PORTAL FRAMES

(ASSIGNMENT 1)
Introduction
 Portal frames are generally low-rise
structures, comprising columns and
horizontal or pitched rafters,
connected by moment-resisting
connections.
 Resistance to lateral and vertical
actions is provided by the rigidity of
the connections and the bending
stiffness of the members, which is
increased by a suitable haunch or
deepening of the rafter sections.
 This form of continuous
frame structure is stable in its plane
and provides a clear span that is unobstructed by bracing.
 Portal frames are very common, in fact 50% of constructional steel used in the UK is in portal frame
construction.
 They are very efficient for enclosing large volumes, therefore they are often used for industrial,
storage, retail and commercial applications as well as for agricultural purposes.

Types of portal frames

Frame types described below give an overview of types of portal construction with typical features
illustrated.

1. Pitched roof symmetric portal frame

Generally fabricated from UB sections with a substantial eaves haunch section, which may be cut from a
rolled section or fabricated from plate. 25 to 35 m are the most efficient spans.

Pitched roof symmetric portal frame

Lancashire Waste Development
 2. Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor

Office accommodation is often provided within a portal frame structure using a partial width mezzanine
floor.
The assessment of frame stability must include the effect of the mezzanine.

Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor

Waters Meeting Health Centre, Bolton

3. Crane portal frame with column brackets

Where a travelling crane of relatively low capacity (up to say 20 tonnes) is required, brackets can be fixed
to the columns to support the crane rails. Use of a tie member or rigid column bases may be necessary to
reduce the eaves deflection.
The spread of the frame at crane rail level may be of critical importance to the functioning of the crane.

4. Tied portal frame

In a tied portal frame the horizontal movement of the eaves and the bending moments in the columns and
rafters are reduced. A tie may be useful to limit spread in a crane-supporting structure.
The high axial forces introduced in the frame when a tie is used necessitate the use of second-order
software when analysing this form of frame.
 5. Mono-pitch portal frame
A mono pitch portal frame is usually chosen for small spans or because of its proximity to other buildings. It
is a simple variation of the pitched roof portal frame, and tends to be used for smaller buildings (up to 15
m span).

6. Propped portal frame

Where the span of a portal frame is large and there is no requirement to provide a clear span, a propped
portal frame can be used to reduce the rafter size and also the horizontal shear at the foundations.

Propped portal frame

Rebottling Plant, Hemswell

7. Mansard portal frame

A mansard portal frame may be used where a large clear height at mid-span is required but the eaves
height of the building has to be minimised.

8. Curved rafter portal frame

Portal frames may be constructed using curved rafters, mainly for architectural reasons. Because
of transport limitations rafters longer than 20 m may require splices, which should be carefully detailed for
architectural reasons.
The curved member is often modelled for analysis as a series of straight elements.
Alternatively, the rafter can be fabricated as a series of straight elements. It will be necessary to provide
purlin cleats of varying height to achieve the curved external profile.

9. Cellular beam portal frame

Rafters may be fabricated from cellular beams for aesthetic reasons or when providing long spans.
Where transport limitations impose requirement for splices, they should be carefully detailed, to preserve
the architectural features.
The sections used cannot develop plastic hinges at a cross-section, so only elastic design is used.

Cellular beam portal frame

Hayes garden centre

Basic composition

 The portal structure is designed in such a way that it has no intermediate columns.
  A portal frame building comprises a series of transverse frames braced longitudinally. The primary
steelwork consists of columns and rafters, which form portal frames, and bracing. The end frame
(gable frame) can be either a portal frame or a braced arrangement of columns and rafters.
 The light gauge secondary steelwork consists of side rails for walls and purlins for the roof. The
secondary steelwork supports the building envelope, but also plays an important role in restraining
the primary steelwork.
 The roof and wall cladding separate the enclosed space from the external environment as well as
providing thermal and acoustic insulation. The structural role of the cladding is to transfer loads
to secondary steelwork and also to restrain the flange of the purlin or rail to which it is attached.

Advantages of portal frames

• Speed and ease of erection
• Building can be quickly closed in and made water tight.
• Framework prefabricated in a workshop and not affected by weather.
• Site works such as drainage, roads etc can be carried out until framework is ready for erection.
• No weather hold up during erecting the framework.
• Connected together in factories by welding and site connections should be bolted.

Disadvantages of portal frames

• Although steel is incombustible it has a poor resistance to fire as it bends easily when hot.
• Subject to corrosion

Applications
Portal frames are generally used for single storey construction which require a large unobstructed floor
space i.e.,

 Factories
 Shopping centre
 Warehouses
They are very efficient for enclosing large volumes, therefore they are often used for industrial,
storage, retail and commercial applications as well as for agricultural purposes.
 SPACE FRAMES (ASSIGNMENT 2)

The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids and tetrahedra built
from aluminium or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks like the horizontal object of a tower crane
repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger form is composed of interlocking tetrahedra in which all
the struts have unit length. More technically this is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single
unit width an octet truss. More complex variations change the lengths of the struts to curve the overall
structure or may incorporate other geometrical shapes.
 CABLE STAYED STRUCTURES (BRIDGES)
(ASSIGNMENT 3)
Introduction

 Cable stayed bridges have been built for centuries but up to the 1950's they had not been
developed to the same extent as other bridge
types, such as truss bridges, arch bridges and
suspension bridges.
 However, since the completion of the
Strömsund Bridge in 1955, the cable stayed
bridge has been continuously developed. It has
appeared in a larger number of variants than
any other bridge type during this period.
 The cable stayed bridge is mainly used for road
bridges, where it is applicable for both narrow
2-lane roads and for wide 6 or 8 lane
motorways.
 Another application is within the field of pedestrian bridges where cable stayed bridges can prove
advantageous also for smaller spans.
 Finally, cable stayed bridges have been designed to carry railway lines, in a few cases.
 The cable stayed bridge has been used for a span range from approximately 150m to 400m, where
it has proved to be very competitive against truss bridges, arch bridges and box girder bridges.
Recently, the cable stayed bridge has started to increase its span range up to almost 900m, i.e.
moving into a span range that previously has been entirely in the domain of suspension bridges.
Cable-stayed bridge can be built in different variations:

 “A side-spar cable-stayed bridge” has only one tower and is supported only on one
side. One bridge built on this principle is bridge in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada and is made to
carry pedestrians. Other is Jerusalem Chords Bridge which is also made to be curved which this
design allows for.

 “Cantilever-spar cable-stayed bridge” has a single cantilever spar on one side of the
span. Its spar is made to resist the bending caused by the cables because cable forces of this bridge
are not balanced by opposing cables and bridge applies large overturning force on its foundation.
Puente de la Mujer (2001), Sundial Bridge (2004) and Chords Bridge (2008), all in Spain, are bridges
of this type.

 “Multiple-span cable-stayed bridge” is a cable-stayed bridge with more than 3 spans. It

is a more complex bridge because the loads from the main spans are not anchored back near the
end abutments. This also makes structure less stiff so additional design solutions (like “cross-
bracing” stays and stiff multi-legged frame towers) have to be applied.

 “Extradosed bridge” has stiffer and stronger deck and its cables are connected to the deck
further from the towers which are also lower than those of standard cable-stayed bridges.

 “Cable-stayed cradle-system Bridge” is one of the newest variants. It has so called

“cradle system” which carries the strands within the stays from bridge deck to bridge deck. These
cables are continuous which means that this bridge has no anchorages in the pylons and its cables
can be removed, inspected and replaced individually.

Advantages of cable-stayed bridges

 The two halves may be cantilevered out from each side.
 There is no need for anchorages to sustain strong horizontal forces, because the spans are self-
anchoring.
 They can be cheaper than suspension bridges for a given span.
 Many asymmetrical designs are possible.

Disadvantages of cable-stayed bridges

 In the longer sizes, the cantilevered halves are very susceptible to wind induced oscillation during
construction.
 The cables require careful treatment to protect them from corrosion.
APPLICATIONS OF CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Puente de la Unidad, joining San Pedro

Garza García and Monterrey, a Cantilever Anzac Bridge, Sydney
spar cable-stayed bridge