Bachelor of Education - SIE and LMI

Level 2, Semester 1
MAT 513: Number Systems and Algebra

Topic: Vectors in R3

Lesson Objectives: By the end of this lesson, the student can;

(a) define a position vector, dot/inner product, orthogonal vectors, as well cross prod-
ucts;
(b) use/apply the definitions to solve problems related to the definitions;
(c) find the equations of line and planes in R3

Unit Vectors in R3

Vectors in R3 are sometimes expressed using a special ijk notation. Specifically,

(a) î = (1, 0, 0) denotes a unit vector in the x− direction;

(b) ĵ = (0, j, 0) denotes a unit vector in the y− direction;
(c) k̂ = (0, 0, k) denotes a unit vector in the z− direction.

Then any vector ⃗u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) can be expressed as

⃗u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = u1 î + u2 ĵ + u3 k̂.

If ⃗u = u1 î + u2 ĵ + u3 k̂ and w
⃗ = w1 î + w2 ĵ + w3 k̂, then

⃗u ± w
⃗ = (u1 ± w1 )î + (u2 ± w2 ĵ) + (u3 ± w3 )k̂

Position Vectors

Definition: Let P be a point on the plane and O be the origin. Then the vector OP ⃗ is
called the position vector of P. For example, if P is a point (2, −1, 4), then the position
⃗ = 2î − ĵ + 4k̂
vector of P is the vector OP

The Magnitude of a Vector

Let ⃗u = (u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · un ) be a vector in Rn . We define the length of ⃗u as the norm of ⃗u

denoted by ∥⃗u∥ as
q
∥⃗u∥ = u21 + u22 + u23 + · · · u2n

Example

Let ⃗v ∈ R3 defined by ⃗v = √2 î
17
− √2 ĵ
17
+ √3 k̂.
17
Find ∥⃗v ∥

1
Solution

s 2  2  2
2 −2 3
∥cv∥ = + +
17 17 17
r
4 4 9
= + +
17 17 17
r
17
=
17
=1

Theorem
Let ⃗v be a vector in Rn and c be a scalar. Then

∥c⃗v ∥ = |c|∥⃗v ∥

where |c| is the absolute values of c

Proof
Because cv = (cv1 + cv2 + cv3 + · · · + cvn , it follows that

∥cv∥ = ∥cv1 + cv2 + cv3 + · · · + cvn ∥

p
= (cv1 )2 + (cv2 )2 + (cv3 )2 + · · · (cvn )2
q
= c2 (v12 + v22 + v32 + · · · vn2 )
q
= |c| v12 + v22 + v32 + · · · vn2
= |c|∥⃗v ∥

The Dot or Inner Product

Definition: Let ⃗u = (u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · un and ⃗v = (v1 , v2 , v3 · · · vn be vectors in Rn . The dot

or inner product of ⃗u and ⃗v is the scalar quantity

⃗u · ⃗v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 + · · · un vn

Example
Verify that ⃗u · ⃗v = −7, given that ⃗u = (1, 2, 0, −3) and ⃗v = (3, −2, 4, 2)
Now, consider two non - zero vectors ⃗u and ⃗v in R2 . Assume that these vectors are posi-
tioned such that their initial points coincide. The angle between ⃗u and ⃗v falls in the range
0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π.

2
Definition: If ⃗u and ⃗v are vectors in R2 and ϕ is the angle between ⃗u and ⃗v , then the dot
product of Euclidean product denoted by ⃗u · ⃗v is defined by

∥u∥∥v∥ cos ϕ, if ⃗u ̸= 0 and ⃗v ̸= 0
⃗u · ⃗v =
0, if ⃗u = 0 or ⃗v = 0

Example
π
Find the inner/dot product of the vectors ⃗u = (0, 0, 11) and ⃗v = (0, 2, 2) if ϕ = 4
Solution
By definition,

⃗u · ⃗v = ∥u∥∥v∥ cos ϕ
p p π
= 02 + 02 + 12 · 02 + 22 + 22 cos
4
√ π
= 2 2 cos
4
√ 1
=2 2· √
2
=2

Examples
If ⃗a = −2î + 4ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + 2ĵ − 4k̂, find x if
(a) 2⃗x = ⃗b (b) ⃗b − 2⃗x = ⃗a
Solutions
(a)
1
⃗x = ⃗b
2
1 
= 2î + 2ĵ − 4k̂
2
= î + ĵ − 2k̂

(b)

2⃗x = ⃗b − ⃗a
1 ⃗ 
⃗x = b − ⃗a
2
1 
= 2î + 2ĵ − 4k̂ + 2î − 4ĵ − 2k̂
2
1 
= 4î − 2ĵ − 6k̂
2
= 2î − ĵ − 3k̂

3
Example
Find r and s given that ⃗a = (2, −1, r) is parallel to ⃗b = (s, 2, −3)
Solution
Since ⃗a and ⃗b are parallel, then ⃗a = k⃗b for some k ∈R. Thus,

(2, −1, r) = k(s, 2, −3)

(2, −1, r) = (ks, k2, −k3)
2 = ks
1
−1 = 2k =⇒ k = − , s = −4
2
r = −3k
1 3
r = −3 · − =
2 2

Finding the Angle Between Two Vectors

If ⃗u and ⃗v are non-zero vectors in Rn , then the angle ϕ between the vectors is given by

⃗u · ⃗v
cos ϕ =
∥⃗u∥∥⃗v ∥

where
⃗u · ⃗v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · un vn

Example
Consider the vectors ⃗u = (2, −1, 1) and ⃗v = (1, 1, 2) in R3 . Find ⃗u · ⃗v and determine the
angle ϕ between ⃗u and ⃗v .
Solution

⃗u · ⃗v = (2, −1, 1) · (1, 1, 2)

=2−1+2
=3

Now, we find the norm of ⃗u and ⃗v .

√ √
∥⃗u∥ = 4+1+1= 6

and √ √
∥⃗v ∥ = 1+1+4= 6

4
Therefore,
⃗u · ⃗v
cos ϕ =
∥⃗u∥∥⃗v ∥
3
=√ √
6 6
1 π
= =⇒ ϕ =
2 3
Theorem
Let ⃗u and ⃗v be vectors in Rn .
√
(a) ⃗v · ⃗v = ∥⃗v ∥2 , that is ∥⃗v ∥ = ⃗v · ⃗v
(b) If the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v are non-zero and ϕ is the angle between them, then
(i) ϕ if acute iff ⃗u · ⃗v > 0
(ii) ϕ if obtuse iff ⃗u · ⃗v < 0
(iii) ϕ = π2 iff ⃗u · ⃗v = 0
Exercise
If ⃗u = (1, −2, 3), ⃗v = (−3, 4, 2) and w
⃗ = (3, 6, 3), find and describe/classify the angles
between ⃗u and ⃗v , ⃗u and w
⃗ as well as w
⃗ and ⃗v
Definition
Let ⃗u and ⃗v be vectors in Rn . The two vectors are said to be orthogonal/perpendicular if
⃗u · ⃗v = 0
Example
Find the value of m if 3î − mĵ + k̂ and −5î + 3ĵ − 2k̂ are orthogonal.
Solution

(3î − mĵ + k̂) · (−5î + 3ĵ − 2k̂) = 0

−15 − 3m − 2 = 0
−3m = 17
17
m=−
3
The Cross Product
If ⃗u = (u1 , u2 , u3 and ⃗v = (v1 , v2 , v3 are vectors in R3 , we define the cross product of ⃗u
and ⃗v denoted by ⃗u × ⃗v as a vector given by
î ĵ k̂
⃗u × ⃗v = u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
u2 u3 u u3 u u2
= î − ĵ 1 + k̂ 1
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2

5
Algebraic Properties of Cross Products
If ⃗u and ⃗v be vectors in Rn and c ∈ R is any scalar, then the following properties are true;
(a) ⃗u × ⃗v = −(⃗v × ⃗u)
(b) ⃗u × (⃗v + w)⃗ = (⃗u × ⃗v ) + (⃗u + w)
⃗
(c) c(⃗u × ⃗v ) = c⃗u × ⃗v = ⃗u × c⃗v
(d) ⃗u × 0 = 0 × ⃗u = 0
(e) ⃗u × ⃗u = 0
(f) ⃗u · (⃗v · w)
⃗ = (⃗u · ⃗v ) · w
⃗
Exercise
Take any 3 arbitrary vectors in R3 and verify these properties.
LINES AND PLANES IN 3 - DIMENSION
In plane geometry, a line is specified by its gradient and one of its points. Similarly, in
R3 , we speak of planes and not lines. The plane is specified by giving its inclination and
specifying one of its points.
Describing the Inclination
The best way is to specify a non-zero vector (known as the normal) that is perpendicular to
the plane. Consider the diagram that follow (diagram will be shared on WhatsApp).
Suppose we want to find the equation of a plane passing through the point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )
and having a non-zero vector ⃗n = (a, b, c) as a normal. From the diagram, we can see that
−−→
the plane consists of all points P (x, y, z) such that the vector P0 P is orthogonal to ⃗n. This
is to say
−−→
⃗n · P0 P = 0
−−→
The vector P0 P = (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) so that
−−→
⃗n · P0 P = 0
(a, b, c) · (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = 0
a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0

This is called the point - normal form of the equation of the plane.
Example
Find the equation of a plane passing through the point (3, −1, 7) and orthogonal to the
vector ⃗n = (4, 2 − 5)
Solution
The point form of the equation is given by

a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0

4(x − 3) + 2(y + 1) − 5(z − 7) = 0
4x + 2y − 5z + 25 = 0

6
Theorem
Let a, b, c and d be real constants and let a, b, c be all non - zero. Then the graph of the
equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 is a plane having the vector ⃗n = (a, b, c) as a normal. The
equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 is a linear equation in x, y and z and is called the general
form of the equation of the plane.
Example
Find the equation of of a plane passing through the points P1 (1, 2, −1), P2 (2, 3, 1) and
P3 (3, −1, 2)
Solution
Since the points are on the plane, they must satisfy ax + by + cz + d = 0

a + 2b − z + d = 0
2a + 3b + z + d = 0
3a − b + 2z + d = 0

This is a homogeneous equation with infinitely many solutions.

Thus a = − 16
9
t, b = − 16
1
t, c = 5
16 t, d =t
The Vector Form of the Equation of a Plane
The vector form of the equation of the plane is given by

⃗n · (⃗r − r⃗0 ) = 0

where ⃗r = (x, y, z) is the vector from the origin to the point P (x, y, z) and r⃗0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 )
is the vector from the origin to the point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
Example
Find the equation of a plane passing through (6, 3 − 4) and orthogonal to the vector
⃗n = (−1, 2, 5)
Solution
The equation will be given by

⃗n(r − r0 ) = 0
(−1, 2, 5) · (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = 0
(−1, 2, 5) · (x − 6, y − 3, z + 4) = 0
−1(x − 6) + 2(y − 3) + 5(z + 4) = 0
−x + 2y + 5z + 20 = 0

7
Lines in R3
Consider the diagram that follow (diagram will be shared on WhatsApp).
Suppose l is aline in R3 through the point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and having a non-zero vector
⃗v = (a, b, c) as shown in the diagram. From the diagram, we can see that the line l consists
−−→ −−→
of points P (x, y, z) for which the vector P0 P is parallel to ⃗v . If P0 P is parallel to ⃗v , then
there exist a scalar t such that
−−→
P0 P = t⃗v

In terms of components, this equation becomes

(x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = t(a, b, c)
(x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = (ta, tb, tc)

from which it follows that

(a) ta = x − x0 =⇒ x = x0 + ta
(b) tb = y − y0 =⇒ y = y0 + tb
(c) tc = z − z0 =⇒ z = z0 + tc
This is called the parametric equation of the line l and −∞ < t < ∞.
Example
find the parametric equation of the line l ∈ R3 passing through the point (1, 2, −3) and
parallel to the vector ⃗v = (4, 5, −7)
Solution

x = 1 + 4t
y = 2 + 5t
z = −3 − 7t, (−∞ < t < ∞)

Example
Find the parametric equation of the line l passing through the points P1 (2, 4, −1) and
P2 (5, 0, 7). Determine where the line intersects the xy− plane.
Solution
−−−→
We first find the vector P1 P2 which is given by
−−−→
P1 P2 = (5, 0, 7) − (2, 4, −1)
= (3, −4, 8)

8
so, the line l is parallel to this vector and P1 (2, 4, −1) lies on l. Thus,
(
x = x0 + at = 2 + 3t
y = y0 + bt = 4 − 4t , −∞ < t < ∞
z = z0 + ct = −1 + 8t

A point of intersection on the xy− plane will occur at z = 0. Thus,

1
−1 + 8t = 0 =⇒ t =
8
Then
 
1 19
x=2+3 =
8 8
 
1 7
y =4−4 =
8 2

Therefore the intersection will happen at ( 19 7

8 , 2 , 0)