VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER (VCM)

(Information produced in collaboration with ECVM - European Council of Vinyl

Manufacturers)

DATA SUMMARY

Year to which data refer 1992-1995

Production used in calculations 3 800 000 tonne

Number of plants supplying data 12

Countries covered by the data Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,

Norway, UK.

Chemical structure CH2=CHCl

Typical uses - PVC production

PRODUCTION INFORMATION
Vinyl chloride monomer is the immediate precursor in the production of
polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Of all synthetic thermoplastics, PVC is probably one
of the polymers in modern use with the oldest pedigree. Regnault in France first
produced vinyl chloride monomer in 1835 and Baumann first recorded its
polymerisation in 1872 who exposed sealed tubes containing the monomer to
sunlight. The earliest patents for PVC production were taken out in the USA in
1912 and pilot plant production of PVC began in Germany and the USA in the
early 1930’s.

Early PVC processing technology was based on established rubber moulding

processes and the products that could be manufactured were limited to those
using heavily plasticised polymer. The main problem was the inability to
convert the polymer into usable products without severe thermal degradation
because of the tendency of the polymer to de-hydrochlorinate at elevated
temperatures. It was not until the discovery of suitable stabilisers that
processing technology advanced to the point where the full potential of the

1
polymer could be realised. Nowadays, by choosing suitable stabilisers and
plasticisers, the polymer can be converted into a wide variety of different
products as diverse as plastisols, which provide the seals in some closures,
through coated fabrics used in architectural applications, films and sheets for
use in packaging applications and extruded pipes and sections for use in
building applications.

The structure of PVC

PVC is a chlorinated hydrocarbon polymer. The structure is similar to that of

polyethylene except that alternate carbon atoms in the main chain have one of
their hydrogen atoms replaced by a chlorine atom to give the structure shown in
Figure 1.

H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl

Figure 1. Structure of polyvinyl chloride

The polymer is produced from vinyl chloride by a process essentially similar to

that used in the production of polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene; that
is, the double bond in the vinyl chloride molecule is opened and neighbouring
molecules combine with each other to produce a long chain molecule.
Schematically the reaction is as shown in Figure 2.

H H H H H H H H

C C + C C H C C H + H C C H C C C C

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl

vinyl chloride PVC

Figure 2. Schematic representation of the polymerisation of vinyl chloride.

Production route for VCM & PVC

The starting raw materials for VCM and PVC are crude oil and natural gas for
the hydrocarbon part of the molecule and naturally occurring sodium chloride
(and to a lesser extent, potassium chloride) for the chlorine part.

2
The hydrocarbon feedstocks are converted by cracking to ethylene (ethene) as
described in an earlier report.1 The sodium chloride is electrolysed as an
aqueous solution to produce chlorine with sodium hydroxide and hydrogen as
co-products according to the equation:

2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) = 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)

The ethylene and chlorine are reacted to produce 1,2-dichloroethane (ethylene

dichloride) according to the equation:

C2H4(g) + Cl2(g) = C2H4Cl2(g) (1)

The 1,2-dichloroethane is then decomposed by heating in a high temperature

furnace (cracking) when it produces vinyl chloride and hydrogen chloride
according to the reaction:

C2H4Cl2(g) = C2H3Cl(g) + HCl(g) (2)

If the process were stopped at this stage, it is clear that 50% of the input of
chlorine would be lost from the system and, unless there were a sufficient
demand for hydrogen chloride, this would represent a significant loss of raw
materials. In practice, however, the hydrogen chloride from reaction (2) is
reacted with further ethylene in the presence of oxygen (a reaction known as
oxychlorination), to produce further 1,2-dichloroethane:

C2H4(g) +2HCl(g) +½O2(g) = C2H4Cl2(g) + H2O(l) (3)

The dichloroethane produced by reaction (3) is now decomposed according to

reaction (2). By matching the direct and oxychlorination steps, the overall
reaction can be shown by adding together equations (1), (2) and (3) as:

2C2H4(g) + Cl2(g) + ½O2(g) = 2C2H3Cl(g) +H2O(l) (4)

As can be seen, the chlorine is now completely used by the overall process.

The industrial process for VCM & PVC

The outline sequence of operations used for the production of VCM and PVC is
shown in Figure 3. It should be noted that producers of PVC do not all carry out
the complete sequence of operations shown; many buy commodities such a
sodium chloride, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, dichloroethane and even vinyl

1 I Boustead. Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry. Report 2 - Olefin feedstock

sources. APME, Brussels May 1993

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chloride monomer on the open market and operate only the later stages of the
process.

Crude oil Natural gas Rock salt Brine pumping

production production mining & & purification
& delivery & delivery purification

Oil refining Gas processing Electrolysis

for naphtha & storage for chlorine

naphtha natural gas chlorine

Cracking for Direct

ethylene ethylene chlorination

ethylene dichloroethane

dichloroethane
Oxy- Vinyl chloride
chlorination production
HCl
vinyl
chloride

PVC
production

PVC

Figure 3. Schematic flow diagram for the production of VCM & PVC.

Emissions of vinyl chloride monomer and dichloroethane are controlled by law

in several European countries. These particular emissions are dealt with in the
publications On the environmental impact of the manufacture of polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and ECVM Industry Charter for the Production of VCM and
PVC.2

2Both of these publications are available from ECVM, Ave E Van Nieuwenhuyse 4, Box 4, B-
1160 Brussels, Belgium.

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ECOPROFILE DATA
Table 1
Gross energy in MJ required to produce 1 kg of vinyl chloride
monomer. (Totals may not agree because of rounding)
Fuel type Fuel prod'n Energy content Energy use Feedstock Total
& delivery of delivered in energy energy
energy fuel transport
(MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (MJ)
Electricity 6.05 3.11 0.03 <0.01 9.18
Oil fuels 0.39 4.63 0.07 10.92 16.01
Other fuels 1.30 13.13 0.03 11.72 26.18
Totals 7.74 20.86 0.13 22.64 51.37
Source: I Boustead. Ecoprofiles of plastics and related intermediates
Published by APME, Brussels, 1999
Warning
Before using the data in this table you should ensure that
you have read the file describing the methodology
Note: Entries <0.01MJ denote non-zero values <0.005MJ

Table 2
Gross primary fuels and feedstocks in MJ required to produce 1
kg of vinyl chloride monomer. (Totals may not agree because of
rounding)
Fuel type Fuel prod'n Energy content Fuel use Feedstock Total
& delivery of delivered in energy energy
energy fuel transport
(MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (MJ)
Coal 1.35 1.90 <0.01 <0.01 3.25
Oil 0.61 4.79 0.11 10.93 16.44
Gas 1.91 12.46 0.02 11.65 26.04
Hydro 0.41 0.53 <0.01 - 0.93
Nuclear 2.99 1.39 <0.01 - 4.38
Lignite 0.40 0.18 <0.01 - 0.58
Wood - - - <0.01 <0.01
Sulphur - 0.06 <0.01 0.06 0.11
Biomass 0.03 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.04
Hydrogen <0.01 0.64 <0.01 - 0.64
Recovered energy - -1.13 <0.01 - -1.13
Unspecified 0.05 0.03 <0.01 - 0.08
Peat <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 - <0.01
Totals 7.73 20.86 0.13 22.64 51.37
Source: I Boustead. Ecoprofiles of plastics and related intermediates
Published by APME, Brussels, 1999
Warning
Before using the data in this table you should ensure that
you have read the file describing the methodology
Note: Entries <0.01MJ denote non-zero values <0.005MJ

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Table 3
Gross primary fuels and feedstocks in mg to produce 1
kg of vinyl chloride monomer.
Fuel type Input in mg
Crude oil 370,000
Gas/condensate 490,000
Coal 120,000
Metallurgical coal 78
Lignite 38,000
Peat 180
Wood 190
Biomass 4,500
Source: I Boustead. Ecoprofiles of plastics and related intermediates
Published by APME, Brussels, 1999
Warning
Before using the data in this table you should ensure that
you have read the file describing the methodology
Note: Entries <1mg denote non-zero values <0.5mg

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Table 4
Gross raw materials in mg required to produce 1 kg of
vinyl chloride monomer.
Raw material Input in mg
air 260,000
barytes 120
bauxite 410
bentonite 35
calcium sulphate 3
chalk <1
chromium <1
clay 8
dolomite 2
feldspar <1
ferromanganese <1
fluorspar 2
granite <1
gravel 1
iron 230
lead 1
limestone 9,500
nickel <1
nitrogen 26,000
olivine 2
oxygen 9,300
phosphate as P2O5 1
potassium chloride 7,700
rutile <1
sand 590
shale 10
sodium chloride 670,000
sulphur (bonded) 6,100
sulphur (elemental) 12,000
zinc <1
Source: I Boustead. Ecoprofiles of plastics and related intermediates
Published by APME, Brussels, 1999
Warning
Before using the data in this table you should ensure that
you have read the file describing the methodology
Note: Entries <1mg denote non-zero values <0.5mg

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Table 5
Gross water resources in mg required to produce 1 kg
of vinyl chloride monomer. (Totals may not agree
because of rounding)
Source Use for Use for Totals
processing cooling
(mg) (mg) (mg)
Public supply 4,300,000 - 4,300,000
River canal 520,000 600,000 1,100,000
Sea 130,000 33,000,000 34,000,000
Unspecified 3,400,000 43,000,000 47,000,000
Well 220,000 7,500 220,000
Totals 8,700,000 77,000,000 86,000,000
Source: I Boustead. Ecoprofiles of plastics and related intermediates
Published by APME, Brussels, 1999
Warning
Before using the data in this table you should ensure that
you have read the file describing the methodology

8
Table 6
Gross air emissions in mg arising from the production of 1 kg of vinyl chloride
monomer. (Totals may not agree because of rounding)
Emission From From From From From Totals
fuel fuel transport process biomass
production use operations operations use
(mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)
Dust 1,600 630 4 89 - 2,300
CO 250 1,800 47 10 - 2,100
CO2 530,000 1,100,000 7,200 4,500 -4,500 1,700,000
SOX 3,400 3,200 62 14 - 6,700
NOX 3,000 5,200 68 58 - 8,300
N2O <1 <1 - - - <1
Hydrocarbons 480 240 19 1,000 - 1,700
Methane 4,500 2,100 - 78 - 6,700
H2S - - - 2 - 2
HCl 56 11 - 55 - 120
Cl2 - - - 2 - 2
HF 3 <1 - <1 - 3
Lead(Pb) - <1 - <1 - <1
Metals 1 2 - <1 - 3
F2 - - - <1 - <1
Mercaptans - <1 - <1 - <1
Organo-Cl - - - 57 - 57
Aromatic-HC - - - 5 - 5
Polycyclic-HC - - - <1 - <1
Other organics - - - 15 - 15
CFC/HCFC - - - 9 - 9
Aldehydes (CHO) - - - <1 - <1
HCN - - - <1 - <1
H2SO4 - - - <1 - <1
Hydrogen (H2) - - - 230 - 230
Mercury (Hg) - - - <1 - <1
Ammonia (NH3) - - - 1 - 1
CS2 - - - <1 - <1
DCE - - - 410 - 410
VCM - - - 100 - 100
Source: I Boustead. Ecoprofiles of plastics and related intermediates
Published by APME, Brussels, 1999
Warning
Before using the data in this table you should ensure that
you have read the file describing the methodology
Note: Entries <1mg denote non-zero values <0.5mg

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Table 7
Gross solid waste in mg arising from the production of 1 kg of vinyl chloride
monomer. (Totals may not agree because of rounding).
Type From From From Totals
fuel fuel process
production use operations
(mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)
Mineral 28,000 - 8,100 36,000
Mixed industrial 200 - 5,200 5,400
Slags/ash 5,700 1,200 680 7,600
Inert chemical 1 - 6,200 6,200
Regulated chemical 8 - 4,900 5,000
Unspecified 1 - 7 8
Construction - - 24 24
Metals - - 15 15
To incinerator - - 33 33
To recycling - - 15 15
Paper & board - - <1 <1
Plastics - - 41 41
Wood waste - - 2 2
Source: I Boustead. Ecoprofiles of plastics and related intermediates
Published by APME, Brussels, 1999
Warning
Before using the data in this table you should ensure that
you have read the file describing the methodology
Note: Entries <1mg denote non-zero values <0.5mg

10
Table 8
Gross water emissions in mg arising from the production of 1 kg of vinyl
chloride monomer. (Totals may not agree because of rounding).
Emission From From From From Totals
fuel fuel transport process
production use operations operations
(mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)
COD 3 - - 580 590
BOD 2 - - 33 34
Acid (H+) 2 - - 64 66
Dissolved solids 24 - - 3,800 3,800
Hydrocarbons 6 <1 - 17 23
NH4 1 - - 2 3
Suspended solids 38 - - 1,400 1,500
Phenol 2 - - <1 2
Al+++ - - - <1 <1
Ca++ - - - 48 48
Cu+/Cu++ - - - 1 1
Fe++/Fe+++ - - - 9 9
Hg - - - <1 <1
Pb - - - <1 <1
Mg++ - - - 1 1
Na+ - - - 18,000 18,000
K+ - - - 230 230
Ni++ - - - 1 1
Zn++ - - - <1 <1
Metals - unspecified <1 - - 82 82
NO3- - - - 1 1
Other nitrogen <1 - - 2 2
CrO3 - - - <1 <1
Cl- - - - 43,000 43,000
CN- - - - <1 <1
F- - - - <1 <1
SO4-- - - - 2,500 2,500
CO3-- - - - 71 71
Phosphate as P2O5 - - - <1 <1
Arsenic - - - <1 <1
DCE - - - 2 2
VCM - - - <1 <1
Detergent/oil - - - 44 44
Dissolved Cl2 - - - 4 4
Organo-chlorine - - - <1 <1
Dissolved organics - - - 590 590
Other organics - - - 3 3
Sulphur/sulphide - - - 2 2
Source: I Boustead. Ecoprofiles of plastics and related intermediates
Published by APME, Brussels, 1999
Warning
Before using the data in this table you should ensure that
you have read the file describing the methodology
Note: Entries <1mg denote non-zero values <0.5mg

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