INTERNATIONALISM –

It is the doctrine equality. The believe that people of different nations are equal irrespective of
the international boundaries. It opposes any form of races and also any form of national
chauvinism.
It is considered as a movement for political and economic cooperation among the communities,
nations and states. The ultimate aim of internationalism is to form a world government.
Origin –
French revolution – the idea of revolution crossed the boundaries of France and spread across.
LIBERTY, EQUALITY & FRATERNITY – the main ideas of French revolution. It caused
toppling of number of monarchical and authoritarian regimes.
It lead to the rise of nation states, the modern idea of state (Territory, population, sovereignty
& government).
RENAISSANCE –
14th- 17th century
Rebirth of ideas, innovation, intellect etc. It was the liberation of humanity from the dungeons.
It brought 5 different types of development
1) Intellectual expansion
2) Geographical expansion
3) Commercial expansion
4) Social expansion
5) Artistic expansion
It primarily emerged in Italy. Why ?
1) Most of the Italian rulers were great patrons of art.
2) Fall of Constantinople (attacked by ottomans in 1453, naturally artist fled from here to
Italy, Italy provided for peace which is essential for artistic works)
3) Wealth – Italy was quite rich thus they fulfilled the needs of the artists
4) Navigation – Italian cities had centre for navigation and they used to train people to
explore high seas.
Why in Europe ?
1) Decline of Papacy – the pope used to control everything, by the influence of Philip IV,
king of France the papal court was moved.
2) Feudalism – it started declining and capitalism in form of mercantilism started rising.
It brought the idea of innovation
3) Press – It started printing about the scams of the church thus becoming eye openers for
masses.
4) Universities – Oxford (estb. 1096), Cambridge (13th Century) these universities became
centre for new ideas, created leaders who can lead the masses.
5) Geographical Exploration – Discovering new parts of the world also helped in
emergence of new ideas. New land was discovered, new trade routes etc.
ART –
1) Leonardo da Vince – Monalisa & The last supper.
 Layered work, eyes of Mona Lisa (LV is written for Leonardo da Vince)
In 1911 it was stolen for2 years and Picasso was arrested but later released.
On Kennedy’s request it was displayed in USA.
Smile of Monalisa describes both =ve and -ve aspects.
2) Michelangelo – The last judgment & David (Sculpture)
3) Raphael – Sistine Madonna
4) Scientific –
Heliocentric Model – Copernicus
Telescope/Astronomer – G. Gallileo
Laws of motion, Gravity
Anatomy – Vesalens (father of anatomy)
Natural potryal of human form in sculpture & paintings.
Circulation of blood – William Harvey
LITERATURE
1) Machiavelli – The prince
He was one of the realist thinkers and talks about authoritarian and monarchical system.
The obligations and rights related to the rights
The Florentine History – used scientific history
William Shakespeare – Works of Shakespeare known for beautiful depiction of human
nature, language was filthy and objectionable.
Thomas More – Gave the idea of Utopia
Don Quinole
John Locke – Desecatis – rationalist

CONCEPTS EMERGING AT THIS TIME –

Classism – returned interests in the classical work, which were interested and different.
 Like the work of cicero, Aristotle
 They were also very provocative in nature
 The reason for its emergence was that people started delivering lectures, made
people aware of these work- popular.
Humanism – emphasis on human, natural and sensual. A notion developed that personal
satisfaction was better than sacrifice, self-gratification was better than self-denial.
 Emphasis on materialistic ideas with reduced emphasis on spirituality. It also
lead to development of humanities, latin became the means of teaching, and
analysis and critical view became central to learning in universities.
Individualism – Glorifying the achievements of humans (as individuals), Mass education act
became a law to provide education to individuals.
 The gothic and cathedral style of architecture developed during renaissance
(Indian British architecture).
GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES –
Reasons –
 Flourishing trade with Asia – through Rea Sea – Egypt – Mediterrian sea, spices
in Asia became very popular. After fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman turks
 caused impediments to trade, incentivising the Europeans to look for new
routes for trade.
 Missionaries – used to spread Christianity to other parts of the world, therefore
states sponsored these discoveries. Henry, the navigator – major ruler who
sponsored many discoveries including Columbus Discovery (Aimed to India
reached America)
 Decline in Feudalism – out of box thinking, scientific temper. Marco polo was
one of the finest traveller to visit India and China who described India as golden
country of the world.
CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF DISCOVERIES –
1) Cape of good hope- discovered by Barthalomen Diaz in 1483.
2) Columbus discovery – he reached present day area of West Indies-not the first man on
America, It was Americus (after whom the country is named) – 1492.
3) Vasco Da Gama – 1498 reached Calicut.
4) Magellan – 1591 started his journey from Spain and circumnavigated the earth defying
the popular belief that earth is flat. Spain – Atlantic – South America – Pacific –
Philippines. In Philippines he was killed by the local tribesmen. First circumnavigation
of earth.
5) Cabot – 1497 discovered the newformed land which is significant because it formed
the basis of American civilisation.
EFFECTS OF THESE DISCOVERIES –
1) Expansion of learning and knowledge about the world.
2) It lead to the discovery of new trade routes which in turn enhanced the trade and
commerce. This naturally brought the wealth to the nations. Geographical discoveries
brought commercial revolution which in turn brought colonialism.
3) Modern banking system evolved
4) Joint Stock company emerged having co. of co sharers.
5) Geographical discoveries lead to the slave trade. Europeans founds new labours in
Africa who can handle work in new land like America.
6) Export of European culture ‘Europeanisation of the world’ with missionaries travelling
across the world.
ERA OF ENLIGHTENMENT – 17th Century onwards –
1) Establishment of different societies, example - Royal Society – innovation and research.
2) Development in Physical Science –
 Newton – the father of Physics, invented calculus (infinite calculus
particularly), Binomial theorem, Hydrodynamics- deals with fluids (theory of
propagation of waves, Optics – movement of light (VIBGYOR), Mechanics –
principia (book by Newton) laws of motion, gravitational law.
 Edmund Hailey – discovered Hailey’s comet which comes back after every 78
years. William Harshal – discovered Uranus. Barometer – to measure
atmospheric pressure – invented Torricelle. Mercury thermometer – Far,
Benjamin Franklin – lightning rod.
 Charles Boyle – father of chemistry, gave the boyle’s law for air pressure and
volume. Phosphorus was also discovered by Boyle and the term alcohol was
also framed by him. Mendeleev’s table, and atomic theories. Henry Cavendis
discovered the Hydrogen gas, Joseph Priestley.
  James Hutton – father of geology, the earth science.
 Medicine – Thomas Sydenham discovered the reasons for fever.
 Morgagini – fathe of pathology.
 Biology – Robert cook discovered cells and the cellular structure were
discovered subsequently. Leewenhawk – discovered bacteria.
CONCEPT OF ENLIGHTENMENT –
There are four different ideas behind the concept of enlightenment –
1) Naturalism – the emphasis on natural laws lead to discoveries, why the natural
phenomena happens was the central idea.
2) Rationalism – the reasoning capacity of human being through which one questions
everything. It is the curiosity.
3) Progress – Optimistic progress without which civilisation cannot move forward. The
idea that humankind should move towards betterment.
4) Humanitarianism – Developed for concerns given to prisoners. Prison reforms were
being initiated. Bloody Merry- invented many killing machines, inflicting variety of
punishments. Demand for abolition of slavery, popular education.
DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITIES DURING ENLIGHTENMENT –
1) Emphasis on secularism started during this period. Church and state separation concept
also emerged.
2) History – Criticism and scientific enquiry as to what happened in the past. They adopted
renaissance model of historical writing that is evidence is necessary for any
information. Works - Decline and fall of Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, voltaire –
age of Louis XIV (scientific model of renaissance period), philosophy of history also
developed during this period, the methodology of historical writing also developed
which talk about the factors a writer should keep in mind while writing historical
materials
3) Political Science – earlier studied as political history, it was later dissected to another
branch because of developing theories. Debate about theory of state – Hobbes, Locke,
Rousseau. Hobbes says human by nature are selfish, thus he suggest for an authoritarian
state. He protests against any idea of revolution, he believes it can obliterate the state.
He emphasised that church should be subordinate to the state. He provoked a wider
debate on social contract theory. Locke – it is about constitutional democracy and the
idea of democratic principles and democracy. He believes that by nature humans are
good and thus there is no need to supress them or control them. He talks about the needs
of the government for welfare of people, thus indicating the welfare state concept.
Locke says people must be sovereign. Lockian Model talks about liberty equality and
fraternity. Lockian Modeal was antithesis to Hobbian model.
ROUSSEAU – Natural man. He believes that people are virtuous and trustworthy. He
also emphasis on ‘all men are equal and free’, he elaborated the concept of liberty and
the idea of fundamental rights is somewhat related to his theory. He talked about
common will – people’s will be the will not the sovereign’s. He talked about rights as
well as duties.
4) Political Economy – Mercantilism became the major economic philosophy. It is
negative notion because it is based on ‘zero sum game’ (I win you lose). The principle
of Laissez faire, which says that if government doesn’t interfere the economy has a
natural tendency to flourish and improve, came into being during this period (later 18th
 century). This theory was first time propounded by Adam Smith in his book ‘Wealth of
Nation’.
5) Legal Philosophy – Bentham – talked about Utilitarianism – every individual should be
judged by utility in promoting the happiness of others. Greatest good of the greatest
number. Beccaria (Italian) – primarily known for his great advocacy in the reforms in
criminal justice system. Punishment had a preventive rather than retributive function.
Punishment should be proportionate to the crime committed. Probability of punishment
and not it’s severity will prevent the crime. Procedural of criminal conviction should
be public. To make the punishment effective it should be prompt i.e. speedy justice. He
was a realist thinker.
6) Cosmopolitanism – the idea says that all men are social animal, it talks about the idea
of universal brotherhood. It says each person must strive for the development of society.
(the idea of CSR in companies). Thomas Paine – the world is my county and mankind
are my brothers.
 MODULE -II

Magna Carta – 1215AD – during the period of King John

Movement of the barons(feudal lords or head of village lands) – the Barons realised
that the king is imposing taxes arbitrarily, due to this they came together and started a
movement against the king. The objective of the movement was that the king should
provide some of its rights to the feudal lords, rights related to taxation. Due to this
movement king agreed to grant some rights to feudal lords, Knights and clergy. These
three constituted the Noble class. The king agreed that the King will not impose any
taxes without the consent of great council. It comprises of men from these three classes
and the King’s representative, it was an elected body.
The idea of justice shall not be delayed or denied to anyone.
14th century onwards the idea of parliament started emerging. Bi-camera legislature.
The house of lords comprises of nobles and house of commons comprises barons,
clergy, bourgeois, working class etc.
Two functions of the Parliament –
1) Provide information to the king on ground in the nation.
2) If king asked for any extra taxation parliament would consider it – accept or reject
it.
Parliament acted as a major pressure group, a check on the power of the king.

1515-1555(Henry VIII)

During this period, parliament got certain powers-

1) Debating on bills but no voting rights.

2) Controlling functions of members of parliament – give licences for speech etc.

1603 James I 0

Starting of conflict between king and parliament. James I wanted the parliament to
allow expenses for some illegal purposes which was refused by parliament. Even after
the refusal, crown imposed illegal taxation and parliament protested. Member of
parliament were arrested, especially those against the crown. Dissolved the parliament
-1621

Charles I –

He believed in the divine right theory, considered him to have absolute power. He
started curtailing rights of citizens. Attempted to restore parliament but when
Parliament did not obey him, he dissolved it again.

He wanted the parliament to assent to give money for waging of war against Spain,
Parliament refused. As a consequence he did 3 things-

a) Imposed illegal taxation

b) Arbitrary arrest of MPs
c) Declared Martial Law.

Charter of liberty was passed by Parliament along with the petition of rights, 1629. It
contained –
 a)
b)
c) the reign of law emerged – most significant idea.
d) it reduced the prerogative power of the crown which is why a petition of rights was
the first statutory restriction on power of king.
“No man thereafter be compelled to make, gift benevolence, ban, tax or surcharge
without the common consent of parliament.” “No freeman” will be detained in prison
without a show cause. Peition of right is called the step for transfer of sovereignty from
king to parliament.
1629-1640 – Charles I had his own government & parliament was not considered at all.
1640- 1660 – Long parliament – passed several acts to restrict the powers of the king.
It passed that king would not get any money without parliament’s approval. Crown
could not punish its opponent without a jury (the idea of jury emerged). Therefore,
Parliament emerged as an indispensable organ of state. The masses gradually joined the
rebellion and civil war’s seeds were sown.
Oliver Cromwell – a parliamentarian who led the civil war.
Charles I gave order to harass which was the beginning point of civil war.
Ordinance was to be passed with the seal of the crown. But for the 1st time, an ordinance
was passed without so, it gave rise to the troops of the parliament (army)- Charles I was
beheaded by parliament and MPs.
Oliver was the leader, he declared England as commonwealth.
Puritan revolution –
Follower of Cromwell known as puritans. Cromwell declared himself as word
protector. The chief executive sought to rule with council of state (nominated by
people), which was supposed work like parliament.
Commonwealth – England, Wales and Scotland. Check and balance on eac other
(Cromwell & Council of states).
System remained in force for 1653-58- failure –
1. EXECUTION OF THE KING
People didn’t have a problem with monarchy as an institution. They had a problem with
Charles I as a person. So, when the Puritans failed to provide proper governance, there was
unrest.
2. REPRESSION OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS AND THE HOUSE OF COMMONS
The Puritans abolished the House of Commons, which was representative in character. This
again, was a measure which people weren’t in favor of. The authoritarian attitude of the
Puritans began to come to light clearly. Further, anyone who did not agree with the
ideas/policies of the Puritans was removed from the Parliament.
 3. ABSENCE OF CONFIDENCE OF THE NATION
Puritans failed to get the confidence of the nation. For any government to survive, the opinion
of the masses is quintessential. Puritans failed to do anything which would make them worthy
of the people’s confidence. Often, their policies would alienate the masses. Though the
puritans were initially popular, this changed once they came into power.
4. RELIANCE ON THE ARMY
Reliance on army depicted the govt. as an authoritarian one. It looked like a military state at
one point of time. Hitler was able to get the confidence of the masses. Hence, though it was
like a military state, it survived.
THE GREAT RESTORATION, 1660
By 1658, there was an increased demand for the restoration of earlier institutions. The
Crown, the Church (marginalized previously by the Puritans) and the Parliament (Bicameral
Parliament: HoC & HoL) were restored. Monarchy returned.
The system then created was one in which no single institution could emerge supreme. In law
and in form, the King was supreme and sovereign. However, in fact, the parliament was
supreme. Parliament was the de facto head of the state. The king (Charles II) was the de facto
head.
Essentially, Sovereignty lies in the King in the Parliament (WTF?).
The King till now still had a lot of powers. Wasn’t merely a puppet. Eventually, with the Bill
of Rights, the post lost most of its powers.
The King had the following powers.
 Power to appoint important officers of the state
The king still remained the apex executive authority. Hence, the power of
appointment of officers remained with him. Example: Ministers, or solicitor general.
 Power to appoint judges
 Power over armed forces
 Power to singularly declare war & peace
 Powers in diplomatic relations
Conclusion/Abrogation of any treaty was in the hands of the King.
The Parliament had the following powers.
 Complete control over finance
If the King wanted any money, even for personal expenditure, he needed the
Parliament’s assent. In essence, it overrode most of the King’s functions.
 Appointed ministers answerable to Parliament
The Parliament could pass a resolution to remove ministers. It could cross examine
the ministers. They were responsible to the Parliament.
THE HABEUS CORPUS ACT, 1669
Empowered the people, gave them more rights. It contained three important provisions.
  No one could be kept in confinement for long.
 Any person imprisoned could be released on bail.
 ‘Justice delayed is justice denied’. This principle was followed. The right to speedy trial
was recognized.

THE BILL OF RIGHTS AND THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION

This was one of the most important documents of the time.
After Charles II, James II (1685-88) occupied the throne. Like some of his earlier
predecessors, he was keen on concentrating powers in his hands. Believer in the Divine Right
Theory. He wanted to weaken the Parliament and curb people’s liberties.
However, by this time, the Parliament had emerged as a strong body and he was exposed.
Parliament passed a resolution about his heinous acts, and he was forced to flee. He was
afraid of being hanged like Charles I. This was known as the glorious revolution. It was a
bloodless one which resulted in a complete change of the power structure.
At this point, the Parliament emerged as an indispensable body.
The daughter and son-in-law of James II, Mary and William occupied the throne. The Bill of
Rights was passed, which resulted in the King’s powers becoming negligible. He was treated
merely like a mayor of the palace. The concept of Limited Monarchy came up.
 Excessive & Cruel punishments were abolished.
 The Crown could not suspend the Parliament or the Constitution.
 Armed forces were no longer under the command of the Crown.

Real democracy still hadn’t come to England. Around the first decade of the 18th century, the
party system emerged in England. The Tory’s (The Conservative Party) and the Labour party
came up.