4PE5662 Bulk Form v16

3/16/2017
PE 4652 – Teknologi Manufaktur
Metal Forming – Bulk Deformation Processes
Outline
1 Overview of Metal Forming
2 Metallurgical Basics
3 Material Behavior in Metal Forming
4 Temperature in Metal Forming
5 Strain Rate Sensitivity
6 Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

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Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which

plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal workpieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry
of the die
Forming Processes
Forming processes tend to be complex systems consisting

independent variables, dependent variables, and
independent-dependent interrelations.
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Independent Variables
Independent variables are those aspects of the process over which

the engineer has direct control, and they are generally selected or
specified when setting up the process.
o Starting material
o Starting geometry of the workpiece
o Tool or die geometry
o Lubrication
o Starting temperature
o Speed of operation
o Amount of deformation
Dependent Variables
o Force or power requirements

o Material properties of the product
o Exit temperature
o Surface finish and precision
o Nature of the material flow
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Independent-Dependent Interrelations
Experience
This requires long time exposure to the process and is generally
limited to the specific materials, equipment and products
encountered in the realm of past contact.
Experiment
While possibly the least likely in error direct experiment is both
time consuming and costly.
Process modeling
Here one approaches the problem with a high speed computer and
one or more mathematical models of the process numerical values
are provided for the various independent variables and the models
are used to compute predictions for the dependent variables
Stresses in Metal Forming
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
– Still others apply shear stresses
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Material Properties in Metal Forming
• Desirable material properties:

– Low yield strength
– High ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work
temperature is raised
• Other factors:
– Strain rate and friction
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING OPERATIONS
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Bulk Deformation Processes
• Characterized by significant deformations and massive shape

changes
• Metal-forming process where the deformation is three-
dimensional in nature
• "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface
area-to-volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and rectangular
bars
• (a) Rolling and (b) forging
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Rolled Products Made of Steel
300x400
300x900
100x100
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• (c) Extrusion and (d) wire and bar drawing
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Outline

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Bonding Between Atoms and Molecules

 metal bond
 ionic bond
 covalent bond
 Van-der-Waals bond

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Lattice Types of an Unit Cell
Ti is hexagonally below 850oC above transforms to body-centred cubic structure.

Fe is body-centred cubic below 911 oC above transforms to FCC , above 1392oC to be BCC

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Atomic and Macroscopic View of Metal Structures

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Atomic Representation of Pure Elastic-Tensile Deformation
unloaded tensile-loaded
elastic strain based on tensile load

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Atomic Representation of Pure Elastic-Shear Deformation
unloaded shear-loaded
elastic strain based on tensile load

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Types of Plastic Deformation
sliding dislocation movement

before
after
high energy required low energy required

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Strain Hardening Depends on Dislocations

Penguatan ini terjadi karena gerakan dislokasi dan generasi dislokasi dalam
struktur kristal dari material
schematic diagram dislocation movement
grain boundary
dislocation structure of little-formed copper
piled up dislocations at boundary grains

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Outline

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Stress and strain

DIRECT STRESS 
 When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body deforms. The
way in which the body deforms depends upon the type of force
applied to it.
Compression force makes the body shorter.
A tensile force makes the body longer
Tensile and compressive forces are called DIRECT FORCES

Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts.
Force F
Stress     ….. Unit is Pascal (Pa) or N / m 2
Area A
( Simbol – Sigma)
Note: Most of engineering fields used kPa, MPa, GPa.
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DIRECT STRAIN , 
In each case, a force F produces a deformation x. In engineering,
change this force into stress and the deformation into strain :
Strain is the deformation per unit of the original length.
x
Strain   
L
The
symbol  called EPSILON
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)
•Elastic materials always spring back into shape when

released. They also obey HOOKE’s LAW.
•This is the law of spring which states that deformation is

directly proportional to the force. F/x = stiffness = kN/m
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ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS
• If a material is stretched until it breaks, the tensile stress

has reached the absolute limit and this stress level is
called the ultimate tensile stress.
STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
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• True Stress: Applied load divided by instantaneous value of

cross-section area
 F/A
• True strain: Instantaneous elongation per unit length of the
material
L dL L
   ln
L0 L L0
L0: the initial length of a specimen
L: the length of the specimen at time t
 the true strain at time t
In the forming process we are more interested in the plastic

deformation region
Plastic
deformation
region
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The stress-strain relationship in the plastic

deformation region
Called
n
  K FLOW
CURVE
Where
K= the strength coefficient, (MPa)
 = the true strain, σ=the true stress
n= the strain hardening exponent,
The flow stress (Yf) is used for the above stress (which is the stress beyond
yield)
Flow Stress
• For most metals at room temperature, strength
increases when deformed due to strain hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required

to continue deforming the material (to keep metal
“flowing”)
Yf  K n
where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a

function of strain
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Average Flow Stress
• Determined by integrating the flow curve equation

between zero and the final strain value defining the
range of interest
_ K n
Yf 
1 n
_
where Yf = average flow stress; and  = maximum strain during
deformation process
AVERAGE FLOW STRESS
• For many bulk deforming processes, rather than instantaneous stress,

average stress is used (extrusion)
• The average flow stress can be obtained by integrating the flow

stress along the trajectory of straining, from zero to the final strain
value defining the range of interest
Strength Coefficient
n
K Max. strain during
Average flow stress Yf  deformation
1 n
Strain hardening exponent
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Stress-Strain Relationship
• Average flow stress Y f

in relation to
– Flow stress Yf
– Yield strength Y
Effect properties on flow stress
o Chemical composition
o Purity
o Crystal structure
o Phase constitution
o Exit microstructure
o Grain size
o Heat treatment
The flow stress is an important parameter in the fatigue failure

of ductile materials.
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Strain Hardening
In the process of cold forming, metals have been observed to undergo a change in their
strength values
Tensile strength (Rm); elastic limit (Rp) and hardness (HB) ↑ strain
Reduction in area (z) and uniform elongation (A10) ↓ hardening

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Example :
Determine the value of the strain-hardening exponent for a metal that will
cause the average flow stress to be three-quarters of the final flow stress
after deformation.
According to the statement of the problem, we have
Yf  3/ 4 of Yf
Y f  0.75Y f
K n /(1  n)  0.75K n
1 /(1  n)  0.75
n  0.333
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(Groover)
Example :
K = 600 MPa and n = 0.20 for a certain metal. During a forming
operation, the final true strain that the metal experiences =
0.73.
Determine the flow stress at this strain and the average flow
stress that the metal experienced during the operation
Flow stress Yf = 600(0.73)0.2 = 563.4 Mpa
Average flow stress Yf = 600(0.73)0.2/1.2 = 469.5 MPa.
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Outline

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Temperature in Metal Forming
• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve

depend on temperature
– Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at
higher temperatures
– In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures
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Temperature in Metal Forming
• Any deformation operation can be

accomplished with lower forces and power at
elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
– Cold working
– Warm working
– Hot working
Homologous Temperature Ranges for Various Processes
Process T/Tm
Cold working < 0.3
Warm working 0.3 to 0.5
Hot working > 0.6
Working Melting Point

Elements Symbol
Process Temperature Celsius
o
C Steel-High Carbon Cr+Ni+Mn+C 1353
Deep Drawing 40 Medium Carbon Cr+Ni+Mn+C 1427
Aluminium Die Low Carbon Cr+Ni+Mn+C 1464
660
Casting
Hot Forging 1260
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Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature or slightly

above
• Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
– These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
Advantages of Cold Forming
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances

• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
• Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
• No heating of work required
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Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required for

deformation
• Surfaces of starting work must be free of scale
and dirt
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done
– In some cases, metal must be annealed before further
deformation can be accomplished
– In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be
cold worked
Warm Working
• Performed at temperatures above room

temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm
working often expressed in terms of melting
point:
– 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature)
for metal
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Warm Working
• Advantages
– Lower forces and power than in cold working
– More intricate work geometries possible
– Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
• Disadvantage
– Workpiece must be heated
Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above the

recrystallization temperature
– Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of
melting point on absolute scale
• In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat
above 0.5Tm
• Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level
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Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation -

far more than is possible with cold working or
warm working
• Why?
– Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room
temperature
– Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
– Ductility is significantly increased
Advantages of Hot Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered

• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can
be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening
– Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently
processed by cold forming
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Disadvantages of Hot Working
• Lower dimensional accuracy

• Higher total energy required, which is the sum
of
– The thermal energy needed to heat the workpiece
– Energy to deform the metal
• Work surface oxidation (scale)
– Thus, poorer surface finish
• Shorter tool life
– Dies and rolls in bulk deformation
Outline

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Strain Rate Sensitivity
• Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves

like a perfectly plastic material, with strain
hardening exponent n = 0
– The metal should continue to flow at the same flow
stress, once that stress is reached
– However, an additional phenomenon occurs during
deformation, especially at elevated temperatures:
• Strain rate sensitivity
What is Strain Rate?
• Strain rate in forming is directly related to

speed of deformation v
• Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or
other movement of the equipment
• Strain rate is defined:
. v

.
h
where  = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous height of
workpiece being deformed
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Evaluation of Strain Rate
• In most practical operations, valuation of

strain rate is complicated by
– Workpart geometry
– Variations in strain rate in different regions of the part
• Strain rate can reach 1000 s-1 or more for
some metal forming operations
Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress
• Flow stress is a function of temperature

• At hot working temperatures, flow stress
also depends on strain rate
– As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation
increases
– This is the effect known as strain-rate sensitivity
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Strain Rate Sensitivity
• (a) Effect of strain

rate on flow stress
at an elevated work
temperature
• (b) Same
relationship plotted
on log-log
coordinates
Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation
Yf = Cε m
where
C = strength constant (analogous but not equal to strength
coefficient in flow curve equation),
m = strain-rate sensitivity exponent
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Even in the cold work, the strain rate could affect the flow stress.
A more general expression of the flow stress with consideration of
the strain rate and strain is presented as follows:
Y f  A n  m
A is a strength coefficient, a combined effect of K, C
All these coefficients, A, n, m, are functions of temperature
Example :
A tensile test is carried out to determine the strength
constant C and strain-rate sensitivity exponent m for a
certain metal at 540oC. At a strain rate = 10/sec, the stress
is measured at 159 MPa; and at a strain rate = 300/sec,
the stress=310 MPa. Determine C and m
Solution:
159 = C (10)m
310 = C (300)m
m = 0.1963
C = 101.18
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Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress
• The constant C, indicated by

the intersection of each plot
with the vertical dashed line at
strain rate = 1.0, decreases
• And m (slope of each plot)
increases with increasing
temperature
Observations about Strain Rate Sensitivity
• Increasing temperature decreases C and

increases m
– At room temperature, effect of strain rate is
almost negligible
• Flow curve alone is a good representation of material
behavior
– As temperature increases
• Strain rate becomes increasingly important in
determining flow stress
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Static Recrystallisation
Schematic course of recrystallisation of cold formed structure
Stress Curve of Cold Forming as a Result of Static Recrystallisation
annealing for recrystallisation increases effective strain and decreases flow stress

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Effective Strain and Temperature Influence the Grain Size
Deformation level

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Forming Temperature and Velocity Influence the Flow Stress

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Outline

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Friction in Metal Forming
• In most metal forming processes, friction is

undesirable:
– Metal flow is reduced
– Forces and power are increased
– Tools wear faster
• Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot
working
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Lubrication in Metal Forming
• Metalworking lubricants are applied to

tool-work interface in many forming
operations to reduce harmful effects of
friction
• Benefits:
– Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
– Better surface finish
– Removes heat from the tooling
Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant
• Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet

metal drawing, etc.)
• Hot working or cold working
• Work material
• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
• Ease of application
• Cost
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PE 4652 – Teknologi Manufaktur

Metal Forming – Bulk Deformation Processes

3 Material Behavior in Metal Forming

4 Temperature in Metal Forming

5 Strain Rate Sensitivity

6 Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Large group of manufacturing processes in which

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Forming processes tend to be complex systems consisting

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Independent variables are those aspects of the process over which

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

o Force or power requirements

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Stresses in Metal Forming

• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Material Properties in Metal Forming

• Desirable material properties:

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING OPERATIONS

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations and massive shape

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Bulk Deformation Processes

• (a) Rolling and (b) forging

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Rolled Products Made of Steel

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Bulk Deformation Processes

• (c) Extrusion and (d) wire and bar drawing

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

3 Material Behavior in Metal Forming

4 Temperature in Metal Forming

5 Strain Rate Sensitivity

5 Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Bonding Between Atoms and Molecules

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Lattice Types of an Unit Cell

Ti is hexagonally below 850oC above transforms to body-centred cubic structure.

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Atomic and Macroscopic View of Metal Structures

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Atomic Representation of Pure Elastic-Tensile Deformation

elastic strain based on tensile load

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Atomic Representation of Pure Elastic-Shear Deformation

elastic strain based on tensile load

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Types of Plastic Deformation

sliding dislocation movement

high energy required low energy required

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR

Strain Hardening Depends on Dislocations

dislocation structure of little-formed copper

piled up dislocations at boundary grains

TEKNIK MESIN DAN MANUFAKTUR