Research About Fibers in Composite Materials


Material Composites I

Abstract: In this paper we will discuss the types of woven fabrics, their manufacturing processes and
applications in the aeronautic industry.

 Basket
1. INTRODUCTION
Composite materials are changing the entire Aeronautic  Leno
industry, with more and more advanced developments, that is  Mock Leno
why it is important to have a wide knowledge about its
manufacturing processes, types, classifications and the 2.2.1 Plain
treatments applied for its proper use. In this paper, we will
research the types of woven fabrics that are found in composite In this type of arrangement, the warp fibers interlock one
materials, as well as their properties, manufacturing processes, another with the weft fibers in a perpendicular direction. This
and how their use in the aeronautical industry has changed. type of arrangement is the most difficult to bend with respect
to other weaves and reduces the strength of the fiber itself.
2. WOVEN FABRICS However, due to its symmetrical and homogeneous shape
provides good stability to the fabric, and its porosity varies
2.1 Definition of Woven
depending on the manufacturing quality.
Material Composites, as its name indicates, are made of two or
more materials in order to obtain a “new material” whose
properties are better than those of the individual components,
this “extra” materials can be presented as many types, one of
them is Woven Cloth, which are made from fibers. Woven
cloths are defined as: a set of strands, which can be yarn or
tows, arranged in diverse forms, known as patterns, whose
purpose is to create a woven fabric capable of withstand stress
in more than one direction.

2.2 Woven Fabrics

As previously mentioned, woven fabrics are composed of

fibers mainly at 0° and 90°, which are called warp fibers and
weft fibers, respectively. To obtain these fabrics, there are
different types of arrangements, and provide us with special
characteristics for each case, the tensile strength of each set of
fibers varies according to the weave style and the treatment
applied to the fiber. There are also hybrid weaves, this type of
fabric is obtained by combining two or more types of fibers in
order to obtain different properties of each of the materials
used, for example, you can combine strands of carbon fiber 2.2.2 Twill
with fiberglass to reduce the cost of the material. For this type
of arrangement, special machines are needed, which allow the As seen in Figure. 2 the weft fibers are interlock with the warp
exchange of fibers and, thus, obtain the hybrid weaves. fibers in pairs forming a diagonal along the length and width
alternately of the fabric, that is, it is not symmetrical, but it does keep a
pattern along the weave. This characteristic reduces the grip
All these factors influence the performance of the composite between fibers, so the surface becomes smoother and slightly
material and accord the arrangement, the woven cloths can be increases the mechanical properties. However, the main
divided in 6 types: disadvantage is a significant reduction in the stability of the
 Plain weave, that is, it can be more easily undone.

 Twill
 Satin
 that is, we can have the same amount of warp fiber crossing
weft fibers, or a different number of fibers warp that of weft
fibers, and vice versa. In Figure. 4 it can be observed that 2
weft fibers are interlaced with 2 weft fibers, these figures can
vary according to the case, an example of a different basket
arrangement is a fabric which 5 warp fibers cross to each 3
warp fibers. Another difference that exist between basket
weave and Plain weave is that, because of the frequency of
intersections is smaller, a thinner weave is obtained and,
therefore, the mechanical properties increase, however, this
may vary from according to the arrangement.

2.2.3 Satin

For this arrangement, there is no established pattern, it can

vary depending on the case, and its main objective is to obtain
the least possible intersections between weft fibers and warp
fibers. Therefore, a very thin weave is obtained, and, in turn, it
has a very low stability. The deficiency of the grip presented
by the fibers results in good mechanical properties, since the
fibers are kept as straight as possible and are not affected by
their curvature. Another aspect that must be considered is that
the lack of symmetry of the weave affects the direction that has
a greater modulus of elasticity, and when different layers are
applied, these stresses must be compensated with the previous
layer, in this way the stresses are distributed in diverse
2.2.5 Leno
directions of the piece.
This is a very particular case since it is only used in
conjunction with other types of weaves since its properties are
not enough to create effective composite material. This type of
fabric is obtained by interlacing the warp fibers with one
another around a weft fiber, forming a sort of assurance
between the warp fibers. When a composite material with few
fibers is manufactured, the stability of the weave is
compromised, the main advantage if this fabric is that it
provides stability even with few fibers.

2.2.4 Basket

It is similar to plain weave, but it is not strictly symmetrical

and the intersecting fibers must be equal to or greater than two,
 Plain
LOW CRIMP 2
SYMMETRICAL 5
BALANCE 4
SMOOTHNESS 2
LOW POROSITY 3
GOOD DRAPE 2
GOOD STABILITY 4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Twill
LOW CRIMP 3
SYMMETRICAL 3
BALANCE 4
2.2.6 Mock Leno SMOOTHNESS 3
LOW POROSITY 4
This type of weave can be presented in a great variety of forms, GOOD DRAPE 4
since it is a mixture of plain and satin weave, that is, on the one GOOD STABILITY 3
hand weft fibers cross with each other with warp fibers and, in
turn, different patterns are formed within the same fabric. In 0 1 2 3 4 5
the case of the Figure. 6, it can be observed that in the second
pattern 3 warp fibers are crisscrossed for every 3 weft fibers,
and the remaining fibers are crisscrossed with each other, that
is, 1 warp fiber with each weft fiber. The main characteristics Satin
of this weave are the increase in the thickness of the weave, in
addition, the porosity is also increased, as well as the LOW CRIMP 5
roughness of the surface of the piece. SYMMETRICAL 1
BALANCE 2
SMOOTHNESS 5
LOW POROSITY 5
GOOD DRAPE 5
GOOD STABILITY 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Basket
LOW CRIMP 2
SYMMETRICAL 3
BALANCE 4
SMOOTHNESS 2
LOW POROSITY 2
GOOD DRAPE 3
GOOD STABILITY 2
0 1 2 3 4 5
2.3 Properties of Woven Fabrics

Next, we will discuss the properties of the woven fabrics

according to the characteristic previously exposed, where 5 is
excellent and 1 is poor.
 1. Warping.
Leno 2. Sizing
3. Weaving.
LOW CRIMP 5
SYMMETRICAL 1 2.4.1 Warping
BALANCE 2
SMOOTHNESS 1 They are a set of yarns separated from each other and pointing
LOW POROSITY 1 to the same direction, this direction will be considered as 0°,
GOOD DRAPE 1 or direction 1.
GOOD STABILITY 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Mock Leno
LOW CRIMP 2
SYMMETRICAL 4
BALANCE 4
SMOOTHNESS 2
LOW POROSITY 3
2.4.2 Sizing
GOOD DRAPE 2
GOOD STABILITY 3 In this stage an adhesive is applied to the fibers, to improve the
0 1 2 3 4 5 grip and stability of the weave. This coating increases the
diameter of the fiber, so its mechanical properties are also
increased.

2.4 Manufacturing Process

Woven fabrics consists basically of two parts: warp and filling

(or weft). Warp is found throughout the woven fabric, they are
composed of yarns, which are separated from each other, while
the filling is found across the width. For the filling fibers, three
insertion systems are mainly used: rapier, projectile and air-jet.

2.4.3 Weaving
Finally, the yarns in the 0° direction (warp) are separated in
such a way that the weft fibers (90°) are interlaced.

In order to efficiently create the woven fabrics, diverse

apparatus are used, these machines are called Loom. The yarns
are inserted along the loom and the filling is perpendicular to
the warp axis, forming a woven cloth. First, the warp fibers
must be separated in such a way that the filling fibers can be
inserted, this arrangement can vary depending on the
configuration of the woven cloth. After inserting the fiber weft,
it must return to the initial position to continue with the next
filling fiber insertion, and so on.
The steps can be divided in three:
In order to obtain the different types of woven cloths, there are
some techniques that consists of basic movements of the yarns.
Shedding
This technique consists of separating the yarns into two rows,
one upper and one lower.
Picking
It consists of inserting weft fibers into warp fibers.
Beat-Up
Consists of pushing the filling into the warp separation in order
to get a better grip between the warp and weft fibers.
2.4.4 Shuttleless Loom
The three most used types of machines are classified according
to the weft fiber insertion system.
Rapier Weaving
This type of machine can manufacture a wide range of woven
fabrics. Its main advantage is it versatility, since it allows us to
manufacture many types of weaves, however, one
disadvantage is the production time, because the machine is
very slow.
It can also use a double rapier, where both of the rapiers enter
at the same time from the two ends.
Projectile Weaving
This type of machine uses a piece of bullet-shaped steel that
traverses the warp fibers from one end to the other.
Air-Jet Weaving
For the machine with air-jet injection, an insertion rates up to
2000 meters per minute is obtained, this is the most efficient
in the market.
2.5 Applications in the Aeronautical Industry.
In the last 30 years the use of composite materials in the
aeronautical industry has increased, these woven cloths are
mainly used to reduce the weight of the aircraft. They are used
mainly in pieces that are subjected to high efforts, in addition
to allowing us to create pieces with more complex geometries,
in addition to supporting significant deformations.
3. PREPREGS
Prepreg (pre-impregnated with resin) is a very important stage
in the manufacture of fibers or a woven cloth because it is a
treatment that receives the weave based on resin. This
treatment provides a semi-sticky consistency, which allows
better adherence when different layers of weaves are applied.
This resin can be applied under heat and pressure, or with a
solvent with a pre-catalysed resin that is generally applied at
room temperature. Prepregs can be applied by means of a
mould, subjected to vacuum and subsequently heated up to a
temperature between 120 - 180 ° C. This allows the resin to
return to its liquid state and eventually to cure.
Resins
In order for the resin to perform its function properly, certain
materials must be used, such as epoxy, polyester, phenolic and
high temperature resins such as polyimides, cyanate esters and
bismaleimides.
Advantages
The main advantages of using this treatment are:
 The materials acquire an easy to work
consistency.
 With this method, yarns can be sold at a low cost
because it is not necessary to convert the fiber into
a woven cloth.
 The product used as a resin can be chemically
modified to obtain better material properties.
 The resin application facilitates the process of
stacking layers.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of using this treatment are:
 The cost of the resin increases the final price of the
product.
 It is necessary to use furnaces to cure the resin, so it
becomes a slow process.
  The tools used must be able to withstand the
temperatures reached during the procedure.

3.1 Manufacturing processes

3.1.1 Wet Lay-Up

In this method resin is used mainly composed of epoxy,

polyester or vinylester. A surface layer of resin is applied on a
woven fabric, and it is generally distributed by means of rollers
so that the resin is impregnated in the fabric. Finally, it can
cure at room temperature.

Advantage
The main advantage of this technique is the durability, the ease
of the technique and the low production cost.
Disadvantage
On the other hand, the disadvantage of this method is that the
resin must have a low viscosity to be able to handle it correctly.
3.1.3 Pultrusion
The fibers are extracted from the fiber racks towards a
preheated mould, later, the resin is added to the fibers and, by
means of heaters, the thermal energy of the components is
elevated to achieve a better mixture and cure the material.
Finally, a cutter determines the final length of the fibers. This
procedure is considered continuous, so a constant cross section
will always be obtained.

Advantages
The advantages of this process are fast and economical, the
applied resin can be effectively controlled, and the structural
properties acquired by the fiber are good because good fiber
quality is obtained.

Disadvantages
It is limited to components with constant cross section, and the
costs of the tools can increase if the length of the material
increases.

3.1.2 Filament Winding

This method is used mainly in the formation of composite
materials with cylindrical geometry, going through a resin bath
before joining the cylinder that holds the fibers, which is
constantly rotating, while the fibers move in the direction
transverse to the cylinder.

Advantages
The main advantages of these fibers are that it can be a very
3.1.4 Resin Transfer Moulding
fast and cheap method. In addition, the amount of the resin
For this method 2 moulds are used, on the first mould the fabric
used can be controlled, as it is particularly applied to each fiber
is placed and the second mould compresses the weave to the
used.
shape of it, finally, the resin is added to pressure by means of
a hole, it can also be left in vacuum the mould for a better
Disadvantages
adhesion of the resin, this is known as Vacuum Assisted Resin
The main disadvantages of this method are that it is limited
Injection (VARI). Once the resin is inside the two moulds, the
only to cylindrical shapes and the cost of this can increase as
material is cured. This curing process is generally carried out
its length increases.
at room temperature or at a higher temperature.

Advantages
The advantages of this method are that you can use resins that
resist high temperatures, also, high fiber volume laminates can
be obtained with very low void contents.

Disadvantages
The tools used are very expensive, in addition to heavy, its use
is also limited to small components.

3.2 Applications for Aeronautical Industry

The applications of the composite materials previously
seen in the aeronautical industry are:
 Small complex aircraft and automotive components.
 Aircraft structural components in wing and tail
sections.
 Standard wind-turbine blades.
4. CONCLUSION
Composite materials are made up of fibers and, as we have
seen previously, knowing their manufacturing and application
processes in the aeronautical sector is of vital importance for
understanding them and knowing which process is the most
appropriate according to the characteristics that are search.
This paper did not cover all the manufacturing processes of
fibers and fabrics, but only those that are commonly used were
shown in the aeronautical industry
REFERENCES
Maier, D., Dierig, T., Reinhart, C. & Gunther, T., 2013.
Analysis of Woven Fabrics and Fiber Composite
Material., Heidelberg, Germany: Graphics GmbH.
Wadje, P. R., s.f. Textile - Fiber to Fabric Processing. IE(I)
Journal, pp. 30-32.
Lord, P.R. and Mohamed, M.H., 2010. Weaving: conversion
of yarn to fabric. Oxford: Woodhead Publishing Limited.
SP Systems “Guide to Composites”