CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Foreign Literature

Solid Waste

Universal waste can be defined in a number of different

ways.

The term ‘solid waste’ is used to include all non-liquid

wastes generated by human activity and a range of solid waste
material resulting from the disaster, such as general domestic
garbage such as food waste, ash and packaging materials; human
faeces disposed of in garbage; emergency waste such as plastic
water bottles and packaging from other emergency supplies; rubble
resulting from the disaster; mud and slurry deposited by the
natural disaster; and allen trees and rocks obstructing transport
and communications. Other specialist wastes, such as medical
waste from hospitals and toxic waste from industry, will also
need to be dealt with urgently, but they are not covered by this
technical note (World Health Organization, 2011).

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)

defines universal waste as a set of hazardous materials that is
generated in a wide variety of settings, by a vast community,
which is present in significant volumes in nonhazardous waste
systems (USEPA, 2005). The USEPA restricts the definition to four
classes of materials: batteries, mercury-containing equipment,
pesticides, and lamps.

In California, legislation defines universal waste as

hazardous wastes which are generated by households and businesses
(CDTSC, 2010) that contain mercury, lead, cadmium, copper and
other substances which are hazardous to human and environmental
health (CDTSC, 2007). In California, there are seven designated
types of universal waste: electronic devices, batteries, electric
lamps, mercury-containing equipment, CRTs, CRT glass, and
nonempty aerosol cans (CDTSC, 2010). Guidelines and regulations
governing the handling and processing of universal waste are less
stringent than hazardous waste regulations, thus allowing the
hazards of universal waste to be recognized while allowing for
greater flexibility in processing and treatment than with
hazardous wastes (CDTSC, 2007; 2010; 2008; USEPA, 2005).

Universal waste can differ by region, but will generally

possess certain characteristics such as: - posing certain
environmental or health risks rendering it unsuitable for
processing and disposal through regular municipal solid waste
streams; - posing lower risks than designated hazardous wastes; -
being generated by a wide variety of people, businesses, and
settings; (CDTSC, 2007; 2008; 2010; USEPA, 2005)

The Universal waste definition is not commonly used in

Canada to date; however, provides a logical way of grouping
related material. Many products in this category would typically
be consumer based household hazardous waste as opposed to
hazardous waste as described under the Transportation of
Dangerous Goods.

Classification of Waste

The classification of wastes varies and depends country by

country. Waste can be divided into many different types. The most
common method of classification is by their physical, chemical,
and biological characteristics.

1. Solid Waste. Solid waste is broadly defined as including non-

hazardous industrial, commercial land domestic refuse including
household organic trash, street sweepings, hospital and
institutional garbage, and construction wastes; generally sludge
and human waste are regarded as a liquid waste problem outside
the scope of MSW (Zerbock, 2003).These are waste materials that
contain less than 70% water. Example of this type of waste are
the domestic or household garbage, some industrial wastes, some
mining wastes, and oil field wastes such as drill cuttings.

2. Liquid Waste. These are usually wastewaters that contain less

than 1%. This type of waste may contain high concentration of
dissolved salts and metals. Liquid wastes are often classified
into two broad types: sewage and toxic wastes. Generally, there
are various types of liquid waste generated in urban centers:
human excreta, domestics wastes produced in households, hospital
wastes, industrial effluents, agricultural liquid wastes a n d
nuclear wastes. When improperly handled and disposed
of, liquid wastes pose a serious threat to human
health and the environment because of their ability
to e n t e r watersheds, pollute ground water and drinking water
(US EPA, 2009)

3. Sludge. It is a class of waste between liquid and solid. They

usually contain between 3%and 25% solid, while the rest of the
material is dissolved water.

4. Hazardous Waste Hazardous wastes are wastes which, by

themselves or after coming into contact with other wastes, have
characteristics, such as chemical reactivity, toxicity,
corrosiveness or a tendency to explode, that pose a risk to human
health or the environment. Hazardous wastes are generated from a
wide range of industrial, commercial, and agricultural.

Waste Streams

Municipal solid wastes (MSW) is often described as the

waste that is produced from residential and industrial (non-
process wastes), commercial and institutional sources with the
exception of hazardous and universal wastes, construction and
demolition wastes, and liquid wastes (water, wastewater,
industrial processes) (Tchobanoglous & Kreith, 2002). In Nova
Scotia, MSW is defined through the Solid Waste-Resource
Management Regulations (1996) which state that MSW “..includes
garbage, refuse, sludge, rubbish, tailings, debris, litter and
other discarded materials resulting from residential, commercial,
institutional and industrial activities which are commonly
accepted at a municipal solid waste management facility, but
excludes wastes from industrial activities regulated by an
approval issued under the Nova Scotia Environment Act” (SWRMR,
1996).

Materials which are organic or recyclable are excluded from

this definition, and so MSW in Nova Scotia is significantly
different from that in many other jurisdictions. This definition
of MSW works together with a legislated landfill ban which
prohibits certain materials from landfill (Appendix C) to ensure
that only certain materials are entering landfills. Banned
materials cannot be disposed of and are processed through
alternative methods (SWRM, 1996); typically recycling, reuse, or
composting. The designation of materials into specific categories
such as organics, recyclables, and garbage can differ by region,
therefore organizations must ensure that waste is separated
according to local area by-laws.

Construction and demolition (C&D) waste consists of

materials which are normally produced as a result of construction,
demolition, or renovation projects and can be a significant
source of waste for all organizations in the ICI sector.
According to the Nova Scotia Solid Waste-Resource Management
Regulations (1996), C&D waste/debris “includes, but is not
limited to, soil, asphalt, brick, mortar, drywall, plaster,
cellulose, fibreglass fibres, gyproc, lumber, wood, asphalt
shingles, and metals” .

Hazardous wastes are substances which are potentially

hazardous to human health and/or the environment. As such, they
typically require special disposal techniques to eliminate or
reduce the hazards they pose (Meakin, 1992). Hazardous wastes are
handled differently across different provinces; 4 however, many
provinces, including Nova Scotia, have adopted the federal
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Regulations to manage hazardous
wastes. Hazardous wastes are typically classified by product
type; however, it is important to consider that material
properties and concentrations can impact the dangers and risks
posed by certain materials (N. P. Cheremisinoff & P. N.
Cheremisinoff, 1995). Knowledge of the properties of certain
materials and products is essential, but information on
impurities, trace materials, and intermediate by-products may
also be needed since they can be potentially hazardous in certain
quantities or forms.

3R’s Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

The Environmental Protection Agency has determined a
three tiered approach for managing solid waste. Each of these
should be practiced to reduce the amount material headed for
final disposal. They are in order of importance: REDUCE, the best
way to manage solid waste. Don't create waste in the first place!
Buy only what you need. Use all that you buy. Avoid heavily
packaged products. Avoid disposable items like paper plates and
plastic silverware. Buy the largest size package for those items
that you use are often.

REUSE, the better way to manage solid waste. Reuse items

use them over and over until they are completely worn out.
RECYCLE, the good way to manage solid waste. Recycle means taking
something old and making it into something new. In Seminole
County, all residents who live in a single family home can
recycle right in front of their house. Those residents who live
in apartments or condominiums can drop off their recyclables at
several different locations. Old newspapers, #1 and #2 plastic
bottles, green, clear and brown glass bottles and jars, aluminum
and steel cans can all be recycled at the curb. Simply rinse out
containers and remove lids. That's it; it's very simple and very
worthwhile. Not only does it keep items out of the landfill,
recycling conserves natural resources (Seminole County Government,
2012).

Our insatiable desire to constantly upgrade disposable

technology and consume over-packaged products has continued
unabated for decades. At the same time however, there has been a
trend away from both burning waste in incinerators and burying it
in landfills. Waste management policies now seek to minimize
waste disposal by reducing its generation and by reusing and
recycling.(Healey, 2011).

DISPOSAL

There are many stringent regulations governing the

treatment and disposal of waste in the UK, both onshore and
offshore, and in most other countries as well. Facilities
involved in waste transfer and treatment require licenses, and
all personnel who work at such facilities require the proper kind
of training that goes with the handling of waste that can often
be dangerous if not handled properly. Waste management facilities
also need to be able to respond quickly to emergency situations.
By their very nature there is rarely any warning that an
emergency is about to occur. For that reason emergency response
teams need to be on standby every hour of every day, and every
day of every year. Waste management disposal and treatment can
originate from both domestic and industrial sources (Rose, 2009).

Some countries, on the other hand, manage most of their

solid waste through incinerators.

Incineration, or the controlled burning of waste at high

temperatures to produce steam and ash, is another waste disposal
option and an alternative to landfill (US Environmental
Protection Agency, 2009).

Incinerators are designed for the destruction of wastes and are

commonly employed in developed nations who could afford the costs
of the burning facilities, plus its operation and maintenance (Mc
Cracken, 2005).This type of waste disposal is the second largest
disposal method in most developed countries and ranks next to
landfills in the United States and the United Kingdom. In the UK,
approximately 5% of household waste, 75 % of commercial lwaste
and 2% of industrial waste is disposed of through this method
(Baker,2005).

A further benefit of incineration can be realized if the

heat generated thereby is recovered. For years, European
cities h a v e generated electricity using waste-disposal
incinerators as sources of heat (Montgomery,2000).There are
negative issues, however, in the use of this burning method
and much of that circulate around its safety for the
environment and to the human health. It is argued that
the combustion process creates air pollution, ash,
and waste water, all of which must be properly managed using
technical monitoring, containment, and treatment systems.
Harmful pollutants are released into the environment
whenever these by-products are not controlled (US EPA,
2009).Operators of these facilities must be well-trained
and certified to ensure
proper management.(http://www.scribd.com/doc/24935162/Review-of-
related-literature-waste-and-waste-managment)

2.2 Local Literature

Historically, solid waste management did not get any

specific attention in policy and legislation except as part of
the larger domain of environmental issues on utilization,
protection and conservation, management of natural resources and
the regulation of behaviour causing negative impact on the
environment (Rebullida, 2000). It was provided however in Article
11 of the Philippine Constitution, that the State shall protect
and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful
ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature. Thus,
the Philippine government take into consideration the
promulgation of various Presidential Decrees and the enactment of
several Republic Acts which took direct action on solid waste
management.
 The most recent of which is R.A. 9003 or the Ecological
Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 which serves as the legal
framework for the country’s systematic, comprehensive and
ecological solid waste management program that shall ensure
protection of public health and the environment. It empowers
local government units to actively pursue their own SWM systems
through preparation of a 10-year SWM plans; creation of a SWM
Board responsible for the preparation and implementation of a
plan for the safe and sanitary management of solid waste;
mandatory segregation of waste; implementation of recycling
programs; setting up a Material Recovery Facility; prohibition of
open dumpsites as final disposal facility; promoting the
establishment of multipurpose environmental cooperatives and
associations responsible for undertaking SWM activities or
projects; provision of monetary and other rewards and incentives
to entities that have undertaken outstanding and innovative SWM
programs; encouragement of LGUs to impose fees sufficient to pay
the cost of preparing and implementing their SWM plans; creation
of a local SWM fund from donations, collection of fines and fees,
and allocation from the development fund; and definition of
prohibited acts, penalties, suits and other legal actions
concerning R.A. 9003.

The 10-year SWM plan of an LGU should put emphasis on

implementing feasible and environmentally sound techniques of
waste minimization such as re-use, recycling, and composting
programs. It should identify the amount of landfill and
transformation capacity needed for solid waste that cannot be re-
used, recycled or composted. The 10-year SWM plan must comply
with R.A. 9003 which mandates that 25 percent of all solid waste
must be diverted from disposal facilities within a period of five
years from the time R.A. 9003 takes effect. In order to develop a
comprehensive provincial SWM plan which will take off from the
municipal/city SWM plans, a provincial SWM Board must be created.
LGUs should evaluate the roles of the public and private sectors
in providing collection services that will conform with the
minimum standards and requirements for collection of solid waste.
 Such standards that must be met are use of protective
equipment by collectors, nonspillage of waste within collection
vicinity, separate collection schedules for specific types of
waste, separate trucks/haulers or compartmentalized collection
vehicles. Recycling programs will be implemented with the support
of Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), Department of
Agriculture (D.A.), and the Department of the Interior and Local
Government (DILG).

It is the DTI that is responsible for preparing an

inventory of existing markets for processing and purchasing of
recyclable materials and implementing a coding system for
packaging materials and products to facilitate waste recycling
and re-use. It is the responsibility of the D.A. to publish an
inventory of existing markets and demand for compost. Material
Recovery Facilities (M.R.F.) should be put up in every barangay
or cluster of barangays to receive mixed waste for final sorting,
segregation, composting, and recycling before non-recyclable
wastes are transferred to a storage or disposal facility.
Existing open dumpsites shall be converted into controlled
dumpsites within three years from the effectivity date of the law.
Sanitary landfills shall be developed and operated as final
disposal sites in conformance with the guidelines and criteria
provided by the law for the location and establishment of
sanitary landfills.

Tax credit and duty exemption to individuals and private

organizations who have undertaken outstanding and innovative SWM
programs shall be granted. LGUs shall adopt specific revenue-
generating measures to ensure the viability of their plans.
Allocation from the development fund shall be used for activities
that will enhance the SWM programs such as research, information,
education and communications, and capability building (PhilCanada
Local Government Support Program, 2003).

Rebullida (2000) cited some problems associated with the

traditional solid waste management such as increasing volume of
solid wastes, lack of disposal sites, ineffective age-old system
of disposal by open dumping and landfills and environmental
degradation and dangers to health. A greater volume of wastes was
brought about by an increased population and rise of more
businesses and industries. When the government lack funds, it
cannot cope with the increasing volume of waste. A related
problem is scavenging by poor people whose health are at risk due
to the effects of improper waste management.

2.3 Foreign Studies

Environmental Awareness and Education: A Key Approach to Solid

Waste Management (SWM) – A Case Study of a University in Malaysia

This study first identify what is solid waste which is

defined as generation of undesirable substances which is left
after they are used once and can also be defined as the useless
and unwanted products in the solid state derived from the
activities of and discarded by society.

“There is no material in this world, which is not useful in

one-way or the other. Also there is no material, which is created
out of nothing. It is man’s ignorance that he considers certain
things as waste and other thing as useful. Just as types of
wastes are changing, so must the attitude of people towards waste
must change. People must realize that the solution lies in using
waste as a resource rather than to be destroyed. Only due to
hazardous to human health, some of these undesirable substances
cannot be directly reused”. (Asmawati Desa, 2012)

The study further discovered that for those who had

children aged 5-14 years old, most information about solid waste
management received at school influenced their household. This
indicates that school campaigns and focused on recycling can
increase awareness and attitudes toward solid waste management
among children and their parents. Reports on solid waste
management recommended that recycling habit needs to be
established in relation to sustainability solid waste.
 “In 1992 the World Bank has identified that solid waste is
one of the three major environmental problems faced by most
municipalities in Malaysia. The amount of solid waste generated
went up from 17,000 tons per day in 2002 to 19,100 tons in 2005,
an average of 0.8 kilogram per capita per day. Currently, over
23,000 ton of waste is produced each day in Malaysia. However,
this amount is expected to rise to 30,000 ton by the year 2020.
In the state of Selangor alone, waste generated in 1997 was over
3000t/day and the amount of waste is expected to rise up to
5700t/day in the year 2017”. (Global Environment Center Malaysia,
2000)

The amount of waste generated continues to increase due to

growing population and increasing development. Modern lifestyle
of the Malaysian has led to more acute waste problems,
convenience products generally require more packaging, careless
habits associated with greater affluence lead to greater
quantities of waste, as demonstrated by discarded wrappers from
the inevitable fast food outlet, and the modern day waste
contains a higher proportion of non-degradable materials such as
plastics.

“Despite the massive amount and complexity of waste

produced, the standards of waste management in Malaysia are still
poor. These include outdated and poor documentation of waste
generation rates and its composition, inefficient storage and
collection systems, disposal of municipal wastes with toxic and
hazardous waste, indiscriminate disposal or dumping of wastes and
inefficient utilization of disposal site space. Litter at the
roadside, drains clogged up with rubbish and rivers filled with
filthy garbage definitely indicate that solid waste is a major
environmental problem in Malaysia”. (Cornerstone Content
Management System.Solid Waste in Malaysia, 2002)

Their situation has been and will be reducing their

environmental capacity to sustain life. If the present rate of
solid-waste production goes on without effective supervision and
disposal methods, there will be a substantial negative impact on
the quality of their environment. Furthermore, the lack of
awareness and knowledge among Malaysian community about solid
waste management (SWM) issues, and being ignorant about the
effect that improper SWM has to them has definitely worsened the
problem.

However, since 2007 environmental awareness is building up

within the Malaysian government as well as in consumers’ minds.
The government has adopted a National Strategic Plan for Solid
Waste Management with emphasis on the upgrading of unsanitary
landfills as well as the construction of new sanitary landfills
and transfer stations with integrated material recovery
facilities. A new Solid Waste Management Bill was adopted by
parliament in June 2007. The bill is to drastically change the
structure of solid waste management in Malaysia and to open up
for the development of a completely new business sector. New
concessions on domestic waste management will be introduced, as
well as recycling, and handling of specific types of solid waste
like plastic, paper etc. is highlighted. Solid waste management
is a priority area under the 9th Malaysian Plan, as can be seen
by the government setting up a Solid Waste Department which is
entrusted to enforce the Solid Waste Management Bill. (Asmawati
Desa, 2012)

According to the study, students’ awareness about

environmental problems and solutions can be increased through
education. That it is expected that solid waste management
activities in their university campus involve the students as
part of their learning process. The particular skills and
knowledge gained from environmental education would help them in
changing human behaviour towards the environment. Students with
some knowledge and skills on environmental education are more
motivated to take part in environmental protection activities and
plans. Thus would generate new ideas for the solution of
environmental problems. Sharing new information from their
activities with families, other adults, and community probably
will have some positive implications on solid waste management
practices.
 Another case study across North America conducted by
Whoilistic Environmental Consulting (WEC, 2007), yard and food
waste make up over a quarter of all the ordinary garbage we throw
away. That's 25% by weight. In the U.S., that 25% is almost
equally divided between yard waste (32.6 million tons, or 12.8%
of all MSW) and food scraps (31.7 million tons, or 12.5%). And
then there's all the other organic stuff that could be composted:
all the clothing, towels, and bedding made of organic fibers,
plus wood, old furniture and sawdust. Then there's paper, which
at 83 million tons accounts for another 30% of municipal solid
waste. As of 2006, the latest year for which figures are
available, over 64% of the yard waste we throw away was recovered
and composted, as was 54.5% of the paper and cardboard. Only 2.6%
of food waste reached a compost heap.

2.4 Local Studies

The experiences and practices of household waste management

of people in a barangay (village) in Manila, Philippines are
documented. The data were gathered through an interview with
household members using open-ended questions. Interviews were
also conducted with garbage collectors as well as scavengers.

Results showed that the households generated an average of

3.2 kg of solid waste per day, or 0.50 kg/capita/day. The types
of wastes commonly generated are food/kitchen wastes, papers, PET
bottles, metals, and cans, boxes/cartons, glass bottles,
cellophane/plastics, and yard/garden wastes.

The respondents segregate their wastes into PET bottles,

glass bottles, and other waste (mixed wastes). No respondents
perform composting. It is worth noting, however, that burning of
waste is not done by the respondents. The households rely on
garbage collection by the government. Collection is done twice
daily, except Sundays, and household members bring their garbage
when the garbage truck arrives. However, there are those who dump
their garbage in non-designated pick-up points, usually in a
corner of the street.

The dumped garbage becomes a breeding ground for disease-

causing organisms. Some household respondents said that it is
possible that the dumping in certain areas caused the dengue
fever suffered by some of their family members. Mothers and
household helpers are responsible for household waste management.

Scavengers generally look for recyclable items in the

dumped garbage. All of them said that it is their only source of
income, which is generally not enough for their meals. Most of
the respondents said that garbage collection and disposal is the
responsibility of the government. The results of the study showed
that RA 9003, also known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management
Act of 2000, is not fully implemented in Metro Manila (Bernardo,
2008).
This study highlights the results of the study that was
conducted to analyze the solid waste management practices of the
waste generators, and the extent of their compliance with the
Republic Act 9003, otherwise known as the Ecological Solid Waste
Management Act of 2000. The study was conducted in Bacolod City,
Philippines in 2007. The findings of this study served as basis
in developing a handbook on solid waste management (Ballados,
2010).
The Motiong town government in Samar has vowed to intensify
the implementation of its Solid Waste Management Program after
barangay chairmen here took at one-day seminar-workshop on the
program. The activity was held at the Legislative Building here
last Wednesday, August 29.Motiong Mayor Francisco M. Langi Sr.
said 30 barangay chairmen of his municipality attended said
seminar-workshop sponsored by the town government conducted
Municipal Planning and Development Officer, Engr. NicasioPermejo.
Langi said all the barangay chairmen were educated on the
provisions of the Solid Waste Management Act of 2003 so that they
would be acquainted with and help implement the law in their
respective barangays and propagate environmental preservation. He
said the town government will strictly implement the “no
segregation, no collection policy” in all of Motiong’s barangays
and urged the barangay officials to put up a Materials Recovery
Facility (MRF) where they can segregate bio-degradable and non-
biodegradable waste materials. Such materials can be turned into
a livelihood as, according to Langi, “there is money in junk”
(AbremAatea, 2012).