4442 Particle Physics

Ryan Nichol
Module 3
 2m
The Dirac Equation
⇤0 = u, d, s 0
0
⇤ = u, d, s
• Time
⇤ =tou,move
d, s on from@toy theories 1 2
• Need
0
⇤ a= proper
u, d, s theoretical = Ĥ ⇤=! p + ⇡r
i description 0 + +V
–0 Spin 1/2 matter
+ @t
particles (Fermions) 2m
⇤ ! 0 p + ⇡+
– ⇤Interacting
! p + ⇡via spin 1 force particles (Bosons)
p+p!n+n
– Must be relativistic
p̂ = i ~
r
+p p+ !
• pEssentially
p !nn+
+ nn to find a replacementpfor the non-
need
2
+V =E
relativistic Schrödinger equation 2m
which originates from:
2
p
p2 + V = E @ 1 2
2m +V =E i = Ĥ = r@ + V
@t 2m
@
2m
1 2
Ê = +i
i • using
@t
= Ĥ the = standard
r + V quantum mechanics operators
1 2
2m
@t for
= Ĥenergy
= andrmomentum
+V
t 2m ~
p̂ = ir
Pˆµ = i@µ
@
Ê = +i 2
@t
 @ Pˆµ = i@µ
The Dirac Equation
Ê = +i
@t
• The Klein-Gordon
Pˆµ = i@µ equation
@ µ @µ + m2 =0
@ µ @µ + m2: E=
• is a relativistic 2 =
0 p2 + m2 : wave equation but there is a
troublesome p negative probability density solution (arising
from E = p2 + m2 ).
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• Dirac managed4 to produce an equation valid in both the relativistic
and non-relativistic regimes which also has a “natural”
interpretation of the negative energy solutions - he invented the
notion of anti-particles (with positive probability density solutions)
which were then experimentally verified a year later.

• Derivation of Dirac equation rests on the introduction of 2x2

(Dirac)-matrices since matrices can have the property that AB +
BA = 0 whereas numbers are commutative and this allowed :
positive density solutions since the equation contained no E2 (-∂2ψ/
∂t2) terms and for the solutions to satisfy E2 = p2 + m2 .
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Derivation of the Dirac Equation

Dirac gamma Matrices satisfy :

And

The Dirac equation is written as :

or

The Dirac Hamiltonian is (derivation in problem sheet)

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Dirac Gamma Matrices p
E= p 2 + m2
p matrices
• Pauli spin matrices are 2x2 2 2
✓ ◆ E = ✓ p +◆ m ✓ ◆
0 1 p 0 i2 1 0
2
1 =✓ ◆ E, =2 = ✓p + m◆ , 3 = ✓ ◆
1
0 1 0 0i 0i 0
1 0 1
1 =✓ 1 ◆0 , 2 = ✓ i ◆0 , 3 ✓ = ◆1
0 1 matrices0are 4x4 i matrices1 0 0
• Dirac gamma
1 = ✓ , ◆2 = ✓ , 3◆=
1 0 i 0 0 ✓1 ◆
0 1 0 i 0 i 5 0 1
=✓ ◆ , = ✓ ◆ , ✓ = ◆0
0
1 0 1 0 i i 0 0 11
0 i 5
= , = , =
0 1 i 0 1 0
• e.g 0 1
0 0 0 i
B0 0 i 0C
2
=B @0 i 0 0A
C

i 0 0 0
5
 =B @ 00 0=2 B 0
i 0 0 0C C0 A i 0 C
Useful Operators
2 B
= @ i 0 @00 A i A
0i 0 0
@ BHamiltonian0 i i 0 00 0 0
• Dirac
= im ✓Bi 0 0 i0 ◆ 0 0 0
@t ✓ m ~ · p
~◆
Ĥ = ✓ m ~✓ · ◆p
~ ◆
Ĥ = imt ~~m··Ĥp~p~ =~ · p~mm m ~ · p~
A (t) = Ĥ =
A (0)e ~ · p
~ m
• Helicity ~ · p~ m
✓ ✓ ◆ ◆
1✓ ~ · p̂ 1 0~◆· p̂ 0
ĥ = 1 ~
imt·
ĥ p̂ = 0
B (t) = ĥB= (0)e2 0 ~ · p̂0 ~ · p̂
2 0 2
~ · p̂
• Spin ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
~= ⌃ 1 ~~ ~ ⌃ ~
0= ~ 0
S
2 ⌃= 0 ~ 0 ~
• Total angular momentum
1
J~ = L
~+ ⌃~ 6
2
 J =2L + ⌃ = = =0
2 @ @ @x@ @y @z
Solutions
p~ =for
0 particles
@ @ at rest
@ = = =
@ =
@ @ = = 0
0= 0 =@x @yp~ = 0 @z
µ
• (
Dirac equation:@x= @µ @y
=( m)
µ
@µ =@z
m) 0
@x @y @z
• For @
i 0 a particle
m =at0 rest: 0@
@t @ @ @ i m =0
@ =p
p~ @ ~0 =
= 0 @ = =0 p
~
@t = 0
✓ ◆✓@ A ◆ ✓ = ◆@x = @y =@z0 ✓ ◆✓@ ◆ ✓
1 • 0Therefore:
@t
@x A @y @z 1 0 A
= im @ @t = im
0 1 @ B
@t 0 @
i i 0B m m = p~0==0 0 0 1 @
@t
B

✓ ◆ @t @tp ~=0 0@ ✓ ◆
=✓ 1 ◆✓@ ◆ ✓ ◆ i 1
= m =0
0@ @t
A A
1 20 @t
A
i = im m A = 0 2

✓0 ◆1 @ @B @t ✓ ◆
0 @t B
3 i m =
@ B0 B = 3

B = @t = +im B 4
• And: 4 @t
@ A imt
= im A A (t) = A (0)e
@t
@ B +imt 5
= +im B B (t) = B (0)e
@t 5
7
imt ~ 1~
Solutions
The solutions of the Dirac equation :

are known as Dirac spinors.

And can be expressed in terms of 2-spinors: χ1 , χ2

The “anti-particle” solutions :

There are four independent solutions to the Dirac equation: two “particle” and
two “anti-particle” solutions. Each describes (anti-)particles with mass and spin ½
e.g. quarks and electrons, in two helicity states. Derivation of solutions **

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Interpretation
• Dirac’s Interpretation of negative energy solutions

• If the -ve energy solution where an electron then we could get the situation
where a +ve energy electron could interact with a photon to reduce it’s energy
to be the more naturally preferred (and allowable by the Dirac eqn) -ve energy
and this is not observed i.e. the negative energy solutions cannot be electrons.

• Vacuum is a sea of -ve energy electrons. If we create a “hole” in the sea e.g.
by hitting one of the -ve E electrons with a photon of E > 2me then the sea
effectively increases in charge by +1, and becomes more positive in energy -
our “hole” thus looks like a +ve E particle of +ve charge with the mass of an
electron. This hole can be identified as a real particle - the positron with
opposite charge, momentum, spin and energy to the original -ve E electron
eigenstate but the same mass.

• Shares many similarities with the discussion of holes in “Fermi seas” of

semiconductors in condensed matter physics.

• Discussion is actually more complex since we need to introduce Quantum

Field Theory operators for particle creation/annihilation……
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Next Module
• The continuity equation
• “interaction currents” in terms of gamma matrices
• Lagrangian formalism
• The addition of EM interactions (Maxwell’s equations)
into the Dirac equation i.e. a real theory
– Quantum ElectroDynamics (QED)

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