CN Unit123 PDF

GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• Magnetic Media
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics Twisted Pair:
Fig: (a) Category 3 UTP Fig: (b) Categoryv5 UTP
Coaxial Cable:
Fiber Optics:
©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at
different angles.
(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.
Fiber Cables:
Fig (a) Side views of a single fiber. Fig: (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
• The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared and Millimeter Waves
• Lightwave Transmission
Electro Magnetic Spectrum:
• When electrons move, they create electromagnetic waves that can propagate through space.
• Principle of Wireless: When an antenna of the appropriate size is attached to an electric circuit,
the electromagnetic waves can be broadcast efficiently.
Radio

Microwave transmits by modulating amplitude or frequency Infrared
The amount of information that an electromagnetic wave can carry is related to its bandwidth.
[Note: The wider the band, the higher the data rate]. A wide band is used in 2 variations:
1. Frequency hopping spread spectrum.
2. Direct sequence spread spectrum.
Fig: Electromagnetic Spectrum and its uses for communication
Radio Transmission:
(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

In VLF, LF and MF bands, Radio waves follow the ground. In the HF and VHF bands, the
ground waves tend to be absorbed by the earth. However, the waves those reach the ionosphere, a
layer of charged particles circling the earth at a height of 100 to 500 km. The properties of radio waves
are frequency dependent. At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well. At high
frequencies, they tend to travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles. Amateur radio operators
(hams) use these bands to talk long distance. The military also communicate in the HF & VHF bands.
Lightwave Transmission:
Fig: A bidirectional system with two laser pictures
COMMUNICATION SATELLITES
• Geostationary Satellites
• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

Fig: Communication satellites and some of their properties, including altitude above the earth, round-
trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage.
Table: The principal satellite bands.

Fig: VSATs using a hub
1. Iridium: LEO Satellites

(a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the earth.
(b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.
2. Global Star: LEO
Fig: (a) Relaying in space. Fig: (b) Relaying on the ground.

STRUCTURE OF THE TELEPHONE SYSTEM
(a) Fully-interconnected network. (b) Centralized switch. (c) Two-level hierarchy.
Fig: A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.
Major components of Telephone systems:
• Local loops -Analog twisted pairs going to houses and businesses
• Trunks - Digital fiber optics connecting the switching offices
• Switching offices - Where calls are moved from one trunk to another
POLITICS OF TELEPHONES
a) In 1984, Bell systems provides – Local & long distance services (US)
b) AT & T is divided: 23 BOC – Bell Operating Companies. These are grouped into 7 regional BOCs
c) MFJ: Modified Final Judgment by US
d) Effect of MFJ: increased competition, better service, lower prices

e) US was divided into 164 LATAs – Local Access & Transport Area
f) Within a LATA : there is one LEC – Local Exchange Carrier
Fig: The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the circles are LEC switching offices. Each
hexagon belongs to the IXC whose number is on it.
g) LEC had control on traditional telephone service within its area.
h) All inter-LATA traffic was handled by IXC (IntereXchange Carrier)
i) Calls originating in a LATA can build a switching office – POP
j) Telephone N/W – telecommunications n/w used for telephone calls
1. PSTN 2. Wireless n/w 3. Private N/w (closed group
of telephones are connected)
POP: to handle calls originating in a LATA, POP is used.
Problems with transmission
a) Attenuation: It loss of energy as the signal propagates outward. The loss is expressed in
decibels per kilometer.
b) Distortion: Propagation of signals at different speeds in the wire, received at the other end.

c) ) Noise: unwanted energy from sources other than the transmitter like thermal noise, cross talk
& impulse noise.
THE LOCAL LOOP: MODEMS, ADSL, AND WIRELESS
Fig: The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to computer call. Conversion
is done by the modems and codecs. (COder – DECoder)
MODEMS (MOdulator – DEModulator)
a) Need of wide range frequencies in the signal.
b) 1000 – 2000 Hz sine wave carrier is introduced.
c) Its amplitude, frequency & phase can be modulated to transmit information.
d) Amplitude modulation: two different amplitudes are used to represent 0 and 1.

e) Frequency modulation: different tones are used. Also known as “Frequency shift keying”.
f) Phase modulation: the carrier wave is systematically shifted at uniform spaced intervals.
(a) A binary signal (c) Frequency modulation
(b) Amplitude modulation (d) Phase modulation

Fig : (a) QPSK. – has 4 combinations to transmit 2 bits per symbol
(b) QAM-16.- has 16 combinations to transmit 4 bits per symbol
(c) QAM-64.- has 64 combinations to transmit 6 bits per symbol
1. The number of samples per second is measured in baud.
2. During each baud, one symbol is sent.
3. The baud rate & symbol rate are same.
4. So n-baud line transmits n symbols/sec.
5. The bit rate is the number of samples/sec made.
6. The bit rate is twice the baud rate.
Fig: (a) V.32 for 9600 bps. Fig: (b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.
Digital Subscriber Lines:

Fig: A typical ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) equipment configuration.
NID (Network Interface Device) – box that marks the boundary . Splitter : an analog filter that
separates band
DSLAM: DSL Access Multiplexer.

WIRELESS LOCAL LOOPS:
Wireless Local Loops
Telephone
Inter
LAN Exchange
Wireless Toll
Connecting
Switch
PBX, TV Local Loop
Offerings Trunks
( MMDS, LMDS )
Intertoll
Trunks
Telephone
Local
Inter
Control
Exchange
Office Toll
Switch
Connecting
Loop Trunks
Wired
Local

• Cost – wireless systems are less expensive due to cost of cable installation that’s
avoided
• Installation time – WLL systems can be installed in a small fraction of the time
required for a new wired system
• Selective installation – radio units installed for subscribers who want service at
a given time Some terminologies of Data Link Layer:
• Hosts and routers are nodes. Communication channels that connect adjacent
nodes along communication path are links
• wired links ,wireless links, LANs
• Layer-2 packet is a frame, encapsulates datagram
Categories of Multiplexing
Trunks & Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.
 A Multiplexer (MUX) is a device that combines several signals into a single signal.
 A Demultiplexer (DEMUX) is a device that performs the inverse operation.
Many schemes are developed by the telephone companies to communicate over a single physical
trunk. These multiplexing schemes are divided into two categories:
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
The frequency spectrum is divided into frequency bands; the below figure shows three voicegrade
telephone channels being multiplexed by FDM. When many channels are multiplexed together, 4000
Hz is allocated to each channel to keep them well separated. First, the voice channels are raised in
frequency, each by different amount. No two channels can occupy the same portion of the spectrum.
In FDM, signals generated by each device modulate different carrier frequencies. These
modulated signals are combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link.
FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines signals.
• Carrier frequencies are separated by enough bandwidth to accommodate the

modulated signal.
• Here the Channels must separated by strips of unused bandwidth (guard

bands) to prevent signal overlapping.

(a) The original bandwidths. (b) The bandwidths raised in frequency. (c) The multiplexed
channel.
Wave Division Multiplexing: (WDM)
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals. Wave-division multiplexing

is conceptually the same as FDM, except that multiplexing and demultiplexing involve light signals
transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
• The purpose is to combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and
do the reverse at the demultiplexer. Combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled
by a prism.

Fig: Wave length Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate digital channels into one
high-rate one. In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is
n times shorter.

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that can be applied when the data rate
capacity of the transmission medium is greater than the data rate required by the sending and
receiving devices.
TDM can be implemented in two ways:
1. Synchronous TDM and

2. Asynchronous TDM.
In synchronous time-division multiplexing, the term “synchronous” means that, the multiplexer
allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all times, whether or not a device has anything to
transmit.
Frames: Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of a one complete cycle of time slots,
including one or more slots dedicated to each sending device.
• Synchronous TDM does not guarantee that the full capacity of a link is used. Because the time
slots are pre-assigned and fixed, whenever a connected device is not transmitting, the
corresponding slot is empty.
• Asynchronous time-division multiplexing, or statistical time-division multiplexing, is

designed to avoid this type of waste.

SWITCHING
Switching is the process of moving data from one interface and delivering it through another
interface, selecting the best paths between machines that store messages. It can also be called as
Network Switching.
There are two kinds of Switching:
1. Packet Switching 2. Circuit Switching
Packet-switched and circuit-switched networks use two different technologies for sending messages
and data from one point to another.
Packet Switching:
 In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets.
 These packets are sent out from the computer and they travel around the
network seeking out the most efficient route to travel as circuits become
available.
 This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the shortest route.
 Each packet may go a different route from the others.
 Each packet is sent with a

‘header address’ which tells
it where its final
destination is, so it knows
where to go.
 The header
address
also describes the sequence for reassembly at the destination computer so that the packets
are put back into the correct order.
Advantages

1. Security
2. Bandwidth used to full potential
3. Devices of different speeds can communicate
4. Not affected by line failure (redirects signal)
5. Availability – no waiting for a direct connection to
become available.
6. During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone

network might stop working, e-mails and
texts can still be sent via packet switching.
Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching was designed in 1878 in order to send telephone calls down a dedicated
channel.
 This channel remains open and in use throughout the whole call and cannot be used by any other
data or phone calls.
 There are three phases in circuit switching:
1. Establish 2. Transfer 3. Disconnect
 The telephone message is sent all together; it is not broken up.

 The message arrives in the same order that it was originally sent.
 In modern circuit-switched networks, electronic signals pass through several switches before a
connection is established.
 During a call no other network traffic can use those switches.
 The resources remain dedicated to the circuit during the entire data transfer and the entire
message follows the same path.
 Circuit switching can be analog or digital.

 A circuit-switched network is excellent for data that needs a constant link from end-to-end, for
example, real-time video.
Advantages of Circuit Switching:
» Circuit is dedicated to the call – no interference, no sharing
» Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration of the call
» Guaranteed quality of service

Fig: Home personal computer acting as an Internet host

Internet consists of individual machines (hosts & routers). With in the building, LANs are widely
used. Wide area connections are built by point-to-point leased lines. This point-to-point
communication is used in two situations:
1. First, organizations have one or more LANs with Hosts and Routers. All the routers have
point-to-point leased lines. Here this routers and leased lines form a communication subnet.
(router-to-router leased line connection)
2. Second, Internet connection is made by modems and dial-up telephone lines. (dial-up
host-to-router connection)
For both situations, some data link protocols like PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) are required.
THE POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL: (PPP)
Purposes: 1. Router-to-router traffic 2. Home user-to-ISP traffic
 It handles error detection

 Supports multiple protocols
 IP address can be agreed at connection time
 Permits authentication
PPP provides special features:
1. A framing method can clearly define the starting and ending of the frame.
2. A Link Control Protocol (LCP) is used to bring the lines up and down. This protocol supports
synchronous and asynchronous circuits plus byte-oriented and bit-oriented encodings.
3. Network Control Protocol (NCP) is used to configure the network layer.
Scenario:
To establish a connection from home system, make a call to the ISP router via modem. When
the router’s modem has answered the call, then the physical connection is established. PC needs IP
address to run a TCP/IP protocol stack. Then the PC sends LCP (Link Control Protocol) packets. To

configure the Network layer, NCP (Network Control Protocols) are sent. The NCP for IP assigns the
IP address.
PPP uses byte-stuffing on dial-up connections. It is multi-protocol framing mechanism.
All PPP frames begin with the standard HDLC flag byte. Next followed by Address field, that
is set to the binary value. Next is control field, which indicates the unnumbered frame. PPP does not
provide reliable transmission. Next the protocol field, to inform the kind of packet in the payload. At
last comes, checksum and flag.
Fig: A simplified phase diagram for bring a line up and down.

THE CHANNEL ALLOCATION PROBLEM
There are two schemes to allocate a single channel among competing users:
1) Static Channel Allocation.

2) Dynamic Channel Allocation
Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs:
The most typical way of allocating a single channel among multiple competing users is
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). If the number of users are N, the bandwidth is divided into
N equal-sized portions. Each user is assigned one portion. If the number of users is small and constant,
FDM is a simple and efficient allocation mechanism.
A telephone trunk can be a simple example of this type. If the spectrum is divided into N regions
the number of users currently interested in communicating is less than N, a large piece of valuable
spectrum will be wasted.
And due to this problem: If more than N users want to communicate, some of them will be
denied permission for lack of bandwidth. The main reason for lack of bandwidth is that some of
the users who have been assigned a frequency band hardly ever transmit or receive anything. So,
dividing a single channel into static sub channels is quiet inefficient.

The poor performance of static FDM can easily be seen from a simple queuing theory
calculation. If the mean time delay is T, for a channel of capacity C bps, with an arrival rate of λ
(lambda) frames/sec, each frame having a length drawn from an exponential probability density
function with mean 1/1/µ bits/frame. With these parameters the arrival rate is λ frames/sec and the
service rate is µC frames/sec.
From queuing theory, T = 1/(µC- λ)
For example, if C is 100 Mbps, the mean frame length, 1/µ, is 10,000 bits, and the frame arrival
rate, lambda, is 5000 frames/sec, then T = 200 µsec.
Dynamic Channel Allocation:

Unlike the static channel, dynamic channel allocation is efficient and is used in areas where the
traffic is non-uniform and heavy. Five main assumptions must be considered in dynamic channel
allocation.
1. Station Model:
Stations are also called terminals. The number of independent stations are N, with independent
constant arrival rates lambda, and probability of a frame being generated in a time interval of (delta
t) is (delta t x lambda). Once a frame has been generated the station does nothing until the frame has
successfully been transmitted.
2. Single Channel Assumption:
From hardware point of view, all stations are equal. A single channel is available for
communication on which all stations can transmit on it and all can receive from it.
3. Collision Assumption:

If two frames are transmitted simultaneously, they will collide resulting in a false signal. Each
station has the ability to detect collision and it must be kept in mind that collided frame must be
retransmitted later.
4. Time Management:
Continuous Time: Frame transmission can begin at any instant as there is no master clock
diving time into discrete intervals.
Slotted Time: Frame transmission start at the beginning of the time slots. A slot may contain
0,1, or more frame corresponding to an idle, successful or collision transmission respectively.
5. Sensing of Channel:
Carrier Sense: A channel can be sensed by station before trying to use it. If a station senses
the channel as busy, no station will attempt to use it, until it goes idle.
No Carrier Sense: Stations cannot sense the channel before trying them for using. First
they transmit and then they came to know where the channel is busy or idle.
MEDIUM ACCESS PROTOCOLS (MAC)
Single shared broadcast channel
Two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time
Distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e., determine when
node can transmit
ALOHA: Abramson’s Logic Of Hiring Access - Idea: Users can transmit whenever they
have data to send.

Data link layer can be characterized by two types of layers:
1. Medium Access Layer (MAL)

2. Logical Link Layer
Aloha Protocols
The Aloha protocol was designed as part of a project at the University of Hawaii. It provided data
transmission between computers on several of the Hawaiian Islands using radio transmissions.
• Communications was typically between remote stations and a central sited named Menehune or
vice versa.
• All messages to the Menehune were sent using the same frequency.
• When it received a message intact, the Menehune would broadcast an “ack” on a distinct
outgoing frequency.
• The outgoing frequency was also used for messages from the central site to remote computers.
• All stations listened for message on this second frequency.
Pure Aloha
Pure Aloha is an unslotted, fully-decentralized protocol. It is extremely simple and trivial to
implement. The ground rule is - "when you want to talk, just talk!". So, a node which wants to transmit
will go ahead and send the packet on its broadcast channel, with no consideration whatsoever as to
anybody else is transmitting or not.

One serious drawback here is that, you dont know whether what you are sending has been received
properly or not (so as to say, "whether you've been heard and understood?"). To resolve this, in Pure
Aloha, when one node finishes speaking, it expects an acknowledgement in a finite amount of time -
otherwise it simply retransmits the data. This scheme works well in small networks where the load is
not high. But in large, load intensive networks where many nodes may want to transmit at the same
time, this scheme fails miserably. This led to the development of Slotted Aloha.
Slotted Aloha
This is quite similar to Pure Aloha, differing only in the way transmissions take place. Instead of
transmitting right at demand time, the sender waits for some time. This delay is specified as follows -
the timeline is divided into equal slots and then it is required that transmission should take place only
at slot boundaries. To be more precise, the slotted-Aloha makes the following assumptions:

• All frames consist of exactly L bits.
• Time is divided into slots of size L/R seconds (i.e., a slot equals the time to transmit one frame).
• Nodes start to transmit frames only at the beginnings of slots.

• The nodes are synchronized so that each node knows when the slots begin.
• If two or more frames collide in a slot, then all the nodes detect the collision event before the slot
ends.
In this way, the number of collisions that can possibly take place is reduced by a huge margin. And
hence, the performance become much better compared to Pure Aloha. Collisions may only take place
with nodes that are ready to speak at the same time. But nevertheless, this is a substantial reduction.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols (CSMA)
In both slotted and pure ALOHA, a node's decision to transmit is made independently of the
activity of the other nodes attached to the broadcast channel. In particular, a node neither pays
attention to whether another node happens to be transmitting when it begins to transmit, nor stops
transmitting if another node begins to interfere with its transmission. As humans, we have human
protocols that allow allows us to not only behave with more civility, but also to decrease the amount
of time spent "colliding" with each other in conversation and consequently increasing the amount of
data we exchange in our conversations. Specifically, there are two important rules for polite human
conversation:

1. Listen before speaking: If someone else is speaking, wait until they are done. In the
networking world, this is termed carrier sensing - a node listens to the channel before
transmitting. If a frame from another node is currently being transmitted into the channel, a
node then waits ("backs off") a random amount of time and then again senses the channel. If
the channel is sensed to be idle, the node then begins frame transmission. Otherwise, the node
waits another random amount of time and repeats this process.
2. If someone else begins talking at the same time, stop talking. In the networking world,
this is termed collision detection - a transmitting node listens to the channel while it is
transmitting. If it detects that another node is transmitting an interfering frame, it stops
transmitting and uses some protocol to determine when it should next attempt to transmit.
It is evident that the end-to-end channel propagation delay of a broadcast channel - the time it
takes for a signal to propagate from one of the the channel to another - will play a crucial role in
determining its performance. The longer this propagation delay, the larger the chance that a
carriersensing node is not yet able to sense a transmission that has already begun at another node in
the network.
CSMA- Carrier Sense Multiple Access
This is the simplest version CSMA protocol as described above. It does not specify any collision
detection or handling. So collisions might and WILL occur and clearly then, this is not a very good
protocol for large, load intensive networks.
So, we need an improvement over CSMA - this led to the development of CSMA/CD.
CSMA/CD- CSMA with Collision Detection
In this protocol, while transmitting the data, the sender simultaneously tries to receive it. So, as
soon as it detects a collision (it doesn't receive its own data) it stops transmitting. Thereafter, the node
waits for some time interval before attempting to transmit again. Simply put, "listen while you
talk". But, how long should one wait for the carrier to be freed? There are three schemes to handle
this:

1. 1-Persistent: In this scheme, transmission proceeds immediately if the carrier is idle.
However, if the carrier is busy, then sender continues to sense the carrier until it becomes idle.
The main problem here is that, if more than one transmitters are ready to send, a collision is
GUARANTEED!!
2. Non-Persistent: In this scheme, the broadcast channel is not monitored continuously. The
sender polls it at random time intervals and transmits whenever the carrier is idle. This
decreases the probability of collisions. But, it is not efficient in a low load situation, where
number of collisions is anyway small. The problems it entails are:
o If back-off time is too long, the idle time of carrier is wasted in some sense o
It may result in long access delays
3. p-Persistent: Even if a sender finds the carrier to be idle, it uses a probabilistic distribution
to determine whether to transmit or not. Put simply, "toss a coin to decide". If the carrier is idle,
then transmission takes place with a probability p and the sender waits with a probability 1-p.
This scheme is a good trade off between the Non-persistent and 1-persistent schemes. So, for
low load situations, p is high (example: 1-persistent); and for high load situations, p may be
lower. Clearly, the value of p plays an important role in determining the performance of this
protocol. Also the same p is likely to provide different performance at different loads.
CSMA/CD doesn't work in some wireless scenarios called "hidden node" problems. Consider a
situation, where there are 3 nodes - A, B and C communicating with each other using a wireless
protocol. Morover, B can communicate with both A and C, but A and C lie outside each other's range
and hence can't communicate directly with each other. Now, suppose both A and C want to
communicate with B simultaneously. They both will sense the carrier to be idle and hence will begin
transmission, and even if there is a collision, neither A nor C will ever detect it. B on the other hand
will receive 2 packets at the same time and might not be able to understand either of them. To get
around this problem, a better version called CSMA/CA was developed, specially for wireless
applications.

Systems in which multiple users share a common channel in a way that can lead to conflicts are
widely known as “Contention” systems.
Idea: At the contention period, all station announces their needs to transmit. And then at the
transmission period all registered stations take turn to send their frames.
Fig: A wireless LAN. (a) A transmitting. (b) B transmitting.
ELEMENTARY DATA LINK PROTOCOLS Assumptions:
1. DLL and Network layer are independent processes that communicate by passing messages back
and forth trough the physical layer.
2. a. Machine A wants to send a long stream of data to machine B, using a reliable,

connectionoriented service.

b. We will consider the case where B also wants to send data to A simultaneously. A is assumed to
have a data ready to send.
3. Machines do not crash.
The three protocols are:
An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol
A Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
A Simplex Protocol for a Noisy Channel
Unrestricted Simplex Protocol : Utopia

Both the transmitting and receiving network layers are always ready
Infinite buffer space is available
The communication channel between the data link layers never damages or loses frames Data
are transmitted in one direction only. Processing time can be ignored

 The network layer on A gives packet 1 to from_network_layer(&buffer);
its DLL. The packet is correctly received
s.info = buffer;
at B and passed to the network layer on
B. to_physical_layer(&s);
 B sends an ACK frame back to A.

 The ACK frame gets lost completely. It }
just never arrives at all.
}
 The DLL on A times out. Not having
received an ACK, it (incorrectly) assumes void receiver1 (void)
that its data frame was lost or damaged
{ frame r; event_type event;
and sends the frame containing packet 1
again. while (true) {
wait_for_event(&event);
from_physical_layer(&r);
to_network_layer(&r.info);
void sender1 (void)
{ frame s; }
packet buffer;
}
while (true) {
Stop-and-wait Protocol:
The communication channel between the data link layers never damages or loses frames
Protocol in which the sender sends one frame and then waits for an ACK: stop-and-wait.
Δt (timeout); Damaged ACK; ACK0, ACK1.

Bidirectional information transfer.
Half duplex physical channel.

It is often the case that a source will break up a large block of data into smaller blocks and transmit
the data in many frames, Reason:
1. The buffer size of the receiver may be limited.
2. The larger the transmission, the more error,
With smaller frames, error are detected sooner, Smaller amount of data needs retransmission.
3. On a shared medium, (LAN), it is usually desirable not to permit one station to occupy the
medium for an extended period, as this causes long delay at the other sending stations.
Stop-and-Wait ARQ
A B
B discards
duplicate 19
frame
Timeout
Frame lost A retransmits
Timeout
ACK1 lost A
retransmits


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GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Fiber Optics Twisted Pair:

Fig: (a) Category 3 UTP Fig: (b) Categoryv5 UTP

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.

• The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Infrared and Millimeter Waves

Electro Magnetic Spectrum:

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

1. Frequency hopping spread spectrum.

2. Direct sequence spread spectrum.

Fig: Electromagnetic Spectrum and its uses for communication

(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

Fig: A bidirectional system with two laser pictures

• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites

• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

Table: The principal satellite bands.

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

1. Iridium: LEO Satellites

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

(b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.

2. Global Star: LEO

Fig: (a) Relaying in space. Fig: (b) Relaying on the ground.

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

(a) Fully-interconnected network. (b) Centralized switch. (c) Two-level hierarchy.

Fig: A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.

Major components of Telephone systems:

• Local loops -Analog twisted pairs going to houses and businesses

• Trunks - Digital fiber optics connecting the switching offices

c) MFJ: Modified Final Judgment by US

d) Effect of MFJ: increased competition, better service, lower prices

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f) Within a LATA : there is one LEC – Local Exchange Carrier

g) LEC had control on traditional telephone service within its area.

h) All inter-LATA traffic was handled by IXC (IntereXchange Carrier)

i) Calls originating in a LATA can build a switching office – POP

j) Telephone N/W – telecommunications n/w used for telephone calls

1. PSTN 2. Wireless n/w 3. Private N/w (closed group

of telephones are connected)

POP: to handle calls originating in a LATA, POP is used.

Problems with transmission

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THE LOCAL LOOP: MODEMS, ADSL, AND WIRELESS

MODEMS (MOdulator – DEModulator)

a) Need of wide range frequencies in the signal.

b) 1000 – 2000 Hz sine wave carrier is introduced.

c) Its amplitude, frequency & phase can be modulated to transmit information.

d) Amplitude modulation: two different amplitudes are used to represent 0 and 1.

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

(a) A binary signal (c) Frequency modulation

(b) Amplitude modulation (d) Phase modulation

©K.Dharmarajan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,(Ph.D) Website: www.collegenotes.org

(b) QAM-16.- has 16 combinations to transmit 4 bits per symbol

(c) QAM-64.- has 64 combinations to transmit 6 bits per symbol

1. The number of samples per second is measured in baud.

2. During each baud, one symbol is sent.

3. The baud rate & symbol rate are same.

4. So n-baud line transmits n symbols/sec.

5. The bit rate is the number of samples/sec made.

6. The bit rate is twice the baud rate.

Digital Subscriber Lines: