UNIT 25: SOUND

RECORDING
SIGNAL PATHS AND LEVELS, AUDIO-FILE FORMATS

Digital audio:
Digital audio only replicates the sampled sections of the
original sound wave, MP3 files are an example of this.

Analogue audio:
Analogue audio copies the sound perfectly and replicates
the original sound.

The potential accuracy of analog recording depends on the sensitivity of the equipment and medium
used to record and playback recording.
Even now, digital audio cannot be recreated with the exact replica of the original sound wave.
ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL
CONVERTORS
Analogue to Digital Converters (ADC) and Digital
to Analog Converter (DAC) are very important
components in electronic equipment. Since
most real world signals are analogue, these two
converting interfaces are necessary to allow
digital electronic equipment to process the
analog signals.
DECIBELS
A decibel (dB) is a unit used to measure sound
levels, the intensity of a sound or the power level of
an electrical signal comparing it with a given level on
a logarithmic scale.
Normal conversation is about 60dB, a lawn mower is
about 90 dB, loud concert is 120 dB
When recording, you need to be sure to record at
the optimum levels to capture the sound
OPTIMUM RECORDING LEVELS
Permitted maximum level (PML): highest volume a program or piece of hardware can accommodate without
resulting in distortion or clipping.
To achieve ORL you should set your recording levels as close to the permitted maximum level (PML) as
possible, without reaching or exceeding that limit. Reaching or exceeding the PML will result in distortion of
the signal.
The sound levels could possibly be boosted after recording with audio editing software. However, clipping is
very difficult to fix, so it is advised to record sound with a certain amount of headroom or the space between
the peak signal during the recording and the PML.
For digital recording, aim to record at 24-bit rather than 16-bit. Aim to get recording levels on a track averaging
about –18dBFS. Avoid any peaks going higher than –6dBFS. DBFS means decibels Full Scale. The maximum
digital level is 0dBFS over which you get nasty digital clipping.
SOUND FILE FORMATS
LOSSLESS AND LOSSY
Lossless compression means that as the file size is
compressed, the audio quality remains the same.
The file can also be restored back to its original
state. FLAC and ALAC are open source lossless
compression formats. Lossless compression can
reduce file sizes by up to 50% without losing quality.
It shrinks the whole file while maintaining the
quality.

Lossy compression permanently removes data. With

lossy compression, the original bit depth is reduced
to remove data and reduce the file size. The bit
depth becomes variable. MP3 and AAC are lossy
compressed audio fil formats widely supported on
different platforms. MP3 and AAC are both patented
codecs. Ogg Vorbis is an open source alternative for
lossy compression. It can reduce the quality of the
file and is permanently lost.
MONO AND STEREO
RECORDING AND REPLAY
In monaural sound one single channel is used. It can be
reproduced through several speakers, but all speakers are still
reproducing the same copy of the signal.

In stereophonic sound more channels are used (typically two).

You can use two different channels and make ones feed one
speaker and the second channel feed a second speaker (which is
the most common stereo setup). This is used to create
directionality, perspective, space.
UNCOMPESSED FILES
 WAV
Waveform Audio File Format (which is
commonly known as WAV)
is a Microsoft and IBM audio file
format standard for storing an
audio bitstream on PCs.
COMPACT DISC DIGITAL AUDIO
Compact Disc Digital
Audio (CDDA or CD-DA), also
known as Audio CD, is
the standard format
for audio compact discs.
AIFF
Audio Interchange File Format is
an audio file format standard used for
storing sound data
for personal computers and other
electronic audio devices. This type of
AIFF file uses much more disk space
than lossy formats like MP3—about 10
MB for one minute of stereo audio at a
sample rate of 44.1 kHz and a bit depth
of 16 bits.
PCM​
Pulse Code Modulation is a
raw file format (meaning it is
not compressed) used for
storing digital audio.​
COMPRESSED LOSSLESS FILES
APPLE.M4A
Apple Lossless is an audio coding format,
and its reference audio
codec implementation, developed ATRAC
by Apple Inc. for lossless data Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding is an audio compression
compression of digital music, M4A stands developed by Sony. ATRAC allowed a relatively small disc like
for MPEG 4 Audio. Both M4A MiniDisc to have the same running time as CD while storing
and MP3 file extensions are used for audio information with minimal loss in perceptible quality.
audio-only files. M4A files are
unprotected.

WINDOWS MEDIA LOSSLESS

MPEG-4
Moving Picture Experts Group-4 is
a method of
defining compression of audio
and visual digital data. MPEG4
files are commonly used for
distributing video content over
the web and for streaming videos
on the Internet.
Windows Media Audio (WMA) is a series
of audio codecs and their corresponding audio
coding formats developed by Microsoft. This
provides the highest quality WMA format. It
uses the same .WMA file extension as other
Windows Media Audio formats
COMPRESSED LOSSY FILES
MP3
An MP3 is an audio file, which can be music, narrative or any other form
of audio recording. The MP3 starts off as a very high quality digital
recording. This master recording is then digitally compressed to allow it to
take up less space on a storage device. Without this compression, an MP3
player would only be capable of storing around 10% of its normal number
of tracks.

VORBIS
Vorbis is an open source patent-
free audio compression format. Vorbis files (.ogg extension)
compress to a smaller size than MP3 files, which reduces
bandwidth and storage requirements.

WMA
Windows Media Audio is the standard audio format
used by Windows Media Player and compatible
hardware. A lossless version of WMA does exist, but
most WMA files use a lossy compression system.
MICROPHONES
 OMNIDIRECTIONAL MICROPHONES

Omnidirectional microphones are

microphones that pick up sound with
equal gain from all sides or directions
of the microphone. This means that
whether a user speaks into the
microphone from the front, back, left
or right side, the microphone will
record the signals all with equal gain.
BIDIRECTIONAL MICROPHONE

Bidirectional microphones are

microphones that pick up sound well,
or with high sensitivity, from the
front and back but poorly, or with
low sensitivity, from the sides.
For example, this microphone can be
shared between to singers facing
each other to capture the sound
from both sides.
 UNIDIRECTIONAL MICROPHONE

Unidirectional Microphones are

microphones that only pick up sound
with high gain from a specific side or
direction of the microphone. Thus, if a
user is speaking into a unidirectional
microphone, he must speak into correct
side, normally called the voice side, of
the microphone in order to get good gain
on the recording.
This microphone can be used for
speakers as the sound is being picked up
from one direction and can prevent less
background noises.
 CARDIOID MICROPHONE

Cardioid Microphones are microphones

that pick up sounds with high gain from the
front and sides but poorly from the rear.
Cardioid microphones are used in
applications where sound needs to be
picked up from the front and sides but not
the rear. An example of this may be musical
performance where a singer may be singing
in the front, a band playing instruments on
the sides, with an audience of viewers in
the back. In a scenario, it may be desired
only to record the music, the singer in front
and band on the sides, but not the
audience in the rear.
 HYPERCARDIOID MICROPHONE

Hypercardioid patterns are similar

to cardioid patterns in that the primary sensitivity
is in the front of the microphone. They differ,
however, in that the point of least sensitivity is at
the 150 – 160 and 200 – 210 degree positions (as
opposed to directly behind the microphone in a
cardioid pattern). Hypercardioid microphones are
thus considered even more directional than
cardioid microphones because they have less
sensitivity at their sides and only slightly more
directly behind. Hypercardioid microphones
are frequently used in situations where a lot of
isolation is desired between sound sources.
 SHOTGUN MICROPHONE

A shotgun microphone is a directional

microphone that must be pointed
directly at its target sound source for
good recording. Shotgun
microphones use unidirectional
microphones to achieve this high
of concentration on the sound source
to record the sound. This microphone
is suitable for any interviews as this can
focus on just the persons voice,
pointing the microphone away from
any noise to avoid the mic picking it up
 COIL MICROPHONE

A coil microphone is one of the most

widely used forms of free standing
microphones. It is commonly used for
vocals for musical performances. It is
very sturdy and can tolerate
comparatively rough handling. This
mic relies on the fact that if a wire held
within a magnetic field is moved then an
electric current is induced.
 RIBBON MICROPHONE

A ribbon mic is a special kind of dynamic microphone. Instead

of a moving coil attached to a diaphragm, ribbon mics
feature an extremely thin strip of metal (often aluminum)
suspended in a strong magnetic field. Ribbon microphones
are also known for being quiet and dark as the ribbons
react more to lower frequencies than higher frequencies.
 CONDENSER MICROPHONE

Condenser microphones capture a larger

frequency range and have a good transient
response, which is the ability to reproduce the
speed of an instrument or voice. They also
generally have a louder output but are much
more sensitive to loud sounds. Condenser
microphones are generally used only in studios
because of their sensitivity to loud sounds and
the fact that they're quite a bit more fragile
than their dynamic counterparts. This
microphone is ideal for recording podcasts.
MICROPHONE ACCESSORIES
 MICROPHONE BOOM STAND
A microphone boom stand can be used for unidirectional microphones
as it is brought up closer to where the person is speaking. The person
could be standing still or sitting down where they are in one spot
throughout the whole thing. An omnidirectional, unidirectional or
shotgun mic may be the most ideal for this equipment as it is focusing on
the sound in front of it, or it can be used for more than one person at
once.

BOOM POLE MIC

This can be used for people standing up rather than a stand to make
something seem more professional. The holder of this pole is able
to follow the microphone with the person.
LAVALIER MICROPHONE
This device is used to allow people to speak without using their
hands. They are usually provided with small clips for attaching to
collars, ties, or other clothing. The cord can sometimes be hidden
by clothes and either run to a radio frequency transmitter kept in a
pocket or clipped to a belt, or could be routed directly to the mixer
or a recording device. This accessory is usually used for people
who do television or theatre activities.

SHOCK MOUNT
The function of a shock mount is to prevent vibration traveling
up the mic stand from getting to the diaphragm of the mic. It
prevents any sounds such as foot tapping, bass sound and any
other sounds that can cause vibrations from being picked up by
the microphone.
POP FILTER
This accessory is used as a protection filter to prevent any popping
noises caused by fast moving air when you are recording any
speech or singing. For example, the word "pain" has a lot of
emphasis and is a plosive word as the letter 'p' causes sudden
change in air pressure. It is placed a few inches away from the
microphone and would need to be clipped onto a stand, so it is
necessary that you would need a stand along with the
microphone.

WINDSCREEN
Windscreens are typically made with foam and is designed
to fit over the microphone. It reduces high pressure when
speaking into the microphone. It is similar to a pop filter
but windscreens dampen higher frequencies better. These
can be used for omnidirectional microphones as sound is
detected from all directions and may need a filter to help
prevent any sharp noises from being picked up while
recording.
SOUND RECORDING STUDIO
EQUIPMENT
SOUND RECORDING STUDIO EQUIPMENT
Equipment for a professional sound recording
studio:

Typical equipment would be needed such as;

• A computer
• Headphones
• Mic
• DAW (Digital Audio Workspace)
• Audio interface (purpose of providing all the
necessary connections to send your music:
INTO the computer when recording, and OUT
the computer during playback)
• Studio monitors (Speakers)
• Cables
• Microphone stands and accessories
SOUND RECORDING STUDIO EQUIPMENT
POWER CONDITIONER
Consolidates power for the entire rack down to a single
cable instead of having a half-dozen power cables
sticking out the back of your rack from each unit.

RACK MOUNT
Allows multiple sound sources which is a major
difference from an amateur to professional where a
typical desktop recording can only provide a small
number of simultaneous tracks
 SOUND RECORDING STUDIO EQUIPMENT
PREAMP
An electronic amplifier that converts a weak electrical signal into an output signal
strong enough to be noise tolerant and strong enough for further processing.
Without this, the final signal would be noisy or distorted.

SNAKE CABLES
A way of organising XLR cables so that your studio
becomes less cluttered

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY

Essentially functioning as a back-up battery, a UPS gives you several minutes of
power to shut down your computer safely in the event of a blackout
SOUND RECORDING STUDIO EQUIPMENT
REFLECTION FILTERS
Intended mainly for vocal recording, this device allows you to skip
the hassle of treating your entire studio by instead capturing
sound reflections before they ever enter the room. While
noticeably less effective than proper acoustic treatment, they're
still way better than nothing at all. It is also cheaper to purchase.

DIFFUSERS
An important element of their acoustic treatment plan because
creates a nice natural ambience without removing too much of
the "liveliness" from the room. Diffusers do this by scattering
whatever sound energy exists in the room allowing all the
frequencies to disperse randomly, rather than building up
unnaturally in certain spots. Common wisdom states though, that
diffusion is significantly less effective in smaller rooms.
SOUND RECORDING STUDIO EQUIPMENT
BASS TRAPS
Bass traps offer broadband absorption across the entire
frequency spectrum, and are particular good at absorbing
lower frequencies which cause the majority of problems in
any studio, especially in smaller rooms.

ACOUSTIC PANELS
Great at absorbing frequencies in the low-mid to high range.
They are particular good at taming standing waves which
have a tendency to cause major acoustic problems in rooms
with parallel was, where sound reflections bounce back and
forth in the same spot
LOCATION BASED EQUIPMENT
BROADCAST RECORDER
TASCAM'S HS-P82 is an example of a location based sound recorder
that offers 8 tracks and microphones for high quality recording, yet
built for the rigors of location recording with reliable solid-state
performance.
Standard XLR microphone inputs include phantom power (running off
the power provided from the input) and analog limiting, with MIC &
LINE level trims controlled from recessed front-panel controls

HANDHELD RECORDERS
There are a variety of semi professional handheld recorders you can
get that can be plugged into cameras or not. However you would be
more likely to use a broadcast recorder for a professional shoot then
this type of handheld device
CABLES
USB
Universal Serial Bus is the most commonly used computer
port. With the help of a few USB hubs, you can connect up to 127
peripherals to a single USB port and use them all at once.

FIREWIRE CABLE
Firewire is commonly used to connect digital camcorders,
external hard drives. Firewire has the advantage of being able
to transfer power to the device through the same cable that
does the data transfer. A disadvantage of Firewire is that
cables tend to be more expensive.

THUNDERBOLT CABLE
Thunderbolt is an interconnect technology developed by Intel in cooperation
with Apple. Thunderbolt can provide power to connected peripheral devices.
Multiple devices can be connected in sequence to a single Thunderbolt port.
MIDI CABLE
Musical Instrument Digital Interface is a protocol made for recording and
playing back music on digital synthesizers. It was originally intended to
control one keyboard from another but it was then quickly adapted for the
personal computer.

DIGITAL CABLE
A digital cable is an enhanced service from the cable companies
that provides an option to the regular analog TV. It is
the distribution of cable television using digital video
compression.

RCA CONNECTOR - UNBALANCED

RCA Audio Cables are an unbalanced analog
audio connection that sends stereo audio over the red
tip and the white or black tip.
 STEREO MINI JACK
CONNECTOR – BALANCED
This is a electrical connector
that is usually used
for analog audio signals.
They are on almost all of our
phones as headphone
outputs and most speakers
have them as the inputs to
play music into. Because
they follow the TRS format,
they are stereo.
TS CONNECTOR
TS stands for Tip/Stem which means you have
will have two wires. TS cables are generally
used for mono, unbalanced signals. In
comparison to the TRS connector, it has one
ring rather than two.
TRS CONNECTOR
TRS (Tip, Ring, and Sleeve) refers to
the parts of the jack plug that the
different conductors are connected
to. The jack plug at the top is a TS
jack. The pointed metal bit at the end
is the tip, and the long metal shaft is
the sleeve. The black band between
them is an insulator preventing the
two parts of the jack from shorting
together.
X-LRS BALANCED
TS stands for Tip/Stem which means you have will have two wires. TS
cables are generally used for mono, unbalanced signals. The
cartridge only has a hot and cold but no zero volt rail. This connects
to various hardware inputs and the most commonly used is the 3-pin
XLR.

Balanced audio uses three conductors to carry the

audio signal. Two of the conductors carry negative
and positive signals (audio is an AC signal), and the
third is used for grounding. With an unbalanced
signal, there are only two conductors. One carries
positive, the carries negative and is also used for
ground.
ACOUSTIC SETTINGS
CHURCH
A church hall would have many
echoes due to it not having much
soft furniture, such as carpets which
help absorb background noises
better than hard floors such as
concrete which bounces off them.
A Sony UWP-D11 lavalier
microphone may be suitable for this
particular area as it is placed closer
to the mouth and can capture
clearer and quality sounds. The
person being recorded may also be
walking around which can allow the
person to do a hands-free video. A
windscreen could possibly be put
over the microphone to prevent any
harsh sounds.
CITY
This is more difficult as there is a
lot of ambient sounds of the
busy city. It would need a
microphone that takes sound
near to the person and from one
direction, for example a
unidirectional microphone, it
doesn’t pick up sound well if it
was to come from the sides,
which would be appropriate for
this loud area. A shock mount
should also be used as this
prevent any vibrations being
captured by the mic, due to any
vehicles that may be in the city
during recording.
SPORTS FIELD
This area would have many ambient
sounds such as wind, trees and
even birds. A mic that detects
sounds from one direction would be
appropriate for this area and would
need to be faced towards the object
or person they are recording.
A shotgun microphone would be
appropriate for recording in this area
as it can focus on the sound that is
directly coming from the front
of the microphone and wouldn’t
pick up much echoes. A boom pole
would be suitable for this as the
person can stand directly
underneath the microphone so it
can detect the sound that is right
underneath it.