4 Transmission lines an d cables

single-phase line consisting of a conductor suspended above the ground has the
following parameters:
I R,L

V
G,C

L: series inductance R: series resistance

C: shunt capacitance G: shunt conductance

Distributed Parameter Model

R1.dx L1.dx R1.dx L1.dx

G1.dx C1.dx G1.dx C1.dx

dx

where L1, R1, G1, C1 are ‘per unit length’ quantities.

Relationship between sending end and receiving end phasor voltages and currents:

Is IR
distributed-parameter
Vs VR
length, l

Vs = {cosh(γl)}. VR + {Zc .sinh(γl)}.I R

 sinh(γl) 
Is =  . VR + {cosh(γl)}.I R
 Zc 

γ = propagation coefficient = (G1 + jωC1 )(. R1 + jωL1 )

where:
Z c = characteristic impedance =
(R1 + jωL1 )
(G1 + jωC1 )

4-1
3-phase line includes mutual inductance and capacitance, but can be modelled by an
equivalent 1-phase line with modified parameters.
For fully-loaded lines < 100km long, the current flow in parallel elements is < 1% of
the full-load current.

Nominal line models

nominal-T

Is IR
R/2 L/2 R/2 L/2
C
Vs VR
G

π
nominal-π

Is L IR
R
C/2 C/2
Vs VR
G/2 G/2

where R = R1.l etc.

Short-line model

Is IR
R L

Vs VR

suitable for use with short fully-loaded lines

4-2
Comparison of results from alternative line models
Line parameters:
Inductive reactance per km (pu) = 0.001 Resistance per km (pu) = 0.0001
Capacitive susceptance per km (pu) = 0.0001 Conductance per km (pu) =0.000025

Load conditions (where present):

Load voltage (pu) = 1 Load VA (pu) = 1 Load lagging power factor = 0.8

Nominal pi
Distributed

Nominal T

Short-line
parameter
model

model

model

model
50km line, loaded
sending end voltage magnitude (pu) = 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03
sending end voltage phase angle (deg) = 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05
sending end current magnitude (pu) = 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
sending end current phase angle (deg) = -36.59 -36.59 -36.59 -36.87
line loss (pu) = 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.005
200km line, loaded
sending end voltage magnitude (pu) = 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.15
sending end voltage phase angle (deg) = 7.47 7.47 7.47 7.42
sending end current magnitude (pu) = 0.99 0.99 0.99 1.00
sending end current phase angle (deg) = -35.73 -35.73 -35.73 -36.87
line loss (pu) = 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.020
50km line, unloaded
sending end voltage magnitude (pu) = 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
sending end voltage phase angle (deg) = 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
sending end current magnitude (pu) = 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00
sending end current phase angle (deg) = 75.96 75.96 75.97 0.00
line loss (pu) = 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.00
1000km line, unloaded
sending end voltage magnitude (pu) = 0.95 0.95 0.95 1.00
sending end voltage phase angle (deg) = 1.04 1.05 1.05 0.00
sending end current magnitude (pu) = 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.00
sending end current phase angle (deg) = 76.30 75.96 76.48 0.00
line loss (pu) = 0.025 0.026 0.024 0.00

4-3
Relationships between Line Parameters and Physical Layout

line inductance, L
for a 3-phase line:

dab
dca
b µ0  D 
L= .ln  H .m−1
2π  R 
dbc where:
c µ0 = permeability of space = 4π × 10 −7 H .m−1
R = effective conductor radius
D = geometric mean dis tan ce = 3 d ab × d bc × d ca

to simplify operation of the power system it is desirable to have low values of

inductance ⇒ small D and large R

decreasing D reduces the insulation between lines and is therefore limited by the
working voltage.
increasing R causes an increase in conductor weight and therefore cost.

bundle conductors: increase effective radius:

Cross-section of line for one-phase in the UK transmission system:

275kV 400kV

approx 30cms
approx 30cms

in comparison to a single solid conductor, bundle conductors:

! increase effective radius and therefore reduce inductance
! reduce skin effect
! have a larger surface area and therefore better cooling
! are easier to handle during construction

resistance, R

varies between:
0.5Ω/km for an 11kV distribution line, and
0.015Ω/km for a 400kV overhead line or a 33kV underground cable.
Resistance includes skin effect, which causes an increase in resistance of ~5% @50Hz
(in comparison to dc) in a 2.5cm diameter copper conductor.

4-4
typical conductor cross-section:

aluminium strands for conduction

galvanised steel strands for mechanical strength

capacitance, C

dv 2πε0
i=C C=
dt ln( D / R)

for a given working voltage and frequency, dv/dt is fixed, so to minimise charging
current, i, capacitance should be as small as possible;
low C ⇒ large D and small R : conflicts with the requirements for small L.

typical values for capacitive reactance (1/ωC):

200kΩ/km for a transmission line
4kΩ/km for an underground cable
so the charging current in an underground cable is much higher than in an overhead
transmission line.

conductance, G

models losses due to corona (discharge through air) and leakage currents across
insulator surfaces.
corona: if voltage gradient exceeds ~21kV (rms) / cm in dry air, insulation breaks
down
typical loss on a 400KV line:
! 600W/km in fine weather
! 90kW/km in snow or fog

Underground cable vs overhead transmission line

Cable is 15-20 times more expensive, because:
! insulation cost (overhead lines uses air insulation, which is free)
! resistance must be lower to reduce losses and give a reasonable operating
temperature, so more copper (superconductors?)
! installation cost: trench, continuous path across the ground
plus larger shunt capacitance, gives lower shunt reactance and more charging
current, limiting useful lengths to 15-20 km.

For longer lengths of cable (under the sea) use dc transmission:

50 Hz 50 Hz
converter dc link in cable converter

dc link also limit fault current, because it cannot transmit reactive power.

4-5