DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

MATERIAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Course Code: CLPE 16
Number of Credits: 3

Lecture- 14
Dr. Kartikeya Shukla
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
NIT Trichy
 Diffusion

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 • Inter diffusion
• Impurity diffusion
• Self diffusion

• DIFFUSION MECHANISMS
• (1) there must be an empty adjacent site, and (2) the atom must have
sufficient energy to break bonds with its neighbor atoms and then cause
some lattice distortion during the displacement
• Concentrations of vacancies may exist in metals at elevated temperature
• This mechanism is found for interdiffusion of impurities such as
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, which have atoms that are
small enough to fit into the interstitial positions.
• In most metal alloys, interstitial diffusion occurs much more rapidly
than diffusion by the vacancy mode, because the interstitial atoms are
smaller and thus more mobile

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 Vacancy Diffusion

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 STEADY-STATE DIFFUSION

steady-state diffusion

The purification of hydrogen gas. One side of a thin sheet of palladium metal is exposed
to the impure gas composed of hydrogen.

harden the surface of a steel

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 COURSE CONTENT

• Atomic Bonding: Classes of engineering materials - engineering requirement of

materials - selection of materials - structure of atoms and molecules - Bonding in
solids - types of bonds and comparison of bonds.
• Structure and Imperfections in Crystals: Crystal structure Crystal geometry,
structure of solids, methods of determining structures. Imperfection in crystals -
types of imperfection. Point imperfection, diffusion in solids - self diffusion Fick’s
law, Applications of diffusion.
• Properties and Corrosion of Material: Mechanical, Electrical and magnetic
properties of materials - Deformation of materials - Heat Treatment techniques -
corrosion, theories of corrosion - control and prevention of corrosion.
• Metals: Engineering materials - ferrous metals - Iron and their alloys Iron and steel
Iron carbon equilibrium diagram. Non-ferrous metals and alloys - Aluminium,
copper, Zinc, lead, Nickel and their alloys with reference to the application in
chemical industries.
• Non Metals: Inorganic materials: Ceramics, Glass and refractories - organic
materials: wood, plastics, and rubber and wood - Advanced materials (Biomaterials,
nanomaterials and composites) with special reference to the applications in
chemical Industries.
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 Mechanical Properties of Metals
• Many materials, when in service, are subjected to forces or
loads
• Aluminum alloy from which an airplane wing
• Key mechanical design properties are stiffness, strength,
hardness, ductility, and toughness.
• ASTM
• The role of structural engineers.
• Materials and metallurgical engineers.
• This necessarily involves an understanding of the relationships
between the microstructure of materials and their mechanical
properties.

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 STRESS AND STRAIN
• If a load is static or changes relatively slowly with time
and is applied uniformly over a cross section or surface
of a member, the mechanical behavior may be
ascertained by a simple stress–strain test; these are most
commonly conducted for metals at room temperature.
• There are three principal ways in which a load may be
applied: namely, tension, compression, and shear.
• Engineering stress and strain
• Dogbone sample.
• Compression Tests
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 Elastic Deformation
• STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
• Modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus
• For most typical metals the magnitude of this modulus ranges between
45 GP
• Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elastic
deformation.
• Elastic deformation is nonpermanent.
• This modulus may be thought of as stiffness, or a material’s resistance
to elastic deformation.
• The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material, or the smaller the
elastic strain that results from the application of a given stress.

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• There are some materials (e.g., gray cast iron, concrete,
and many polymers) the stress–strain curve is not linear.
• On an atomic scale, macroscopic elastic strain is
stretching of interatomic bonds.
• As a consequence, the magnitude of the modulus of
elasticity is a measure of the resistance to separation of
adjacent atoms, that is, the interatomic bonding forces.
• Furthermore, this modulus is proportional to the slope of
the interatomic force–separation curve at the
equilibrium spacing:

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 • Values of the modulus of elasticity for ceramic
materials are about the same as for metals; for
polymers they are lower.
• These differences are a direct consequence of the
different types of atomic bonding in the three
materials types.
• Furthermore, with increasing temperature, the
modulus of elasticity diminishes, as is shown for
several metals in

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 • ANELASTICITY
• This time-dependent elastic behavior is known as anelasticity
• For metals the anelastic component is normally small and is
often neglected.
• However, for some polymeric materials its magnitude is
significant; in this case it is termed viscoelastic behavior

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 • Poisson’s ratio
• For isotropic materials, shear and elastic
moduli are related to each other and to
Poisson’s ratio according to

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 • Poisson’s ratio
• For isotropic materials, shear and elastic
moduli are related to each other and to
Poisson’s ratio according to:
• Shear modulus

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 In most metals G is about 0.4E

Many materials are elastically anisotropic

Because the grain orientation is random in most polycrystalline

materials, these may be considered to be isotropic

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 Plastic Deformation
• For most metallic materials, elastic
deformation persists only to strains of about
0.005

• Plastic deformation

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 • Breaking of bonds with original atom neighbors
• Re-forming bonds with new neighbors as large numbers
of atoms or molecules move relative to one another
• The mechanism of this deformation is different for
crystalline and amorphous materials.
• For crystalline solids, deformation is accomplished by
means of a process called slip, which involves the
motion of dislocations.
• Plastic deformation in non-crystalline solids (as well as
liquids) occurs by a viscous flow mechanism.
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 TENSILE PROPERTIES
• Yielding and Yield Strength
• For metals that experience this gradual elastic–plastic
transition.
• For those materials having a nonlinear elastic region, use of
the strain offset method is not possible, and the usual practice
is to define the yield strength as the stress required to produce
some amount of strain (e.g., 0.005).
• Some steels and other materials exhibit the tensile stress–
strain behavior shown in Figure 6.10b
• At the upper yield point, plastic deformation is initiated with
an apparent decrease in engineering stress

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 Tensile Strength

Necking

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 Ductility
• Ductility is another important mechanical
property.
• It is a measure of the degree of plastic
deformation that has been sustained at fracture
• Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as
either percent elongation or percent reduction
in area

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 • A knowledge of the ductility of materials is
important for at least two reasons.
• First, it indicates to a designer the degree to which
a structure will deform plastically before fracture.
• Second, it specifies the degree of allowable
deformation during fabrication operations.
• Brittle materials are approximately considered to
be those having a fracture strain of less than about
5%.
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 • Resilience is the capacity of a material to
absorb energy when it is deformed elastically
and then, upon unloading, to have this energy
recovered.
• The associated property is the modulus of
resilience, Ur, which is the strain energy per
unit volume required to stress a material from
an unloaded state up to the point of yielding.

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 • Which of these elements would you expect to
form the following with copper:
(a) A substitutional solid solution having
complete solubility
(b) A substitutional solid solution of incomplete
solubility
(c) An interstitial solid solution

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 1) the difference in atomic radii between Cu and
the other element (∆R%) must be less than ±15%
2) the crystal structures must be the same
3) the electronegativities must be similar
4) the valences should be the same, or nearly the
same.

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 • Ni, Pd, and Pt meet all of the criteria and thus
form substitutional solid solutions complete
solubility
• Ag, Al, Co, Cr, Fe, and Zn form substitutional
solid solutions of incomplete solubility.
• C, H, and O form interstitial solid solutions.

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 Toughness

• Toughness (or more specifically, fracture

toughness) is a property that is indicative of a
material’s resistance to fracture when a crack is
present
• zero defects (or to prevent damage during
service).
• Another way of defining toughness is as the
ability of a material to absorb energy and
plastically deform before fracturing
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 TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN

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 ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER
PLASTIC
DEFORMATION

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 HARDNESS
• Another mechanical property that may be
important to consider is hardness, which is a
measure of a material’s resistance to localized
plastic deformation
• Mohs scale
• 1 on the soft end for talc to 10 for diamond
• Small indenter

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 • Hardness tests are performed more frequently
than any other mechanical test for several
reasons:
• They are simple and inexpensive.
• The test is nondestructive.
• Other mechanical properties often may be
estimated from hardness data, such as tensile
strength.

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 Rockwell Hardness Tests
• Correlation between Hardness and Tensile
Strength

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 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

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 Failure
• For metals, two fracture modes are possible: ductile and brittle.
• Any fracture process involves two steps—crack formation and propagation.
• Furthermore, the process proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is
extended.
• Such a crack is often said to be stable.

• On the other hand, for brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely rapidly,
with very little accompanying plastic deformation.
• Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and crack propagation, once
started, will continue spontaneously without an increase in magnitude of the
applied stress.
• Ductile fracture is almost always preferred to brittle.

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 BRITTLE FRACTURE
• Brittle fracture takes place without any
appreciable deformation and by rapid crack
propagation.

• The direction of crack motion is very nearly

perpendicular to the direction of the applied
tensile stress

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 PRINCIPLES OF FRACTURE
MECHANICS
• Stress Concentration

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 • Extra class: 12-3-22, 1:00-2:00 PM

• Quiz: 2:00-2:15 PM

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 PRINCIPLES OF FRACTURE
MECHANICS
• Stress Concentration

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 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
TESTING
• Impact Testing Techniques
• Charpy and Izod

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 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition

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 Fatigue
• Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in
structures subjected to dynamic and
fluctuating stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft, and
machine components).
• comprise approximately 90% of all metallic
failures

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