the speech path is released

Land-to-Mobile Call scenario

The following table lists the phases of a land -to-mobile call

 Routing Analysis :the MS terminated call is routed to the visited MSC using information from HLR
and VLR
 Paging :the MSC initiates a communication with the MS
 Authentication :the MSC/VLR requests the ACC for authentication parameters.Using these
parameters the MS is authenticated
 Ciphering :using the parameters which were made available earlier during the authentication the
uplink and the downlink are Ciphered
 Equipment Validation : the MSC/VLR requests the EIR to check the IMEI for validity.
 Call setup :the MSC establishes a connection to the MS
 Handover(s)
 Call release :the speech path is released.

Phases of mobile-to-mobile call scenario

The mobile-to-mobile call is established using the same phases as seen earlier

 The originating mobile part where the phases are the same as those of a mobile-to-land call
except that the call setup phase is partially performed.Which means that only the call setup with
Mobile is done
 The terminating mobile part consist of the same phases as the land-to-mobile call scenario
except again that the call setup phase performs only the call setup with mobile

Originating Mobile
 The Phases of Originating Mobile

 Request for service,Authentication(optional),Ciphering(optional),Equipment

validation(optional),call setup,release

The Phases of Terminating Mobile

 Routing Analysis,Paging,Authentication(optional),Ciphering(optional),Equipment
validation(optional),call setup,release

END

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