Fluid Mechanics

Topic 1: Properties of Fluids

Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Continuum concept
1.3 Dimensional analysis
1.4 Units and dimensions
1.5 Dimensional homogeneity
1.6 Dimensional analysis by Indicial method
1.7 Fluid properties
1.8 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Learning Outcomes
Explain Explain the Continuum concept (CO1PO1)

Apply Apply the units and dimensions used for fluid mechanics. (CO1PO1)

Carry out Carry out dimensional analysis using Indicial Method. (CO1PO1)

Apply Apply common fluid properties. (CO1PO1, CO2PO2)

Formulate Formulate the relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient from Newton’s Law of Viscosity. (CO1PO1, CO2PO2)

Solve Solve various engineering problem related to fluid mechanics. (CO1PO1, CO2PO2)
1.1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is the study of statics and dynamics of liquids and gases.
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces,
however small they may be.
A fluid flows under its own weight and incapable of retaining any unsupported shape.
1.2 Continuum concept
Atoms are widely spaced in the gas phase. However,
the atomic nature of a substance can be ignored.
View it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no
holes, that is, a continuum. Continuum is valid as long
as size of the system is large in comparison to distance
between molecules.
Engineering problems are normally concern with the
bulk behavior of fluids.
Continuum example
For example, the pressure of a gas in a container is the
result of momentum transfer between the molecules
and the walls of the container. However, one does not
need to know the behaviour of the gas molecules to
determine the pressure in the container. It would be
sufficient to attach a pressure gage to the container.
1.3 Dimensional analysis
The roots of fluid mechanics lie in the experimental investigation of the mechanisms
of fluid flow.
Dimensional analysis played a major role in defining the fluid mechanics relationship
that allows the identification of groups of variables whose interrelationships may be
determined experimentally.
Dimensional analysis therefore offers a qualitative route to the understanding of fluid
flow mechanisms; the quantitative understanding is provided experimentally.
1.4 Units and dimensions
Any physical situation involving an object or a system may be described by its
fundamental properties (e.g. mass, length, velocity, density). These properties of the
system are known as its dimensions.
Units provide a convenient and standardized measure of the dimensions.
Primary dimensions include: mass M, length L and time T
Secondary dimensions can be expressed in terms of primary dimensions and include:
velocity V, energy E.
Unit systems include English system and the metric SI (International System).
 Quantity FLT system MLT system English units SI units
Acceleration, a LT-2 LT-2 ft. s-2 m.s-2
Area,A L2 L2 ft2 m2
Density, ρ FL-4T2 ML-3 slug.ft-3 kg.m-3
Energy or Work, FL ML2T-2 lb.ft N.m
W

Volumetric flow L3T-1 L3T-1 ft3.s-1 m3.s-1

rate, Q

Kinematic L2T-1 L2T-1 ft2.s-1 m2.s-1

viscosity, υ

Pressure, P FL-2 ML-1T-1 lb.in-2 N.m-2

Dynamic FL-2T ML-1T-1 lb.ft-2.s N.m-2.s
viscosity, μ
Factor by which unit is Prefix Symbol
multiplied
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 mili m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
1.5 Dimensional homogeneity
In engineering, all equations must be dimensionally homogeneous. That is, every
term in an equation must have the same unit.
If, at some stage of an analysis, we find ourselves in a position to add two quantities
that have different units, it is a clear indication that we have made an error at an
earlier stage.
So checking dimensions (dimensional analysis) can serve as a valuable tool to spot
errors.
1.6 Dimensional analysis by Indicial
method
If the variables involved in any flow situation can be identified, then the form of
relationship determining the dependence of one parameter on the others may be
largely determined by dimensional analysis.
This will yield the required constants.
Dimensional analysis has therefore played a major role in defining the fluid mechanics
relationships that is now accepted.
Example
The thrust, F, of a propeller depends upon its diameter, d, speed of advance, v,
revolutions per second, N, the fluid density, ρ, and viscosity, μ. Find an expression for
F in terms of these quantities.
Solution
F   d , v, N ,  ,  
May be expressed as below with
K as a numerical constant

F  K d m,vp, N r, q, s 
Example
A commonly used equation for determining the volumetric flow rate, Q, of a liquid
through an orifice located in the side of a tank is given by,

Q  0.65a 2 gh
Where a is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the
height of the liquid above the orifice. Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this
equation.
Solution
Q  L3T 1 L T   (0.65)L  2 LT  L 
3 1 2  2 0 .5 0 .5

a  L2
L T   (0.65) 2 L T 
3 1 3 1

g  LT  2
hL
Both sides of the equation have the same dimensions, therefore,
the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
1.7 Fluid properties
What is property? Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Familiar: pressure, temperature, volume, and mass.
Less familiar: viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, vapor pressure, surface tension.
Fluid properties
Density
Specific weight
Relative density/ specific gravity
Specific volume
Dynamic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity
Surface tension
Capillarity
Vapor pressure
Compressibility & bulk modulus
Density, ρ
Defined as mass per unit volume,
Units: kg/ m3 m
Dimensions: ML-3 
Typical values:
V
ρwater = 1000 kg/ m3 ,
ρHg = 13 600 kg/ m3
Specific volume
Defined as the reciprocal of mass
1
density.
V
Units: m3/kg
Dimensions: L3M-1

Specific weight, ɣ
Defined as weight per unit volume.
W
Units: N/m3 
Dimensions: LM-2T-2 V
Typical values:
γwater = 9810 N/m3
 g
Relative density/ specific gravity, SG
Defined as ratio of mass density of  subs tan ce
a substance to density of water at SG 
40C H O@4 C 0
2

Units: unitless  subs tan ce

Dimensions: M0L0T0 = 1 
1000
Example
QUESTION SOLUTION

The specific gravity of a certain oil is 

0.86. Compute its density and SG    g
 @ 4C
specific weight.  860  9.81

0.86 
1000  8.44 kN
m3
  860 kg
m3
Example
QUESTION SOLUTION

If the specific volume of a certain 1   g

gas is 0.73 m3/kg, calculate its V
  1.37  9.81
specific weight.

1  13.44 N
0.73 m3
  1.37 kg
m3
Try yourself
The information on a can of pop indicates that the can contains 355 mL. The mass of
a full can of pop is 0.369 kg while an empty can weighs 0.153 N. Determine the
specific weight, density and specific gravity of the pop and compare your results with
the corresponding values for water at 200C.
Compressibility & bulk modulus
Bulk modulus – tells how easily can the volume (and density) of a given mass of a fluid
can be changed when there is a change in pressure i.e. how compressible is the fluid.
For most engineering practice liquid is considered to be incompressible as liquid
requires greater pressure to affect a change in volume.
Compressibility & bulk modulus
Units: N/m2

Change in pressure
Bulk modulus 
Volumetric strain
 dV 
dp   K  
 V 
Example
QUESTION SOLUTION
dp  1000  50 dV dV 1
When the pressure exerted on a dp   K ; 
 450 kN V V 100
liquid is increased from 550 kN/m2 m2
to 1000 kN/m2, the volume is
decreased by 1%. Determine the
bulk modulus of the liquid.
V
K   dp
dV
 
 450  103   100 
 45  10 6 N
m2
Surface tension
Liquid droplets behave like small spherical balloons filled with liquid,
and the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic membrane
under tension.
The pulling force that causes this is due to the attractive forces
between molecules called surface tension.
Attractive force on surface molecule is not symmetric.
Repulsive forces from interior molecules causes the liquid to
minimize its surface area and attain a spherical shape.
Consider forces acting on a small droplet of liquid, the internal
pressure within the droplet and surface tension must be in
equilibrium.
Taking vertical equilibrium of forces on the droplet, 2r  pr 2
pr

2
Capillary effect
Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter
tube.
The curved free surface in the tube is call the meniscus.
Water meniscus curves up because water is a wetting fluid –
adhesive is greater than cohesive
Mercury meniscus curves down because mercury is a
nonwetting fluid – cohesive is greater than adhesive

4 cos 
H
gd
Vapor pressure
The pressure at which a liquid will vaporize, or boil, at a given
temperature, is called its vapor pressure.
If the container is closed with a small space left above the surface, and
this space evacuated to form a vacuum, a pressure will develop in the
space as a result of the vapor that is formed by escaping molecules.
When an equilibrium condition is reached so that the number of
molecules leaving the surface is equal to the number entering, the
vapor is said to be saturated and the pressure that the vapor exerts on
the liquid surface is termed the vapor pressure, pv.
Meaning, boiling occurs whenever local pressure equals to the vapor
pressure.
Vapor pressure increases with temperature.
There are two ways to boil a liquid:
High temperature, fixed pressure.
Low temperature, local pressure reduced to vapor pressure
Dynamic viscosity, μ


Defined as the shear force per unit
area (shear stress, τ) needed to
drag one layer of fluid with a unit dv
velocity past another layer a unit dy
distance away from it in the fluid.
Units: Ns/m2
Dimensions: ML-1T-1
Kinematic viscosity, υ
Defined as ratio of dynamic 
viscosity to mass density 
Units: m2/ s 
Dimensions: L2T-1
Typical values: υwater = 1.14x10-6
m2s-1
1.8 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Shear stresses are developed when the fluid is in motion.

When fluids flow past a solid boundary, the fluid in contact with the boundary
adheres to it and will, therefore, have the same velocity as the boundary.
Considering successive layers parallel to the boundary, the velocity of the fluid will
vary from layer to layer as y increases.
Viscosity in gases vs liquids
GASES
Viscosity is due to the
intermolecular collision between
random moving particles.
When temperature increases, the
amount of intermolecular collision
increases.
Thus, viscosity increases.
LIQUIDS
Viscosity is due to the
intermolecular cohesion between
liquids particles.
When temperature increases, the
intermolecular cohesion is
weakened and liquid particles are
able to move freely.
Thus, viscosity decreases.
ABCD represents an element in a fluid with thickness s.
The force F will act over an area A equal to BC × s producing shear stress τ
The deformation angle φ (the shear strain ), will be proportional to the shear
stress and will continue to increase with time as long as the force is applied.
Experimentally, in a true fluid, the rate of shear strain (or shear strain per unit
time) varies linearly with the shear stress.
Suppose that in time t a particle at E moves through
a distance x. If E is a distance y from AD then, for
small angles,
x Change of
Shear strain,   velocity with y
y
x
x u
Rate of shear strain,    t 
yt y y
u
Assuming shear stress is proportional to shear strain,   constant 
y

Rewriting u/y in differential form du/dy and dynamic viscosity 𝜇 is a constant,

dv
τ  μ Newton’s Law of viscosity
dy
Depends on types of fluid
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids obeying Newton’s law of
viscosity and for which μ has a
constant value are known as
Newtonian fluids

Fluids which do not obey

Newton’s law of viscosity are
known as non- Newtonian
fluids: Plastic, pseudo-plastic,
dilatant substances etc
.
Example F

Figure shows a plate of negligible weight

moving upwards under the action of a force,
F, when equally spaced between two fixed
surfaces. Kerosene fills the spaces on both
sides of the moving plate and has an
absolute viscosity of 1.64 x 10-3 Ns/m2. If the 20 mm 20 mm
contact area on each side of the moving
plate is 4.0 m2, find the value of the force on
the plate if its velocity is constant at 2.5
mm/s.
Solution
 dv  F
     
 dy  A
 dv 
F  A 
 dy 
 2.5  10 3 

 1.64  10 3 
2  4.0 3 

 20  10 
 1.64  10 3
Example 156 mm

Crude oil at 200C fills the space 150 mm

Crude oil
between two concentric cylinders of
diameters 150 mm and 156 mm
respectively as shown in figure. Both
cylinders are 250 mm in height. If the
inner cylinder is to be rotated at a
constant speed of 12 rev/min while
keeping the outer cylinder stationary, 250 mm
calculate the torque required. The fluid
properties of the crude oil at 200C are:
Specific gravity = 0.86
Kinematic viscosity = 8.35 x 10-6 m2/s
Solution 156 mm

r
0.15
 0.075m
F  A 150 mm
2    2r  h Crude oil

2
 0.225  2    0.075  0.25
  12 
60  0.0265 N
2
 rad / s
5
T  F r
250 mm
 0.15 
dv  0.0265   
   2 
dy
0.007181 0.094  0.002 Nm

0.003
 0.225 Pa
End of Topic 1