ASM Specialty Handbook: Stainless Steels, 06398G Copyright © 1994 ASM International ®

J.R. Davis, Davis & Associates All rights reserved.

www.asminternational.org

Stainless Steel ladding and Weld

verlays
A STAINLESS-STEEL-CLAD metal or alloy
is a composite product consisting of a thin layer of
stainless steel in the form of a veneer integrally
bonded to one or both surfaces of the substrate.
The principal object of such a product is to com-
bine, at low cost, the desirable properties of the
stainless steel and the backing material for appli-
cations where full-gage alloy construction is not
required. While the stainless cladding furnishes
the necessary resistance to corrosion, abrasion, or
oxidation, the backing material contributes struc-
tural strength and improves the fabricability and
thermal conductivity of the composite. Stainless-
steel-clad metals can be produced in plate, strip,
tube, rod, and wire form.
The principal cladding techniques include hot
roll bonding, cold roll bonding, explosive bond-
ing, centrifugal casting, brazing, and weld over-
laying, although adhesive bonding, extrusion, and
hot isostatic pressing have also been used to pro-
duce clad metals. With casting, brazing, and weld-
ing, one of the metals to be joined is molten when
a metal-to-metal bond is achieved. With hot/cold
roll bonding and explosive bonding, the bond is
achieved by forcing clean oxide-free metal sur-
faces into intimate contact, which causes a shar-
ing of electrons between the metals. Gaseous
impurities diffuse into the metals, and nondiffusi-
ble impurities consolidate by spheroidization.
These non-melting techniques involve some form
of deformation to break up surface oxides, to cre-
ate metal-to-metal contact, and to heat in order to
accelerate diffusion. They differ in the amount of Table 1 lists the clad combinations that have
deformation and heat used to form the bond and in been commercially produced on a large scale. As
the method of bringing the metals into intimate this table indicates, stainless steels can be joined
contact. to a variety of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. On a
This article will review each of the processes tonnage basis, however, the most common clad
commonly associated with stainless-steel-clad systems are carbon or low-alloy steels clad with
metal systems as well as the stainless steels used. 300-series austenitic grades. The types of austeni-
Design considerations and the welding of stain- tic stainless steel cladding commonly available in
less-steel-clad carbon and low-alloy steels are plate forms are:
also addressed. Additional information can be
.. Type 304 (18-8)
found in Ref 1 to 3.
• Type 304 L (18-8 low carbon)
.. Type 309 (25-12)
Hot Roll Bonding (Ref 3) .. Type 310 (25-20)
.. Type 316 (17-12Mo)
The hot roll bonding process, which is also .. Type 316 Cb (17-12 Nb stabilized)
called roll welding, is the most important com- .. Type 316 L (17-12 Mo low carbon)
mercially because it is the major production .. Type 317 (19-13 Mo)
method for stainless-clad steel plates. Hot roll • Type 317 L (19-13 Mo low carbon)
bonding accounts for more than 90% of the clad
lit Type 321 (18-lOTi)
plate production worldwide (Ref 1). It is known lit Type347(18-11Nb)
also as the heat and pressure process because the
principle involves preparing the carefully cleaned The carbon or low-alloy steel/stainless steel
cladding components in the form of a pack or plate rolling sequence is normally followed by
sandwich, heating to the plastic range, and bring- heat treatment, which is usually required to re-
ing the stainless and backing material into inti- store the cladding to the solution-annealed condi-
mate contact, either by pressing or by rolling. A tion and to bring the backing material into the
product so formed is integrally bonded at the in- correct heat-treatment condition. Table 2 lists
terface. The clad surface is in all respects (corro- typical mill heat treatments.
sion resistance, physical properties, and The cladding thickness is normally specified
mechanical properties) the equal of the parent as a percentage of the total thickness of the com-
stainless steel. It can be polished and worked in posite plate. It varies from 5 to 50%, depending on
the same manner as solid stainless steel. the end use. For most commercial applications in-

Table 1 Selected dissimilar metals and alloys that can be roll bonded (hot or cold) into clad-laminate form

Weldabililyraliog(a)
Base metal AI Carbon Stainless
No.l/No.2 Ag AI alloys Au steel Co Cn Mo Mo·N! Nb Ni PI steel Steel So Ta Ti U Zr

Ag A B B
Al A C B C B B B C
Alfesil D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D
Be D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D
Carbon steel B B B
Cn A B A B B B A B B A A B B B
Mn B B A B
Ni B A A B B A
Nb B B
Stainless B B B B B
steel
Steel B A B B
U B

(a) A, easy to weld; B, difficult but possible to weld; C. impractical to weld; D, impossible to weld. Source: Ref2
 108 / Introduction to Stainless Steels

Table 2 Typical mill heattreatments for stainlessclad carbonand low-alloysteels metallurgical bond that is due to a sharing of at-
oms between the materials. The resulting bond
Typeof Typeof ASTM-grade can exceed the strength of either of the parent
claddingmaterial backingmaterial Heat treatment(a) materials.
304, 304L, 309, 310, 316, 316Cb, 316L, A285, A201, A212 (up to 50 mm, or 2 in., Anneal 1065 to 1175 °C (1950 to 2150 oF), Upon completion of this three-step process, the
317,321,or347 gage) air quench
304L, 316L, 316Cb, 317L, 321, or 347 A201, A212 (over 50mm, or 2 in., gage) Anneal 1065 to 1175 °C (1950 to 2150 oF),
resultant clad material can be treated in the same
air quench, normalize 870 to 900 °C way as any other conventional monolithic metal.
(1600 to 1650 "F) 1 hr per 25 mm (1 in.) The clad material can be worked by any of the
thickness, air quench(b) traditional processing methods for strip metals.
304, 304L, 309, 310, 316, 316Cb, 316L, A204, A 302 (up to 50mm, or2 in., gage) Anneal 1065 to 1175 °C (1950 to 2150 oF),
317,321,or347 air quench
Rolling, annealing, pickling, and slitting are typi-
304L, 316L, 316Cb, 317L, 321, or 347 A204, A 302 (over 50mm, or2 in., gage). Anneal 1065 to 1175 °C (1950 to 2150 OF), cally performed to produce the finished strip to
A301 (all gages) air quench, normalize 870 to 900°C specific customer requirements, so that the material
(1600 to 1650 OF)1 hr per 25 mm (1 in.) can be roll formed, stamped, or drawn into the
thickness, airquench(b)
required part.
(a) Heat treatments listedaregenerallycorrect for the material combinations shown. Deviationsmay be madeto meet specific requirements. Procedure Clad steels prepared by this method show sub-
selected will be onefavorable forboth cladding andbacking material. (b)Stabilized orlow-carbon typesof stainless steelshould beusedwhenthisdouble stantially the same microstructures as those that
heattreatment is involved.Source:Ref3
have been bonded by hot roll bonding processes.
Because of the high power requirement in the in-
itial reduction, the cold bonding process is not
volving carbon or low-alloy steel/stainless steel practical for producing clad plates of any appre-
Cold Roll Bonding ciable size.
combinations, cladding thickness generally falls
in the 10 to 20% range. The cold roll bonding process, which is The single largest application for cold-roll-
Hot roll bonding has also been used to clad shown schematically in Fig. 1, involves three bonded materials is stainless-steel-clad alumi-
high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel plate with basic steps: num for automotive trim (Table 3 and Fig. 2) (Ref
6). The stainless steel exterior surface provides
duplex stainless steels (Ref 4, 5). The microal-
" The mating surfaces are cleaned by chemical corrosion resistance, high luster, and abrasion and
loyed base metals contain small amounts of cop- and/or mechanical means to remove dirt, lu- dent resistance, and the aluminum on the inside
per (0.15% max), niobium (0.03% max), and bricants, surface oxides, and any other con- provides sacrificial protection for the painted auto
nitrogen (0.010% max) and have mechanical taminants. body steel and for the stainless steel.
properties comparable to those of duplex stainless " The materials are joined in a bonding mill by
steels. Typically these HSLA base metals have rolling them together with a thickness reduc-
yield strengths of 500 MPa (72.5 ksi) and impact tion that ranges from 50 to 80% in a single pass. Explosive Bonding (Ref 1)
values of 60 J (44 ft-lbf) at -60°C (-75 OF). The Immediately afterwards, the materials have an
shear strength of the cladding bond can be as high incipient, or green, bond created by the massive Explosive bonding uses the very-short-dura-
as 400 MPa (58 ksi). cold reduction. tion, high-energy impulse of an explosion to drive
Other metals and alloys commonly roll " The materials then undergo sintering, a heat two surfaces of metal together, simultaneously
bonded to stainless steels include aluminum, cop- treatment during which the bond at the inter- cleaning away surface oxide films and creating a
per, and nickel. Table 3 lists properties and appli- face is completed. Diffusion occurs at the metallic bond. The two surfaces do not collide in-
cations of roll-bonded clad laminates. atomic level along the interface and results in a stantaneously but rather progressively over the in-

Table 3 Typical properties of roll-bonded stainlesssteel

Tensile Yield
Composite Thickness Width strength strength Elongation,
Materialssystem ratio, % mm in. mm in. MPa ksl MPa ksi % Applications

Type 434 stainless/5052 40:60 0.56-0.76 0.022-0.030 :0;610 :0;24 395 57 360 52 12 Widely used for automotive body
aluminum moldings, drip rails, rocker panels,
and other trim components, often
replacing solid stainless steel or
aluminum. Stainless steel provides
bright appearance; the hidden
aluminum base provides cathodic
protection, corroding sacrificially to
the body sleel.
CI008 steel/type 347 45:10:45 0.36 0.014 305 12 393 57 195 28 35 Used in hydraulic tubing in vehicles,
stainless steel/CI008 replacing teme-coated carbon steel
steel tubing. The outer layer of carbon steel
cathodically protects the stainless
core of the tube, extending its life
significantly.
Nickel201/type 304 7.5:85:7.5 0.20-2.41 0.008-0.095 25-64 1-2.5 310 45 40 Used in formed cans for transistor and
stainless steel/nickel button cell balleries, replacing solid
201 nickel at a lower cost
Copper 1mOO/type 430 17:66:17, 0.10-0.15 0.004-0.006 12.7-150 0.5-6 415(a)· 60(a) 275 40 20(a) Replaces heavier gapes of copper and
stainless steel/copper 20:60:20, bronze in buried communications
10300 33:34:33 cable. The stainless steel provides
resistance to gnawing by rodents,
which is a serious problem in
underground installations.

(a)20/60/20three-layerlaminate. Source: Ref2


Chemical Cleaning
Mechanical Cleaning
Fig. 1 Process steps in cold roll bonding
Roll Bonding
Steel body panel
Fig. 2 Stainless-steel-c1ad aluminum automotive
trim provides sacrificial corrosion protection
to the auto body while maintaining a bright corrosion-resis-
tant exterior surface.
terface area. The pressure generated at the result-
ing collision front is extreme and causes plastic
deformation of the surface layers. In this way, the
surface layers and any contaminating oxides pre-
sent are removed in the form of a jet projected
ahead of the collision front. This leaves perfectly
clean surfaces under pressure to form the bond.
Figure 3 illustrates the wavy interface that charac-
terizes most explosive bonds.
Two basic geometric configurations of the ex-
plosive bonding process are commonly used: an-
gle bonding and parallel-plate bonding. Angle
bonding is normally used for bonding sheet com-
ponents and tubes, where the required bond width
does not exceed 20 times the flyer plate thickness.
The more commonly used parallel-plate geome-
try (Fig. 4) is applicable for welding larger flat ar-
eas, plate, and concentric cylinders.
The energy of bonding typically creates suffi-
cient deformation that flattening or straightening
is required prior to further processing. Flattening
is performed with equipment of the same design
used in plate and sheet manufacture.
Explosive bonding is an effective joining
method for virtually any combination of metals.
Stainless Steel Cladding and Weld Overlays / 109
Sintering
Fig. 3 Bond zone pattern typical of explosion-clad
metals. Materials are type 304L stainless steel
and medium-carbon steel. 20x
The only metallurgical limitation is sufficient
ductility and fracture toughness to undergo the
rapid deformation of the process without fracture.
Generally accepted limits are 10% and 30 J (22
ft-lbf) minimum, respectively. Figure 5 lists the
combinations that are useful in industry. More de-
tailed information on explosive bonding is avail-
able in Ref? to 9.
Centrifugal Casting (Ref 1)
An entirely different approach to clad seam-
less pipe production uses horizontal centrifugal
casting technology. First, well-refined molten
steel is poured into a rotating metal mold with
flux. After casting, the temperature of the outer
shell is monitored. At a suitable temperature after
solidification the molten stainless steel is intro-
duced. The selection of the flux, the temperature
of the outer shell when the molten stainless steel is
introduced, and the pouring temperature of the
stainless steel are the most important factors in
achieving a sound metallurgical bond. By con-
trolling these various parameters it is possible to
achieve minimum mixing at the interface and
maintain homogenous cladding thickness and
wall thickness.
Centrifugal casting is followed by heat treatment
to solution anneal the cladding and quench and tem-
CLAPDING METAL
(a)
~
.~ I
(b)
(e)
Fig. 4 Parallel-plate explosion welding process. (a)
Explosion-cladding assembly before detona-
tion. (b) Explosion-cladding assembly during detonation. (c)
Closeup of (b) showing mechanism for jetting away the sur-
face layer from the parent layer
per the outer pipe to achieve the required me-
chanical properties. Finally, the pipe is machined
externally and internally to remove the shallow
interdendritic porosity in the bore and achieve the
required dimensions and surface finish.
Centrifugal cast pipe is available with the
outer steel made of API 5L X52, X60, or X65
grades and internal cladding made of type 316L
stainless steel. Sizes range from 100 to 400 mm (4
to 16 in.) in diameter, wall thickness from 10 to 90
mm (004 to 3.5 in.) (minimum 3 mm, or 0.12 in.
cladding), and lengths typically from 4 to 5 m (13
to 16 ft), withlongerlengths above 200mm (8 in.)
in diameter.
Brazing
In furnace brazing, the stainless steel cladding
and the backing material, in their respective final
gages, are assembled as a multilayer sandwich,
with a brazing alloy placed between each pair of
surfaces to be bonded. The sandwich is heated un-
der continuous vacuum to a temperature at which
110 / Introduction to Stainless Steels

buttering is to satisfy some metallurgical consid-

eration. It is used primarily for the joining of dis-
'"
>- '"
Qi
'" similar metal base metals, as described in the
~ ....
Q) Qi
E E a:l .2 .2
co E '" '" ....
Qi Q)
section "Welding Austenitic-Stainless-Clad
::J CD
E E >- E ::J ....
Q)
'"
::J
'c 'in Q) ::J
....
E ::J .2 ::J '"
'" ....c. 'fc .9!
'" '" 0c Carbon or Low-Alloy Steels" in this article. An
0
Q)
c ~ C
::J
:.0
co.... Qi
.... 'c ]. Q)
c >-
~ 01
]
';:;
eo
1J
'0
Q)
2: 0 c ....'" .s 0 C. ::J '(ij .2
.... ~ o -E extensive review of the weld processes and mate-
N '"
:2: (f) a:: o 'w Z '" I'"eo i=
l- z o ~ (f) '" rials associated with weld overlays can be found
in the article "Hardfacing, Weld Cladding, and
Dissimilar Metal Joining," in Volume 6 of the
Carbon steels
• ED
• • • • • • • • • • CD CD ASM Handbook (Ref 10),

Alloy steels
• • • • • • III III ED III ED
WeldCladding

• • • " • •
Stainless steels It 4& It The term weld cladding usually denotes the
" application of a relatively thick layer (;::3 mm, or
Ys in.) of weld metal for the purpose of providing
Aluminum
" • " • • • • III
a corrosion-resistant surface. Hardfacing pro-
duces a thinner surface coating than a weld clad-
Copper aIIoys
• • III ED CD CD ding and is normally applied for dimensional
restoration or wear resistance. Typical base metal
Nickel alloys
• • • ED III It It components that are weld-cladded include the in-
ternal surfaces of carbon and low-alloy steel pres-
sure vessels, paper digesters, urea reactors,
Titanium It
• • • • • tubesheets, nuclear reactor containment vessels,
and hydrocrackers. The cladding material is usu-
Hastelloy 4& ally an austenitic stainless steel or a nickel-base
alloy. Weld cladding is usually performed using
Tantalum III ED
• submerged arc welding. However, flux-cored arc
welding (either self-shielded or gas-shielded),
plasma arc welding, and electroslag welding can
Niobium
• • also produce weld claddings. Figure 6 compares'
deposition rates obtainable with different welding
Silver • processes. Filler metals are available as covered
electrodes, coiled electrode wire, and strip elec-
Gold trodes. For very large areas, strip welding with
either submerged arc or electro slag techniques is
the most economical. Table 4 lists some of the
Platinum • filler metals for stainless steel weld claddings.
Application Considerations. Weld cladding
Stellite 68 is an excellent way to impart properties to the sur-
face of a substrate that are not available from that
Magnesium CD of a base metal, or to conserve expensive or diffi-
cult-to-obtain materials by using only a relatively
thin surface layer on a less expensive or abundant
Zirconium
• base material. Several inherent limitations or pos-
sible problems must be considered when planning
Fig. 5 Commercially availableexplosion-cladmetal combinations for weld cladding. The thickness of the required
surface must be less than the maximum thickness
of the overlay that can be obtained with the par-
ticular'process and filler metal selected.
the brazing alloy liquefies and forms an intennet- hardfacing materials, buildup alloys, and butter- Welding position also must be considered when
allic alloying zone at the interface of the stainless ing alloys. selecting an overlay material and process. Certain
and backing material (normally carbon steels), A A weld clad is a relatively thick layer of filler processes are limited in their availablewelding posi-
wide range of brazing filler metals can be used to metal applied to a carbon or low-alloy steel base tions (e.g., submerged arc welding can be used only
join stainless steels to carbon or low-alloy steels. metal for the purpose of providing a corrosion-resis- in the flat position). In addition, when using a high-
The most commonly used are silver-base alloys. tant surface. Hardfacing is a form of weld surfacing deposition-rate process that exhibits a large liquid
More detailed information on brazing of stainless that is applied for the purpose of reducing wear, pool, welding vertically or overhead may be difficult
steels can be found in the article" Brazing, Sol- abrasion, impact, erosion, galling, or cavitation. The or impossible. Some alloys exhibit eutectic solidifi-
dering, and Adhesive Bonding" in this Volume. term buildup refers to the addition of weld metal to a cation, which leads to large molten pools that solid-
base metal surface for the restoration of the compo- ify instantly, with no "mushy" (liquid plus solid)
nent to the required dimensions. Buildup alloys are transition. Such materials are also difficult to weld
Weld Overlays generally not designed to resist wear, but to return except in the flat position.
the worn part back to, or near, its original dimen- DilutionControl.The economics of stainless
Weld overlaying refers to the deposition of a sions, or to provide adequate support for subsequent steel weld cladding are dependent on achieving
filler metal on a base metal (substrate) to impart layers of truehardfacing materials.Buttering also in- the specific chemistry at the highest practical
some desired property to the surface thatis not in- volves the addition of one or more layers of weld deposition rate in a minimum number of layers.
trinsic to the underlying base metal. There are sev- metal to the face of the joint or surface to be welded. The fabricator selects the filler wire and welding
eral types of weld overlays: weld claddings, It differsfrom buildup in that the primary purpose of process, whereas the purchaser specifies the sur-
 Stainless Steel Cladding and Weld Overlays /111

mum. Less than 10% raises the question of bond

Hot wire GTAW
;~;~;~;~;~;~ Pulsed GMAW
~;~;~;~;~;~ Spray transfer GMAW
""" ~SUbmergedarc - 60 mm strip
Submerged arc - 90 mm strip
Submerged arc - 120 mm strip
Electroslag - 60 mm strip
o 4 10
8 14
Fig. 6 Comparison of deposition rates for various weld cladding processes. To obtain equivalent deposition rates in
pounds per hour, multiply the metric value by 2.2. Source: Ref 1
face chemistry and thickness, along with the base
metal. The most outstanding difference between
welding a joint and depositing an overlay is the
percentage of dilution:
% dilution =....£ x 100
x+y
where x is the amount of base metal melted and y is
the amount of filler metal added.
For stainless steel cladding, a fabricator must
understand how the dilution of the filler metal
with the base metal affects the composition and
metallurgical balance, such as the proper ferrite
level to minimize hot cracking, absence of
martensite at the interface for bond integrity, and
Submerged arc - double wire
<>"'>';,"*m~""",
Electroslag - 90 mm strip
12 28
16 18 20 22 24 26 30
Deposition rate, kg/h
carbon at a low level to ensure corrosion resis-
tance. The prediction of the microstructures and
properties (such as hot cracking and corrosion re-
sistance) for the austenitic stainless steels has
been the topic of many studies. During the last
two decades, four microstructure prediction dia-
grams have found the widest application. These
include the Schaeffler diagram, the DeLong dia-
gram, and the Welding Research Council (WRC)
diagrams (WRC-1988 and WRC-1992). Each of
these is described in Ref 10 and the article" Weld-
ing" in this Volume.
Although each weld cladding process has an ex-
pected dilutionfactor,experimenting with the weld-
ing parameters can minimize dilution. A value
between 10 and 15% is generally considered opti-
integrity, and greater than 15% increases the cost
of the filler metal. Unfortunately, most welding
processes have considerably greater dilution.
Because of the importance of dilution in weld
cladding as well as hardfacing applications, each
welding parameter must be carefuIly evaluated
and recorded. Many of the parameters that affect
dilution in weld cladding applications are not so
closely controlled when arc welding is per-
formed:
III Amperage: Increased amperage (current den-
sity) increases dilution. The arc becomes hot-
ter, it penetrates more deeply, and more base
metal melting occurs.
III Polarity: Direct current electrode negative
(DCEN) gives less penetration and resulting
lower dilution than direct current electrode
positive (DCEP). Alternating CUITent results in
a dilution that lies between that provided by
34
DCEN and DCEP.
32
III Electrode size: The smaller the electrode, the
lower the amperage, which results in less dilu-
tion.
III Electrode extension: A long electrode exten-
sion for consumable electrode processes de-
creases dilution. A short electrode extension in-
creases dilution.
• Travel speed: A decrease in travel speed de-
creases the amount of base metal melted and in-
creases proportionally the amount of filler met-
al melted, thus decreasing dilution.
III Oscillation: Greater width of electrode oscilla-
tion reduces dilution. The frequency of oscilla-
tion also affects dilution: The higher the fre-
quency of oscillation, the lower the dilution.
III Welding position: Depending on the welding
position or work inclination, gravity causes the
weld pool to run ahead of, remain under, or run
behind the arc. If the weld pool stays ahead of
or under the arc, less base metal penetration
and resulting dilution will occur. If the pool is
too far ahead of the arc, there will be insuffi-

Table 4 Stainless steel fillermetalsfor weld cladding applications

Weld First laxer Subsequentlayers

overlay Covered Bare rodor Covered Bare rod or
type electrode(a) eleclrode(b) eleelrode(a) electrodetb)

304 E309 ER309 E308 ER308

304L E309L ER309L E308L ER308L
E309Cb
321 E309Cb ER309Cb E347 ER347
347 E309Cb ER309Cb E347 ER347
309 E309 ER309 E309 ER309
310 E310 ER310 E310 ER310
316 E309Mo ER309Mo E316 ER316
316L E309MoL E309MoL E316L ER316L
E317L ER317L
317 E309Mo ER309Mo E317 ER317
E317 ER317
317L E309MoL ER309MoL E317L ER317L
E317L ER317L
20Cb E320 ER320 E320 ER320
Fig. 7 Weld cladding of a 1.8 m (6 ft) inner diameter
pressurevesselshell with SO mm (2 in.) wide,
0.64 mm (0.025 in.) thick stainlesssteel strip. Courtesy of l.],
Note: Colombium (Cb) is also referred to as niobium (Nb). (a) Refer tn AWS specification A5.4. (b) Referto AWS specification A5.9.
Barger, ABB Combustion Engineering
 112/ Introduction to Stainless Steels

Hardfacing Alloys
Hardfacing materials include a wide variety of
alloys, carbides, and combinations of these al-
loys. Conventional hardfacing alloys are normally
classified as carbides (We-Co), nickel-base al-
loys, cobalt-base alloys, and ferrous alloys
(high-chromium white irons, low-alloy steels,
austenitic manganese steels, and stainless
steels). Stainless steel hardfacing alloys in-
clude martensitic and austenitic grades, the lat-
ter having high manganese (5 to 10%) and/or
silicon (3 to 5%) contents. As will be described
below, both cobalt-containing and cobalt-free
austenitic stainless steel hardfacing alloys have
been developed.
Hardfacing alloy selection is guided primarily
by wear and cost considerations. However, other
manufacturing and environmental factors must
also be considered, such as base metal; deposition
process; and impact, corrosion, oxidation, and
thermal requirements. Usually, the hardfacing
process dictates the hardfacing or filler metal
product form.
Hardfacing alloys usually are available as bare
rod, flux-coated rod, long-length solid wires,
long-length tube wires (with and without flux), or
Fig. 8 Closeup view of the 25 mm (1 in.) wide by 0.64 mm (0.025 in.) thick stainless steel strip used to clad a 300 mm powders. The most popular processes, and the
(12 in.) inner diameter pressure vessel nozzle. Courtesy of ).). Barger, ABB Combustion Engineering
forms most commonly associated with each proc-
ess, are:

dent melting of the surface of the base metal, wire, strip, or with flux, reduces dilution by in- Hardfacingprocess Consumable form
and coalescence will not occur. creasing the total amount of filler metal and re-
ducing the amount of base metal that is melted. Oxyfuel/oxyacetylene Bare cast or tubular rod
• Arc shielding: The shielding medium, gas or (OFW/OAW)
flux, also affects dilution. The following list For weld cladding the inside surfaces oflarge Shielded metal arc (SMAW) Coated solid or tubular rod
ranks various shielding mediums in order of pressure vessels, as shown in Fig. 7 and 8, wide (stick electrode)
Gas-tungsten arc (GTAW) Bare cast or tubular rod
decreasing dilution: granular flux without alloy beads produced by oscillated multiple-wire sys- Gas-metal arc (GMAW) Tubular or solid wire
addition (highest), helium, carbon dioxide, ar- tems or strip electrodes have become the means to Flux -cored open arc Tubular wire (flux cored)
gon, self-shielded flux-cored arc welding, and improve productivity and minimize dilution Submerged arc (SAW) Tubular or solid wire
granular flux with alloy addition (lowest). while offering a uniformly smooth surface. Weld- Plasma transferred arc (PTA) Powder
Laser beam Powder
• Additionalfillermetal: Extra metal (notincluding ing parameters for stainless steel strip weld over-
the electrode), added to the weld pool as powder, lays are described in Ref 10.

Table 5 Characteristics of welding processes used in hardfacing

Minimum
Welding Modeof Weld-metal Deposition thickness(a) Deposit
process application Form of hardfacingalloy dilution,% kg/h Ib/h mm in. efficiency, %

OAW Manual Bare cast rod, tubular rod 1-10 0.5-2 1-4 0.8 Y32 100
Manual Powder 1-10 0.5-2 1-4 0.8 \-32 85-95
Automatic Extra-long bare cast rod, tubular wire 1-10 0.5-7 1-15 0.8 Y32 100
SMAW Manual Flux-covered cast rod, flux-covered tubular rod 10-20 0.5-5 1-12 3.2 Y. 65
Open arc Semiautomatic Alloy-cored tubular wire 15-40 2-11 5-25 3.2 Y. 80-85
Automatic Alloy-cored tubular wire 15-40 2-11 5-25 3.2 lis 80-85
GTAW Manual Bare cast rod, tubular rod 10-20 0.5-3 1-6 2.4 %2 98-100
Automatic Various forrns(b) 10-20 0.5-5 1-10 2.4 3!:l2 98-100
SAW Automatic, single Bare tubular wire 30-60 5-11 10-25 3.2 Ys 95
wire
Automatic, multi wire Bare tubular wire 15-25 11-27 25-60 4.8 3/16 95
Automatic, seriesarc Bare tubular wire 10-25 11-16 25-35 4.8 3/16 95
PAW Automatic Powder(c) 5-15 0.5-7 1-15 0.8 Y32 85-95
Manual Bare cast rod, tubular rod 5-15 0.5-4 1-8 2.4 %2 98-100
Automatic Various forrns(b) 5-15 0.5-4 1-8 2.4 3.32 98-100
GMAW Semiautomatic Alloy-cored tubular wire 10-40 0.9-5 2-12 1.6 Y I6 90-95
Automatic Alloy-cored tubular wire 10-40 0.9-5 2-12 1.6 1/16 90-95
Laser Automatic Powder 1-10 (d) (d) 0.13 0.005 85-95

(a)Recommended minimum thickness of deposit. (b)Baretubular wire; extra-long (2.4 m,or8 ft) barecastrod;tungsten carbide powder withcastrodorbaretubular wire. (c) Withor without tungsten carbide granules. (d)Varies widely
depending on powderfeedrateandlaserinput power
 Stainless Steel Cladding and Weld Overlays /113

Typical dilution percentages, deposition rates,
and minimum deposit thicknesses for different
welding processes, along with various forms,
compositions, and modes of application of hard-
facing alloys, are given in Table 5. More detailed
information on the selection of hardfacing alloys
and processes can be found in Ref 10.
The buildup alloys include low-alloy pearli-
tic steels, austenitic manganese (Hadfield) steels,
and high-manganese austenitic stainless steels.
For the most part, these alloys are not designed to
resist wear but to return a worn part back to, or
near, its original dimensions and to provide ade-
quate support for subsequent layers of true hard-
facing materials. However, austenitic manganese
steels are used as wear-resistant materials under
mild wear conditions. Typical examples of appli-
cations where buildup alloys are used for wearing
surfaces include tractor rails, railroad rail ends,
steel mill table rolls, and large slow-speed gear
teeth. The stainless steel included in this cate-
gory is AWS EFeMn-Cr, which has a hardness
value of 24 HRC and the following chemical
composition:
Element Composition, wt%
Carbon 0.5
Chromium 15.0
Manganese 15.0
Silicon 1.3
Nickel 1.0
Molybdenum 2.0
Iron bal
produced. The activated particles are incorpo- NOREM alloys are characterized by high
rated into the oxide layers of primary system com- wear resistance and antigalling properties, and
ponents and contribute considerably to the they have a microstructure consisting of an
occupational radiation exposure of maintenance austenitic matrix containing eutectic alloy car-
personnel during the inspection, repair, or re- bides. The NOREM alloys meet or surpass the
placement of components. Additionally, material performance of cobalt alloys with respect to cor-
loss has been found for cobalt-base hardfacings rosion, material loss due to wear, and mainte-
used for control or throttle valves that are exposed nance of the valve's sealing function. Galling
to high flow velocities, indicating that this type of wear data for various NOREM and cobalt-base al-
alloy has a limited resistance to erosion-corrosion loys are given in Table 6. Chemical compositions
and cavitation attack. of the alloys tested are provided in Table 7. Addi-
Detailed investigations of candidate replace- tional information on these alloys can be found in
ment cobalt-free, iron-base alloys have been per- Refll to 14.
formed since the late 1960s. In the U.S., the Considerable work has also been carried out in
Electric Power Research Institute has developed Europe on cobalt-free, iron-base hardfacing al-
cobalt-free NOREM alloys (U.S. Patent loys. Everit 50 (47 to 53 HRC) , Fox Antinit DUR
4,803,045, Feb. 7, 1989). These alloys can be de- 300 (28 to 32 HRC), and Cenium Z 20 (42 to 48
posited successfully on stainless and carbon steel HRC) are tradenames used by Thyssen Edel-
substrates with gas-tungsten arc welding, in any stahlwerke Bochum (Germany), Vereinigte Edel-
stahlwerke Kapfenberg (Austria), and
position and with no preheat, using controlled
L.A.M.E.E Rueil-Malmaison (France), respec-
heat input techniques. Nominal compositions of
tively. Compositions of these alloys are given in
the NOREM alloys are as follows:
Table 8. Studies have demonstrated that these al-
Element Composition, wt% loys have tribological, corrosion, and mechanical
properties comparable to those of cobalt-base
Carbon 0.7-1.0
Stellite 6 (Ref 15).
Chromium 24-26
Manganese 4.0-5.2 Cobalt-containing austenitic stainless
Silicon 2.5-3.2 steels have been developed by Hydro-Quebec for
Nickel 5.0-9.0 the repair of the cavitation erosion damage of its
Molybdenum 1.7-2.3 hydraulic turbines. Cavitationrefers to the forma-
Nitrogen 0.05-0.15
Iron bal
tion of vapor bubbles, or cavities, in a fluid that is
moving across the surface of a solid component.

Martensitic air-hardening steels (including Table 6 Galling wear of gas-tungsten arc weld overlays made from cobalt-free NOREM alloys
stainless steels) are metal-to-metalwear alloys that,
with care,can be applied(withoutcracking)to wear- Surface damage, um, at Stress,MPa (ksi)
indicatedtestsin air tests in water
ing areas of machinery parts. Hence, thesematerials Alloy/form 140 (20) 275 (40) 415 (60) 140(20) 275(40) 415 (60)
are commonly referred to as machinery hard/acing
alloys. Typical applications of this alloy family in- NOREM Ol/solid 0.4 0.9 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.4
clude undercarriage components of tractors and NOREM Ol/solid 0.7 1.6 2.8 nt nt nt
NOREM OI/metal- 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.1 1.3
power shovels, steel mill work rolls, and crane core
wheels. The stainless steel in this category is AWS NOREM Ol/metal- 1.9 2.3 4.7 1.2 1.3 1.5
ER420, which has a hardness value of 45 HRC and core
the following chemicalcomposition: NOREM OI/metal- 0.3 0.5 1.4 0.3 0.5 0.7
core
NOREM 04/metal- 0.6 0.7 1.0 nt nt nt
core
Element Composition, wt%
Stellite 21/solid 1.3 1.9 2.4 0.5 1.0 1.5
Carbon 0.3
Stellite 6/solid 2.2 2.6 2.8 1.1 1.7 1.6
Chromium 12.0
Source: H. Ocken, Electric PowerResearch Institute
Manganese 2.0
Silicon 1.0
Iron bal
Table 7 Chemical compositions of the NOREM hardfacing alloys listed in Table 6
Cobalt-free austenitic stainless steels have
been developed to replace cobalt-base hardfacing Nominal composition,\,,(%(a)
AlIoylVendor C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo P S Other
alloys (Stellite grades) in nuclear power plant ap-
plications. Cobalt-base alloys have been tradi- NOREM Ol/Stoody 1.3 9.7 3.3 25 4.2 2 0.02 0.01 O.IN
tionally used for hardfacing nuclear plant valves NOREM Ol/Cartech 1.27 6.15 3.17 25.5 4.47 2.03 0.006 0.009 0.12N,
0.02Cu,
(check valves, seat valves, and control valves), O.OICo
because they generally show high corrosion resis- NOREM 04/Anval 1.17 12.2 5.13 25.3 8.19 1.81 0.029 0.01 0.22N,
tance and superior tribological behavior under 0.05Cu,
sliding conditions. However, even the (usually 0.068Co
NOREMA/Anval 1.22 7.5 4.7 26.5 4.9 2.21 0.018 0.Dl5 0.236N,
low) corrosion and sliding-wear rates of these 0.03Nb,
hardfacings lead to a release of particles with a 0.007Ti,
high cobalt content. The particles are entrained in 0.07Co
the coolant flow through the core, and Co60 , (a) Single values are maximum values.Source:H. Ocken,ElectricPower Research Institute
which is a strong emitter of gamma radiation, is
114 / Introduction to Stainless Steels

Table 8 European-developed cobalt-free hardfacing alloys Studies by Simoneau (Ref 16 and 17) at the In-
stitut de Recherche d'Hydro-Quebec have deter-
Chemicalcomposition,wt%(a) mined that the elements most favorable to
Alloy C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Olher cavitation resistance, in decreasing order, are
Everit50 ,,1.0 ,,0.5
carbon, nitrogen, cobalt, and silicon. The combi-
2.5 25.0 3.2 0.5V
Fox Antinit Dur 300 0.12 6.5 5.0 21.0 8.0 nation of carbon and nitrogen has an equivalent
CeniumZ20 0.3 NR(b) NR(b) 27 18 2.0 W, unspecified effect, whereas chromium and manganese show a
other elements ,,5 neutral effect within the 8 to 12% Co range.
(a) Singlevaluesaremaximum values.(b) NR, notreported. Source:Ref 15
Nickel is detrimental. Figure 9 presents the effect
of carbon plus nitrogen, and Fig. 10 presents the
effect of cobalt concentration, on the steady-state
rate of cavitation erosion. These results allow the
formulation of alloys with the appropriate amount
These vapor bubbles are caused by localized re- moval of small metallic particles from the ex-
of austenitizer (carbon, nitrogen, cobalt, manga-
ductions in the dynamic pressures of the fluid. posed surface. This eventually results in serious
nese) and ferritizer elements (chromium, silicon,
The collapse of these vapor cavities produces ex- erosion damage to the metallic surfaces and is a
tremely high compressive shocks, which leads to molybdenum) to stabilize the austenite phase at
major problem in the efficient operation of hy-
local elastic and/or plastic deformation of the me- room temperature. Cobalt alone is not sufficient
draulic equipment, such as hydroturbines, run-
tallic surfaces. These repeated collapses (com- as an austenitizer, because it only very slightly
ners, valves, pumps, ship propellers, and so on.
pressive shocks) in a localized area cause surface lowers the martensitic transformation tempera-
The damage caused by cavitation erosion fre-
tearing or fatigue cracking, which leads to the re- ture. Thus, it must be supplemented with manga-
quently contributes to higher maintenance and re-
nese, carbon, or nitrogen. In order to increase the
pair costs, excessive downtime and lost revenue,
ductility and the corrosion resistance, carbon can
use of replacement power (which is very expen-
be replaced by nitrogen.
sive), reduced operating efficiencies, and short-
The composition of cobalt-containing austeni-
ened equipment service life.
3 tic stainless steels provides a balance of elements
<D 00 0 The outstanding cavitation erosion resistance
in such a way that an essentially austenitic yphase
of cobalt-containing austenitic stainless steels
2.6 with a low stacking fault energy is obtained in an
comes from a patented chemistry formulated to
as-welded and solidified weld overlay. This me-
yield the highest work-hardening rate, with a high
~ 2.2 tastable face-centered cubic (fcc) y-phase trans-
interstitial carbon and nitrogen content. For the
E forms under stress to a body-centered cubic (bee)
same reason, and in order to stabilize a fully
~_ 1.8
o
austenitic structure, nickel has been replaced by
rx-martensitic phase exhibiting fine deformation
twins. The phase transformation and twinning ab-
c
o 00 manganese and cobalt, which are balanced with
.~ 010 sorb the energy of the shock waves generated by
silicon and chromium to give good corrosion re-
w 1.4 00 0 Ctp 0 goo o the collapsing of the vapor bubbles. Such behav-
o Cb 0 sistance. The nominal composition for these al-
o ior is similar to that of cavitation-resistant high-
d90a --;:.°.::.°--"----:-0;---1
~
loys is:
0
0 o cobalt alloys, which exhibit a transformation
°0 0 Element Composition,wt %
from a fcc y-phase to a hexagonal close-packed
0.6L...-_---'-_ _-'-_ _.L-_--I_ _- ' (hcp) s-phase in addition to twinning.
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
Carbon 0.2 In the" incubation" period of the alloy surface
Chromium 17
C + N concentration, % under a cavitation condition, the hardness in-
Manganese 9.5
Silicon 2.5
creases as deformation twins form on the surface.
Cobalt 9 The metal loss during this period is generally
Fig. 9 Effect of carbon plus nitrogen additions on cavi-
tation erosion of cobalt-containing alloys. Nitrogen 0.2 minimal, and the surface is smooth and hardened.
Source: Ref 17 Iron bal Unlike the case for other alloys, such as 300-se-
ries stainless steels, this incubation period is long
and high hardness levels (450 HV) are reached in
the steady state.
After the surface is fully hardened, further
2000
cavitation causes damage by initiating fatigue
cracks and subsequent detachment of particulates
at the intersections of the deformation twins. Be-
1600 cause the twins are relatively small and the metal
particles also small, the result is a uniform and
ro
a. slow degradation of the metal surface.
~ 1200
The main effect of these chemical composi-
~c tion modifications on the mechanical properties
o of austenitic stainless steels is illustrated by the
'ii)
e
w
tensile curves shown in Fig. 11. The work- or
strain-hardening coefficient increases markedly
o 301 when going from 304 to 301, and in particular for
o 304 the cobalt-containing stainless steel. Decreasing
Fe-18Cr-l0CD
the nickel and replacing it with cobalt results in a
0.6'-----'-_-'-_.L---'_---'-_-'-_L---l O"--_.L-_-'-_---'-_---'-_--IL...-----I decrease in yield strength and in an important in-
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 crease in ultimate tensile strength. Although the
CDbait concentration, % True strain
initial strain-hardening coefficient for these steels
is quite similar, it increases to a very high value at
Fig. 10 Effectof cobalt additions on cavitation erosion Fig. 11 Tensile stress-straincurves of 308,301, and co- larger strains (up to 1.26) for cobalt-containing
of austenitic stainless steels. Source: Ref 17 balt-containing stainless steels. Source: Ref 18 stainless steels. This larger strain hardening is as-
 Stainless Steel Cladding and Weld Overlays / 115

35.00 34
35

30 30.00

25.00
s:
'§;
E 20.00
304N ell
304 '§
c
301N 0 15.00
'(;;
Fe-1BCr-l0Co e
UJ
10.00
5

Ou:;~~;:::[g-::::I':::=------,------,-----,-,-- 5.00
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Elongation, %
0.00
1020 308SS 301SS CA-6NM fe-15Mn-14Cr Stellile-21 Stellile-6 fe-IOCr-lOCo fe-18Cr-8Co

Fig. 12 Deformation-induced martensitic transforma-

tion measured in tensile tests.Source: Ref 18 Alloy

Fig. 14 Comparison of cavitation erosion rate of various materials. Source: Ref 18

sociated with a faster initial martensitic transfor- thematerialsareadequateformostapplicationsin

500 mation, 'Y~a', of the less stable austenite phase, flowing river or tap waters.
Fe-1BCr-l0Co
A_ as shown in Fig. 12. The higher the cavitation re- The original experimental cobalt-containing
sistance, the less the plastic deformation required stainless steels were named IRECA to denote Im-
'0 II-- Stellite-21
~ 400 to transform the fcc "{-austenitic phase to the bee proved REsistance to CAvitation. The currently
Ol a'-martensitic phase. For the cobalt-containing commercially available welding consumables
~ steel, only 5% elongation is required to produce that can be deposited on stainless and carbon steel
>
I some 25% transformation, substrates are 1.2 mm (0.045 in.) and 1.6 mm
~300 Figure I3 presents the actual hardness values (1/16 in.) gas-metal arc welding wires and 3.2 mm
c reached by the material surface exposed to cavita- (1/8 in.) and 4.0 mm (5/32 in.) shielded metal arc
"E
«l
s:
{--30B tion. Almost no cavitation-deformation harden- welding electrodes. The name for these consu-
§ 200 ing could be detected for 1020 carbon steel, mables is Hydroloy HQ9 13, which is a tradename
~ o whereas substantial strain hardening was meas- of Thermodyne Stoody. Additional information
(ID- - - - 1020 (ferrite) ured for austenitic stainless steels and the cobalt- on cobalt-containing stainless steel hardfacing al-
100'----_-'-_---'--_ _'----_-'-_---'--_---' base alloy, in good correlation with their ultimate loys can be found in Ref 16 to 23 and in the article
-50 o 50 100 150 200 250 tensile strength and cavitation resistance. The "Tribological Properties" in this Volume.
Cavitation time, min hardness values measured on the surfaces ex-
(a) posed to cavitation also correspond quite well to
values equivalent to their ultimate strength. It ap- Designing with Clad Metals (Ref6)
pears to be not so much the initial hardness or the
strain energy (area under the stress-strain curve) The choice of a material for a particular applica-
400 that controls cavitation resistance, but rather the tion depends on such factors as cost, availability,ap-
strain-hardening capability under cavitation ex- pearance, strength, fabricability, electrical or
posure (Ref 18). Figure I3(b) shows that strain thermal properties, mechanical properties, and cor-
~
.Q
Stellite-21
d d hardening is restricted to a very thin surface layer
::: 300
Fe-18Cr-l0Co « 50 um), which is even thinner for the cobalt-
>
A containing alloys.
I
Cobalt-containing austenitic stainless steels
~ 0
301 are about ten times more resistant to cavitation
ss:e«i 200 ~""'--: - - - - - l : l . -_ _ --==-_o
30B
erosion than the standard 300-series stainless
steels (Fig. 14). Although cobalt-containing
o stainless steels may become less ductile be-
1020
~ ""-------XJo---_:>----~~'""t cause of their high work-hardening coefficient,
their ductility is good enough to be welded or
1OO.........-L~-'-.o-1~-'-~l-o._'_~.L............L............J cast without cracking. The as-welded hardness
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 is around 25 HRC, with work-hardened materi- SELFBRAZING MATERIAL
Depth.jim als reaching 50 HRC. With a tensile elongation (CopperClad StaInlessSteel)

(b) between 10 and 55%, the annealed yield

strength is around 350 MPa, and the ultimate
SELF BRAZINGMATERIAL
strength can exceed 1000 MPa (145 ksi). The (Copper Clad StainlessSteel)

Cavitation-induced surface (a) and cross-

corrosion resistance is fair, comparable to that
Fig. 13 of type 301 stainless steel, being somewhat lim- Heatexchanger fabricated using clad brazing
section (b) hardening in various materials. Fig. 15 ("self-brazing") materials
Source: Ref 18 ited by the higher carbon content. Nevertheless,
116/ Introduction to Stainless Steels

Table 9 Properties of copper-clad stainless steel brazing alloys

Layer
thickness Tensile 0.2%yield strength Elongation in
Material system ratio MP. ksi MP. ksi 50mm(2ln.),%

Two-layer systems
C12200/304LSS 6/94 590 86 255 37 55
13.5/86.5 650 94 300 43 55
CI2200/409SS 15/85 400 58 215 31 36
Three-layer systems
C I2200/304LSS/ 10/80/10 600 87 310 45 55
CI2200 13n4/13 575 83 290 42 53
32/34/32 380 55 170 25 48
CI2200/409SS/ 10/80/10 385 56 205 30 37
C12200 15/80/5 385 56 205 30 37

Source:Ref 25

rosion resistance. Clad metals provide a means of
designing into a composite material specific prop-
erties that cannot be obtained in a single material.
Self-brazing materials, such as copper-clad
stainless steel (Cu/SS or Cu/SS/Cu), provide an
example of the unique properties designed into a
clad material. Clad brazing materials are pro-
duced as strips, using the cold roll bonding tech-
nique. The strips comprise a base metal that is clad
with a brazing filler metal on either one or both
sides. These products are used primarily in high-
volume manufacturing operations, such as the
production of heat exchangers, brazed bellows,
and honeycomb structures. The use of a self-braz-
ing sheet reduces the total part count, simplifies
the assembly operation (because the brazing filler
metal is always present on the core material), and
reduces assembly time and, therefore, cost. In ad-
dition, there is no need for the application of flux
or for its subsequent removal. This not only saves
the initial purchase cost of the flux, but also the
waste-management cost associated with the dis-
posal of the spent material.
Figure 15 depicts an automotive transmission
fluid cooler that was assembled using clad braz-
ing materials. A turbulator is brazed to a copper-
clad stainless steel base and cover. The base and
cover are formed from a stainless steel strip con-
taining copper braze on one side. After brazing,
the dimensional changes in this part are minimal,
Photomicrograph of typical clad brazing
Fig. 16
material, C12200 copper clad to 3041.
stainless steel
which is important when making a hermetically (a)
sealed heat exchanger. Figure 16 shows a typical
clad brazing strip of copper-clad stainless steel.
Properties of two-layer and three-layer brazing
strips are listed in Table 9. Additional material on
clad brazing alloys can be found in Ref 24 and 25.
Designing Clad Metals for Corrosion
Control (Ref 6)
Clad metals designed for corrosion control
can be categorized as follows:
• Noble metal clad systems
• Corrosion barrier systems
.. Sacrificial metal systems
• Transition metal systems
.. Complex multilayer systems
Proper design is essential for providing maximum
corrosion resistance with clad metals. This section
will discuss the basis for designing clad metals for
(b)
corrosion resistance.
Noble metal clad systems are materials hav-
ing a relatively inexpensive base metal covered Fig. 17 Photomicrographs of cross sections of type
with a corrosion-resistant metal. Selection of the 304 stainless-steel-clad carbon steel. (a)As-
polished. 300x. (b) Polished and etched. SOOx
substrate metal is based on the properties required
for a particular application. For example, when
strength is required, steel is frequently chosen as
the substrate. The cladding metal is chosen for its
corrosion resistance in a particular environment,
such as seawater, sour gas, high temperature, and Aluminum
motor vehicles. Stainless
A wide range of corrosion-resistant alloys steel
clad to steel substrates have been used in indus-
trial applications. One example is type 304 stain-
less steel on steel. Figure 17 shows cross sections
of this material. The uniformity of the bond inter-
face is apparent in Fig. 17(a), and in the polished-
and-etched condition (Fig. 17b), the
metallographic structure of the stainless steel is
clearly visible. The grain structure is analogous to Fig. 18 Stainless-steel-clad aluminum truck bumper
that of annealed stainless steel strip. material that combines the corrosion resis-
tance of stainless steel with lightweight aluminum
Clad metals of this type are typically used in
the form of strip, plate, and tubing. The noble met-
al cladding ranges from commonly used stainless
steels, such as type 304, to high-nickel alloys, ing, power, and pollution control industries. Spe-
such as Inconel625. These clad metals find vari- cific uses include heat exchangers, reaction and
ous applications in the marine, chemical process- pressure vessels, furnace tubes, and tubes and

Low-carbon steel
(a)
Low-carbon steel
Stainless steel
(b)
Fig. 19 Illustrations of the corrosion barrier princi-
ple. (a) Solid carbon steel. (b) Carbon-steel-
clad stainless steel
tube elements for boilers, scrubbers, and other
systems involved in the production of chemicals.
Another group of commonly used noble metal
clad metals uses aluminum as a substrate. For ex-
ample, in stainless-steel-clad aluminum truck
bumpers (Fig. 18), the type 302 stainless steel
cladding provides a bright corrosion-resistant
surface that also resists the mechanical damage
(stone impingement) encountered in service. The
aluminum provides a substrate with a high
strength-to-weight ratio.
Corrosion Barrier Systems. The combina-
tion of two or more metals to form a corrosion bar-
rier system is most widely used where perforation
caused by corrosion must be avoided (Fig. 19).
Low-carbon steel and stainless steel are suscepti-
ble to localized corrosion in chloride-containing
environments and may perforate rapidly. When
steel is clad over the stainless steel layer, the cor-
rosion barrier mechanism prevents perforation.
Localized corrosion of the stainless steel is pre-
vented: The stainless steel is protected galvani-
cally by the sacrificial corrosion of the steel in the
metal laminate. Therefore, only a thin pore-free
layer is required.
The example shown in Fig. 20 of carbon steel
clad to type 304 stainless steel demonstrates how
this combination prevents perforation in seawa-
ter, while solid type 304 stainless steel does not.
This material can be used for tubing and for wire
in applications requiring strength and corrosion
resistance.
(a)
Fig. 20 Photomicrographs of cross sections of materials after 18 months of immersion in seawater at Duxbury, MA. (a) Low-carbon steel. (b) Type 304 stainless steel. (c) Carbon-
steel-clad type 304 stainless steel
Stainless Steel Cladding and Weld Overlays / 117
Carbon steel cannot be used when increased
general corrosion resistance of the outer cladding
is required. A low-grade stainless steel with good
resistance to uniform corrosion but poor resis-
tance to localized corrosion can be selected. ill
seawater service, type 304 stainless steel that is
clad to a thin layer of Hastelloy C-276 provides a
substitute for solid Hastelloy C-276. ill this corro-
sion barrier system, localized corrosion of the
type 304 stainless steel is arrested at the C-276 al-
loy interface.
The most widely used clad metal corrosion
barrier material is copper-clad stainless steel
(Cu/430 SS/Cu) for telephone and fiber optic ca-
ble shielding. In environments in which the corro-
sion rate of copper is high, such as acidic or
sulfide-containing soils, the stainless steel acts as
a corrosion barrier and thus prevents perforation,
while the inner copper layer maintains high elec-
trical conductivity of the shield.
Sacrificial metals, such as magnesium, zinc,
and aluminum, are in the active region of the gal-
vanic series and are extensively used for corrosion
protection. The location of the sacrificial metal in
the galvanic couple is an important consideration
in the design of a system. By cladding, the sacrifi-
cial metal may be located precisely for efficient
cathode protection, as described for the stainless-
steel-clad aluminum automotive trim shown in
Fig. 2.
Transitional Metal Systems. A clad transi-
tional metal system provides an interface between
two incompatible metals. It not only reduces gal-
vanic corrosion where dissimilar metals are
joined, but also allows welding techniques to be
used when direct joining is not possible.
Complex Multilayer Systems. ill many
cases, materials are exposed to dual environ-
ments; that is, one side is exposed to one corrosive
medium, and the other side is exposed to a differ-
ent one. A single material may not be able to meet
this requirement, or a critical material may be re-
quired in large quantity.
In small battery cans and caps, copper-clad,
stainless-steel-clad nickel (Cu/SS/Ni) is used
where the external nickel layer provides atmos-
pheric-corrosion resistance and low contact resis-
tance. The copper layer on the inside provides the
electrode contact surface as well as compatible
(b)
cell chemistry. The stainless steel layer provides
strength and resistance to perforation corrosion.
Welding Austenitic-Stainless-Clad
Carbon or Low-Alloy Steels (Ref 26)
To preserve its desirable properties, stainless-
clad plate can be welded by either of the two fol-
lowing methods, depending on plate thickness
and service conditions:
• The unclad sides of the plate sections are bev-
eled and welded with carbon or low-alloy steel
filler metal. A portion of the stainless steel clad-
ding is removed from the back of the joint, and
stainless steel filler metal is deposited.
CD The entire thickness of the stainless-clad plate
is welded with stainless steel filler metal.
When the nonstainless portion of the plate is com-
paratively thick, as in most pressure vessel applica-
tions, it is more economical to use the first method.
When the nonstainless portion of the plate is thin,
the second method is often preferred. When weld-
ing components for applications involving elevated
or cyclic temperatures, the differences in the coeffi-
cients of thermal expansion of the base plate and the
weld should be taken into consideration.
All stainless steel deposits on carbon steel
should be made with filler metal of sufficiently
high alloy content to ensure that normal amounts
of dilution by carbon steel will not result in a brit-
tle weld. In general, filler metals of type 308, 316,
or 347 should not be deposited directly on carbon
or low-alloy steel. Deposits of type 309, 309L,
309Cb, 309Mo, 310, or 312 are usually accept-
able, although type 310 is fully austenitic and is
susceptible to hot cracking when there is high re-
straint in a welded joint. Thus, welds made with
type 310 filler metal should be carefully in-
spected. Welds made with types 309 and 312 filler
metals are partially ferritic and therefore are
highly resistant to hot cracking.
The procedure most commonly used for mak-
ing welded joints in stainless-clad carbon or low-
alloy steel plate is shown in Fig. 21. Stainless steel
filler metal is deposited only in that portion of the
weld where the stainless steel cladding has been
removed, and carbon or low-alloy steel filler met-
al is used for the remainder. The backgouged por-
(e)
118/ Introduction to Stainless Steels
D?i;~3'11fj~~-Cladding~ (b) Fitted up
SluE B
Weld metal (carbon steel)
SIDE A
(d) Gouged from side B
(e) Welded from side B ( f ) Protective plate welded an
Fig. 21 Procedure for welding stainless-clad carbon
and low-alloy steel, using stainless steel filler
metal only in portion of joint from which cladding was re-
moved. (a) and (b) The clad plates are machined for a tight
fitup, with the bottom of the weld groove not less than 1.6
mm (1/16 in.) above the stainless steel cladding. (c) Carbon
steel filler metal is deposited from side A (a low-hydrogen
filler metal is used for the first pass), taking care not to pene-
trate closer than 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) to the cladding. (d) Stain-
less steel cladding on side B is backgouged until sound carb-
on steel weld metal is reached. (e) The backgouged groove
is filled with stainless steel weld metal in a minimum of two
layers. (f) When required for severely corrosive service, a
protective strip of stainless steel plate may be fillet welded to
the cladding to cover the weld zone.
tion of the stainless steel cladding should be filled
with a minimum of two layers of stainless steel
filler metal (Fig. 2Ie); an additional layer is rec-
ommended if a high weld reinforcement at the
cladding surface can be tolerated.
If the cladding is of type 304 stainless steel, the
first layer of stainless steel weld metal should be
of type 309 or 312. Subsequent layers of weld
metal can be oftype 308. If the cladding is of type
316, the first layer is deposited with type 309 Mo
filler metal and the subsequent layers with type
316. When the cladding is of type 304L or 347, the
welding procedure must be carefully controlled to
obtain the desired weld metal composition in the
outer layers of the weld. Chemical analysis of
sample welds should be made before joining clad
plates intended for use under severely corrosive
conditions.
In some applications, a narrow protective plate
of wrought stainless steel of the same composi-
tion as the cladding is welded over the completed
weld (Fig. 21f) to ensure uniformity of corrosive
resistance. The fillet welds joining the protective
plate to the cladding should be carefully inspected
after deposition. These welds, of course, are made
with stainless steel filler metal.
Figure 22 illustrates an alternative method
(method A) of welding clad plate, in which a carb-
on or low-alloy steel weld joins the carbon steel
portion of the plate, and the use of stainless steel
(c) Welded from side A,
(b) Fitted up
weld ground flush an side B (d) Surfaced fromside B
~----------------Methad A - - - - - - ---------
q .--e- ..
3 '<, .. -
a(min)
( a) Faces beveled (c) Welded from side A,
and cladding stripped (b) Filled up weld ground flush on side B (d) Inlaid and welded
~----------------Method B---------------~
Fig. 22 Alternative procedures for joining stainless-clad carbon and low-alloy steel plate involving different tech-
niques for replacing portions of the stainless steel cladding removed before welding the carbon or low-alloy
steel side. The joint is prepared by beveling side A and removing a portion of the stainless steel cladding from side B to a
minimum width of 9.5 mm WB in.) from each side of the joint, and the joint is fitted up in position for welding. Use of a root
gap (not shown) is permissible (a and b, methods A and B).Carbon steel filler metal is deposited, and the root of the weld is
ground flush with the underside of the carbon steel plate (c, methods A and B).The area from which cladding was removed
is surfaced with at least two layers of stainless steel weld metal (d, method A), or an inlay of wrought stainless steel can be
welded in place (d, method B).
filler metal is limited to replacement of the clad-
ding that was removed prior to making the carbon
or low-alloy steel weld. This method is more ex-
pensive than the method described in Fig. 21 be-
cause of the cost of removing a larger portion of
the cladding and depositing more stainless steel (a) Faces beveled (b) Fitted up
filler metal. Because there is no danger of alloy
contamination from the cladding layer, method A
in Fig. 22 permits the use of faster welding proc-
esses, such as submerged arc welding, in deposit-
ing the carbon steel weld.
In depositing the stainless steel weld metal, the
first layer must be sufficiently high in alloy con- (c) Welded from side A (d) Welded from side B
tent to avoid cracking as a result of normal dilu- Butt joint-------~
tion by the carbon steel base metal. A stringer
bead technique should be employed; penetration
must be held to a minimum. If the proper weld
metal composition is not achieved after the sec-
ond layer has been deposited, a portion of the sec-
ond layer should be ground off and additional
filler metal should be deposited to obtain the de-
(a) Faces beveled (b) Fitted up
sired composition. Figure 22(d) of method B
shows an alternative procedure in which the ex-
posed carbon steel weld on side B is covered by
welding an inlay of wrought stainless steel to the
edges of the cladding.
The most common method of joining stain-
less-steel-clad carbon or low-alloy steel plate
with a weld that consists entirely of stainless steel
is shown in Fig. 23. This method is most fre- (c) Welded from side A (d) Welded from side B
quently used for joining thin sections of stainless- Corner joint -
clad plate. The same basic welding procedure is
followed for both the butt and comer joints shown
in Fig. 23. After the plate has been beveled and fit-
ted up for welding, a stainless steel weld is depos- Fig. 23 Procedures for welding V-groove butt and
ited from the carbon steel side, using a filler metal corner joints in stainless-clad carbon or low-
alloy steel plate, using stainless steel filler metal exclusively,
sufficiently high in alloy content to minimize dif- The clad plates are beveled and fitted up (a and b, butt and
ficulties (such as cracking) resulting from weld corner joints), The root of the weld is cleaned and gouged, if
dilution and joint restraint. Types 309 and 312 necessary, before depositing stainless weld metal from the
filler metals are suitable for this application. stainless steel side (d, butt and corner joints),

After the stainless steel weld has been depos-
ited from the carbon steel side (Fig. 23c), the root
of the weld is cleaned by brushing, chipping, or
grinding, as required, and one or more layers of
stainless steel filler metal are deposited (Fig. 23d).
The filler metal composition should correspond to
that normally employed to weld the type of stain-
less steel used for cladding. If the cladding is type
304, the final layer of weld metal should be type
308. If the cladding is type 316, it may be neces-
sary to backgouge before deposition of the final
weld metal layers to ensure that the proper weld
metal composition is obtained at the surface of the
weld.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The editor thanks Howard Ocken, Project
Manager, Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) and Raynald Simoneau, Vice-Presidence
Technologie, Institut de Recherche d'Hydro-
Quebec (IREQ), for their significant contribu-
tions to this article. Mr. Ocken supplied material
on cobalt-free NOREM alloys developed at
EPRI. Mr. Simoneau contributed material on co-
balt-containing IRECA alloys that he developed
atIREQ.
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