Maths & Physics Review for Pilots

Knowledge of mathematics and physics will play a strong part in the study towards your
ground examinations for the award of any pilot’s licence. The aim of this document is
to provide a revision package for those who feel that their skills in these fields of study
are in need of some refreshment or refinement. The topics covered are used in a
number of the subjects within the JAR syllabus and this document will endeavour to use
examples and units of measurement that are relevant to the aviation environment. By
no means do you have to be a mathematician or a physicist in order to fly a plane, but
the knowledge of these subjects will stand you in good stead for passing the theoretical
exams in the run up to your license issue.

Many pilot selection processes for training schools and companies may issue you with a
relatively straight forward maths test so if you can’t pass it within a specified time limit
then you may find yourself going no further in the selection process. I highly
recommend nearer the time that you not only use this document to brush up on the core
mathematic skills but also to revise ‘speed maths’ using just a pencil and paper.

Maths

Multiplication Factors

The following multiplication factors are used with units of measurement and help to
properly refer to quantities. For example, instead of saying ‘1,000 metres’, a person can
convert it to ‘1 kilometre’ to clarify communication.

Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol

1 000 000 = 106 mega M
1 000 = 103 kilo k
100 = 102 hecto h
0.01 = 10-2 centi c
0.001 = 10-3 milli m
0.000 001 = 10-6 micro u

Multiple Arithmetic Process

If a calculation requires the use of several of the basic arithmetic processes, the rules for
the order in which those processes must be completed is as follows:
1. Take out any brackets
2. Complete any multiplications
3. Carry out any divisions
4. Add values together and subtract values from one another

Example

(6 x 2 - 2) ÷ 5 + 5 x 6 - 3 = (12 - 2) ÷ 5 + 5 x 6 - 3 = 10 ÷ 5 + 30 - 3 = 2 + 30 - 3 =
32 - 3 = 57

It is also worth remembering that, when using fractions, division by a fraction is

the same process as multiplication by the reciprocal (inverse) of that fraction.

Example

1/7 ÷ 3/7 = 1/7 x 7/3 = (1 x 7)/(7 x 3) = 7/21 = 1/3

To convert a fraction to a decimal, simply divide the top number (numerator) by

the bottom number (denominator)-

4/7 = 4 ÷ 7 = 3.428

Ratios

When two quantities are compared, the result of dividing one by the other is called
the ratio of the first quantity to the second.

Example

The ratio of 8 to 4 = 4/2 or 2/1

This can be expressed in words as:

The ratio of 8 to 4 is the same as the ratio of 2 to 1

Or symbolically:
8:42:1

When the ratio between two quantities is known it can be used to calculate the
particular value of one quantity corresponding to a given value of the other quantity.

Example:
The specific gravity (SG) of a fuel is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the
fuel to the mass of the same volume of water. The SG depends upon the
composition of the fuel, but a commonly used value for aviation fuel is 0.72. We
know that one imperial gallon of water has a mass of 10 lbs; therefore, if we have
400 imperial gallons of this fuel we can calculate the mass of the fuel as follows:

400 imperial gallons of water has a mass of 4000 lbs

Then if the mass of the 400 imperial gallons of the fuel is ‘m’ lbs:

0.73 = m
1 5000

Therefore, m = 0.73 x 5000 = 3650 lbs

Conversions

Conversion of units refers to conversion factors between different units of

measurement for the same quantity.

The process of conversion depends on the specific situation and the intended purpose.
Conversion between units in the metric (SI) system can be discerned by their prefixes
(for example, 1 kilogram = 1000 grams, 1 milligram = 0.001 grams).

Units conversion by factor-label

Many, if not most, parameters and measurements in the physical sciences and
engineering are expressed as a numerical quantity and a corresponding dimensional
unit; for example: 1000 kg/m³, 100 kPa/bar, 50 miles per hour, 1000 Btu/lb.
Converting from one dimensional unit to another is often somewhat complex and
being able to perform such conversions is an important skill to acquire. The factor-
label method, also known as the unit-factor method or dimensional analysis is an
organized way to perform conversions.

The factor-label method is the sequential application of conversion factors expressed

as fractions and arranged so that any dimensional unit appearing in both the numerator
and denominator of any of the fractions can be cancelled out until only the desired set
of dimensional units is obtained. For example, 10 miles per hour can be converted to
meters per second by using a sequence of conversion factors as shown below:

10 mile 1609 meter 1 hour meter

-- ---- × ---- ----- × ---- ------ = 4.47 ------
1 hour 1 mile 3600 second second
It can be seen that each conversion factor is equivalent to the value of one. For
example, starting with 1 mile = 1609 meters and dividing both sides of the equation
by 1 mile yields 1 mile / 1 mile = 1609 meters / 1 mile, which when simplified yields
1 = 1609 meters / 1 mile.

So, when the units, mile and hour, are cancelled out and the arithmetic is done, 10
miles per hour converts to 4.47 meters per second.

Arithmetic

The ability to do quick arithmetic without halting or stumbling is important and must
be practiced. The following exercises are to be attempted during a timed session and
then tested for accuracy. Below are some common question types for selection
processes throughout the UK so it’s important that you can become quick at
calculating the answers with nothing more than a pencil, calculator and piece of paper.

Set your timer for ten minutes and do the following problems:

1. The power generated by an engine is reduced by 8 units for every

1,000 feet above sea level. Given that the power 475 units at sea
level, what will the power be at 4000 feet?

2. An aircraft uses 4,900 lbs of fuel per hour. How much fuel will be
consumed in 23 minutes?

3. You are consuming 4,000 lbs/hr of fuel during a flight. 1/6 hour before
landing, you still have 17,000 lbs. of fuel. How many pounds of fuel
will you have upon landing?

4. If you are travelling at 215 kts, how far will you travel in 25 minutes?
5. An oil gauge must not be allowed to fall below 10 pts. If, during a
flight, your oil gauge reads 35 pts . What is the lowest acceptable
amount if you need to continue for another 2¼ hours if you take
another reading after 0.5 hour?

6. You have access to a freight area of 20 square yards. How many 2 ft x

5 ft boxes can be placed on the floor?

7. What is the fuel consumption of a 4 engines aircraft in lb per hour, if

each engine’s average consumption is 18.3 lb/min?
 8. If you are travelling at 80 kts, how long will it take to travel 45.5
nautical miles?

Answers
1. 443 units
2. 1878 lbs.
3. 16,333 lbs.
4. 89.6
5. 30.5 pts.
6. 18
7. 4392 lbs/hr
8. 34 minutes

Percentages

In mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100

(per cent meaning "per hundred"). It is often denoted using the percent sign, "%", or
the abbreviation "pct". For example, 45% (read as "forty-five percent") is equal to 45 /
100, or 0.45.

Percentages are used to express how large/small one quantity is, relative to another
quantity. The first quantity usually represents a part of, or a change in, the second
quantity, which should be greater than zero. For example, an increase of $ 0.15 on a
price of $ 2.50 is an increase by a fraction of 0.15 / 2.50 = 0.06. Expressed as a
percentage, this is therefore a 6% increase.

Percentage is a very good technique to see how much a task has been completed. e.g a
task takes 20 hours to be done completely. If the task is 70% done it means
(70%=(x/20)*100 so x=70*20/100=14 hours) 14 hours work is completed and 6 hours
work left.

Examples:

What is 200% of 30?

Answer: 200% × 30 = (200 / 100) × 30 = 60.

What is 13% of 98?

Answer: 13% × 98 = (13 / 100) × 98 = 12.74.

60% of all university students are male. There are 2400 male students. How many
students are in the university?
Answer: 2400 = 60% × X, therefore X = (2400 / (60 / 100)) = 4000.

There are 300 cats in the village, and 75 of them are black. What is the percentage of
black cats in that village?
Answer: 75 = X% × 300 = (X / 100) × 300, so X = (75 / 300) × 100 = 25, and
therefore X% = 25%.

The number of students at the university increased to 4620, compared to last year's
4125, an absolute increase of 495 students. What is the percentual increase?
Answer: 495 = X% × 4125 = (X / 100) × 4125, so X = (495 / 4125) × 100 = 12, and
therefore X% = 12%.

The required level runway length for an aircraft to take-off safely under specified
aircraft conditions is 5000ft. However, the runway in use actually has an upslope of
2º and this increases the required runway length by 10%. Calculate the runway length
required under these circumstances.
Required runway length
= 5000 + 10% of 5000 = 5000 + (5000 x 0.1) = 5000 + 500 = 5500 ft

The total fuel capacity of an aircraft is 2000 litres. If 25% of the fuel used in a flight
must be kept in reserve, calculate the maximum amount of fuel available for a flight,
assuming that the reserve fuel is unused.
The most common error is to say that the reserve fuel is 25% of the total fuel (2000
litres). This gives the reserve fuel as 0.25 x 2000 = 500 litres, leaving 2000 – 500 =
1500 litres as the maximum flight fuel available. This is incorrect!
The correct starting point for the calculation is:
Total fuel = Flight fuel + Reserve fuel = Flight fuel + 25% of Flight fuel
2000 = Flight fuel + (0.25 x Flight fuel) = 1.25 x Flight fuel
2000/1.25 = Flight fuel
Maximum Available Flight fuel = 1600 litres

Graphs

Graphs are pictorial solutions to relationships and a simple graph has two axes,
commonly referred to as the x-axis and the y-axis, that are offset by 90º degrees to
one another. Any two sets of values can be plotted (one on each axis) as they vary
and a line drawn joining the sets will form the graph of the relationship between
them.

For example, in meteorology air temperature normally decreases as altitude

increases and the result of measuring the temperature at a selection of different
altitudes can be plotted on a graph. The result is known as a temperature/height
diagram. If height is plotted along the vertical axis and temperature along the
horizontal axis the graph might look something like this:
Having drawn the graph it is now possible to find the temperature at any height
represented on the height axis (vertical axis) of the graph. For example, the
temperature at a height of 25’000ft is about -48ºC. Alternatively, it is possible to
find the height at which the temperature is a particular value. For example, the
height at which the temperature is -26ºC is about 17’000ft.

Variation

If we take an expression such as A = B / C then it is possible to state how one part of

the expression will vary with a change in the value of one of the other variables in
the expression.

If b increases then a will also increase and if b decreases then a will also decrease
(assuming c to stay constant).

From the above deductions we say that a varies directly with b.

On the other hand if c increases then a will decrease and if c decreases then a will
increase (assuming b to be constant).

From this we can say that a varies inversely or indirectly with c.

If two quantities are known to vary directly or inversely we are able to calculate the
change in one quantity corresponding to a known change of the other quantity, if the
original values of the two quantities are known.

When two quantities vary directly the result of dividing one into the other is a
constant. If a varies directly as b then:

Old a = New a = constant

Old b New b

This can be expressed in the format:

New a = Old a x New b

Old b

When two quantities vary inversely the result of multiplying them together is a
constant. If a varies inversely as c then:

Old a x Old c = New a x New c = constant

This is expressed in the format:

New a = Old a x Old c

New c

Example:
Given the expression A = 27.3 x B x C and that A is 12 when B is 7.
QxM

Calculate the value of A when B decreases to 5, if the other terms remain constant.

From the expression, A varies directly as B

Therefore, New A = Old A x New B = 12 x 5/7 = 60/7 = 8.5714 (A and B both

decrease) Old B

Using the same expression and given that M is 2 when A is 15, calculate the value of
M when A increases to 20, if the other terms remain constant.
From the expression, A varies inversely as M

Therefore, New M = Old M x Old P = 2 x 15/20 = 1.5 (M decreases when A

increases) New P
Pythagorus Theorem states that the square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle (the longest side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares
on the other two sides.

c
a

b
A C

Angle C = 90º
c is the hypotenuse c2 = a2 + b2

Trigonometric Functions

The three sides of a right-angled triangle are given names relative to the included
angle under examination. The adjacent side is the side along the side of the angle,
the opposite side is the hypotenuse which has already been defined. The diagram
below illustrates these concepts:

Hypotenuse
Opposite
Side

Adjacent Side

The common trigonometric functions are as follows:

 Sine(Sin) = Opposite side

Hypotenuse

 Cosine(Cos) = Adjacent side

Hypotenuse
 Tangent(Tan) = Opposite side
Adjacent side

 Cosecant(Cosec) = 1/sine = Hypotenuse

Opposite side

 Secant(Sec) = 1/cosine = Hypotenuse

Adjacent side

 Cotangent(Cot) = 1/tangent = Adjacent side

Opposite side

The following relationships can also prove useful in calculations:

 SinA = Cos(90-A)
 CosA = Sin(90-A)
 TanA = Cot(90-A)

(Where A represents an angle in a triangle)

Simple Trigonometry

“SOH-CAH-TOA”

Soh-Cah-Toa can be used to determine the derivation of the equation required to

calculate an answer to a simple algebra question (specifically referring to right-angled
triangles). As part of your study towards a Pilot’s License you will certainly
encounter simple algebra type questions in such topics as Meteorology (wind
components), Principles of Flight (aerofoils and airflow) and Navigation (track lines
and headings).

SOH
Soh stands for Sine of Angle, Opposite, Hypotenuse. The Hypotenuse is the side that
is not perpendicular to any other side. The Opposite is the side that is opposite the
angle. The Sine of angle is just that - the Sine of the Angle.
You need 2 of these variables to calculate the third but what you really need is the
equation that links the 3 of them…
The symbol in the triangle is the symbol for an angle. Just move the equation round to
find which parts you need i.e.

1. Sine x Hyp. = Opp.

2. Opp. / Sine = Hyp.

You cannot use the right angle as the angle in the equation.
If you need to find out the Sine of the angle and not the angle itself then you must use
a function called the inverse of Sine (normally written as Sine to the power of -1 on a
calculator.

CAH
Like Soh, Cah is also an acronym. Cosine of Angle, Adjacent, Hypotenuse. This
works the same as Soh but just using the side adjacent to the angle instead of opposite
to it and you should find the Cosine of the angle instead of the Sine. There is also an
inverse of Cosine. The method of Cah is the same as Soh, just rearrange the part to
find what you need.

TOA
Toa stands for Tangent (written as Tan) of Angle, Opposite, Adjacent. If you haven't
spotted it yet, the middle letter of each acronym so far has been the numerator on the
right and the and last letter the denominator. Remember this and SOH-CAH-TOA and
you'll develop an excellent understanding of Trigonometry in no time. Tan also has
an inverse.
 Physics

SI Units

The SI is a metric system used in science providing a complete metric system for
units of measurement and is based on the following fundamental units. Not all units
have been included due to irrelevance to the JAR syllabus:

 Length metre (m)

 Mass kilogram (kg)
 Time second (s)
 Temperature Kelvin (k)
 Electric current ampere (A)

All other SI units can be derived in terms of one or more of the fundamental units.
The following derived units are commonly used:

 Frequency hertz (Hz)

 Energy joule (J)
 Force Newton (N)
 Pressure pascal (Pa)
 Power watt (W)
 Electric Charge coulomb (C)
 Potential Difference volt (V)
 Capacitance farad (F)

Vector Mechanics

In physics, vectors are used to represent physical quantities which have both a
magnitude and direction, such as force, in contrast to scalar quantities, which have no
direction.

For example, forces act in a particular direction and have sizes dependent upon how
strong the push or pull is. Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as
"vector quantities". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules
than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar quantities). For
example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it
is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate
the result. If both of these pieces of information are not known for each force, the
situation is ambiguous.

For example, if you know that two people are pulling on the same rope with known
magnitudes of force but you do not know which direction either person is pulling, it is
impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be. The two people
could be pulling against each other as in tug of war or the two people could be pulling
in the same direction. In this simple one-dimensional example, without knowing the
direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of
adding the two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other. Associating forces
with vectors avoids such problems.

Addition and subtraction

Assume now that a and b are not necessarily equal vectors, but that they may
have different magnitudes and directions. The sum of a and b is

The addition may be represented graphically by placing the start of the arrow
b at the tip of the arrow a, and then drawing an arrow from the start of a to the
tip of b. The new arrow drawn represents the vector a + b, as illustrated
below:
This addition method is sometimes called the parallelogram rule because a
and b form the sides of a parallelogram and a + b is one of the diagonals. If a
and b are bound vectors that have the same base point, it will also be the base
point of a + b. One can check geometrically that a + b = b + a and (a + b) + c
= a + (b + c).

The difference of a and b is

Subtraction of two vectors can be geometrically defined as follows: to subtract

b from a, place the end points of a and b at the same point, and then draw an
arrow from the tip of b to the tip of a. That arrow represents the vector a − b,
as illustrated below:

Resolution of Vectors

Vectors can also be ‘resolved’ into components by reversing the process of addition
previously explained. Once again it is common to carry out the process
diagrammatically and it’s common to resolve a vector into only two components that
are usually at right angles to each other.

For example the movement of air over the aircraft wing produces pressure changes
that create an aerodynamic force (a vector) called the ‘Total Reaction’. Lift is
defined as the component of the Total Reaction that acts perpendicular to the relative
airflow over the wing and drag as the component of the Total Reaction that acts in
the same direction as the relative airflow. The Total Reaction can be resolved into
its components of lift and drag diagrammatically and the principle is illustrated
below.
The Total Reaction has been resolved into two ‘components’ of Lift and Drag. It
can be seen that the sum of Lift and Drag, using the vector addition method is the
Total Reaction.

Common Physical Properties

Velocity

The velocity of a body is defined as its rate of change of position with respect to
time with the direction of the motion being stated. If the body is travelling in a
straight line it is in linear motion, and if it covers equal distances in equal successive
time intervals it is in what is known as uniform linear motion. For uniform velocity,
where s is the distance covered in time t, the velocity is given by:

v=s
t

The SI unit of velocity is ms-1 (metres per second) although in aviation this would
usually be expressed using the knot (one nautical mile per hour).

Acceleration

The acceleration of a body is its rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Any
change in either speed or direction of motion involves an acceleration. When the
velocity of a body changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time it is said to
have a uniform acceleration. If the initial velocity u of a body in linear motion
changes uniformly in time t to velocity b, its acceleration a is given by:

a = (v – u)
t

The SI unit of acceleration is ms-2 (metres per second squared).

Mass

The mass of a body may be defined as the quantity of matter within the body. The SI
unit of mass is kg (kilogram).

Density

The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the substance. The SI unit
of density is kgm-3 (kilogram per cubic metre).
Pressure

Pressure is the force per unit area acting on the surface of a body. The SI unit of
pressure is the pascal and in terms of the fundamental SI units, the unit of pressure is
kgm-1s-2 (kilogram per metre per second squared).

Force

A force is a quantity which when acting on a free moving body produces an

acceleration in the motion of that body and is proportional to the rate of change of
momentum of the body. Force (F) is expressed in terms of the mass (m) and
acceleration (a) of a body by the formula:

F = ma

The SI unit of force is the Newton and the common derived unit of force is kgms-2
(kilogram metres per second squared). One Newton is the force that gives an
acceleration of one metre per second squared to a mass of one kilogram.

Weight

The weight of a body is a measure of the force of acceleration that is exerted on its
mass, more commonly on earth- gravity acting on the mass. The SI unit of weight is
the same as that of force (the Newton) and the gravitational constant generally
applied is the acceleration due to gravity (g) is equal to 9.81 ms-2.

Inertia

Inertia is the tendency of a body to maintain its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line. The application of an outside force is necessary to overcome the inertia
of a body either at rest or in a state of uniform motion.

Work

Is the amount of energy transferred by a force acting through a distance. The unit of
work is the joule and in terms of the fundamental SI units, the unit of work is kgm2s-
2
(kilogram metres squared per second squared). One joule is the work done when a
force of 1 Newton moves a mass of 1 kilogram by 1 metre in the direction of the
force.

Momentum

The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity.
Momentum is a vector quantity and a change in speed or direction constitutes a
change in the momentum. The SI unit of momentum is kgms-1 (kilogram metre per
second).

Power

Power is defined as the rate of doing work measured in units of work per unit time.
The SI unit of power is the watt and but the more commonly derived unit of power is
kgm2 s-3 (kilogram metres squared per second cubed).

Friction

Friction is the force resisting the relative lateral (tangential) motion of solid surfaces,
fluid layers, or material elements in contact.

Friction is not a fundamental force, as it is derived from electromagnetic force

between charged particles, including electrons, protons, atoms, and molecules, and so
cannot be calculated from first principles, but instead must be found

Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction (COF), also known as a frictional coefficient or friction
coefficient and symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is a dimensionless scalar value
which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force
pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for
example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a
high coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater
than one – under good conditions, a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction
of 1.7

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted against a surface by
the weight of air above that surface at any given point in the Earth's atmosphere. In
most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic
pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. Low pressure areas
have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high pressure areas have
more atmospheric mass above their location. Similarly, as elevation increases there is
less overlying atmospheric mass, so that pressure decreases with increasing elevation.

The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure and is defined as being
equal to 101,325 Pa or 101.325 kPa. The following units are equivalent, but only to
the number of decimal places displayed: 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92 inHg, 14.696 PSI,
1013.25 millibars. Mean sea level pressure (MSLP) is the pressure at sea level or
(when measured at a given elevation on land) the station pressure reduced to sea level
assuming an isothermal layer at the station temperature. This is the pressure normally
given in weather reports on radio, television, and newspapers or on the Internet. When
barometers in the home are set to match the local weather reports, they measure
pressure reduced to sea level, not the actual local atmospheric pressure.

The altimeter setting in aviation, set either QNH or QFE, is another atmospheric
pressure reduced to sea level, but the method of making this reduction differs slightly.

QNH

The barometric altimeter setting which will cause the altimeter to read airfield
elevation when on the airfield. In ISA temperature conditions the altimeter will read
altitude above mean sea level in the vicinity of the airfield

QFE

The barometric altimeter setting which will cause an altimeter to read zero when at
the reference datum of a particular airfield (generally a runway threshold). In ISA
temperature conditions the altimeter will read height above the datum in the vicinity
of the airfield.

QFE and QNH are arbitrary Q codes rather than abbreviations, but the mnemonics
"Nautical Height" (for QNH) and "Field Elevation" (for QFE) are often used by pilots
to distinguish them.

Gas Laws

Boyles Law

Boyle's Law shows that, at constant temperature, the product of an ideal gas's pressure
and volume is always constant. It can be determined experimentally using a pressure
gauge and a variable volume container. It can also be found logically; if a container
with a fixed amount of molecules inside it is reduced in volume, more molecules will
hit the sides of the container per unit time causing a greater pressure.

As a mathematical equation, Boyle's law is:

P1V1 = P2V2

 V1 is the original volume

 V2 is the new volume
 P1 is original pressure
 P2 is the new pressure

Charles Law

Charles's Law states that the volume occupied by any sample of gas at a constant
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

V / T =constant

 V is the volume
 T is the absolute temperature (measured in Kelvin)

Charles's Law can be rearranged into two other useful equations.

V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

 V1 is the initial volume

 T1 is the initial temperature
 V2 is the final volume
 T2 is the final temperature

V2 = V1 (T2 / T1)

 V2 is the final volume

 T2 is the final temperature
 V1 is the initial volume
 T1 is the initial temperature

Charles's Law only works when the pressure is constant.

Moments

Torque, also called moment or moment of force, is the tendency of a force to rotate an
object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can
be thought of as a twist.
In more basic terms, torque measures how hard something is rotated. For example,
imagine a wrench or spanner trying to twist a nut or bolt. The amount of "twist"
(torque) depends on how long the wrench is, how hard you push on it, and how well
you are pushing it in the correct direction.

The terminology for this concept is not straightforward: In physics, it is usually called
"torque", and in mechanical engineering, it is called "moment".
The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: First, the force applied; second,
the length of the lever arm connecting the axis to the point of force application; and
third, the angle between the two.

The principle of moments is illustrated below. AC is a plank resting on a pivot B.

A force of 75 N acts vertically upwards through A and a force of 50 N through C.
75 N
50 N
B
A C

If AB = 10 cm and BC = 7 cm then taking moments about B will ( if we assume the

convention that a clockwise rotation is positive and an anticlockwise negative) give:

Total moment = (75 x 0.1) – (50 x 0.7) = 7.5 – 3.5 = 4 Nm

Centimetres having been converted into Metres

Because the sign of the total moment is positive, the two forces together would
rotate the plank in a clockwise direction. The magnitude of the moment is a
measure of the rate of rotation of the plank (the greater the magnitude then the
greater the rate of rotation).

If the total moment about a point is zero the system is said to be in ‘equilibrium’
with respect to moments. The whole system is in equilibrium if the vector sum of
the forces involved is zero.

Couples

A Couple is a system of forces with a resultant (a.k.a. net, or sum) moment but no
resultant force. Another term for a couple is a pure moment. Its effect is to create
rotation without translation, or more generally without any acceleration of the centre
of mass.

The resultant moment of a couple is called a torque. This is not to be confused the
term torque as it is used in physics, where it is merely a synonym of moment. Instead,
torque is a special case of moment. Torque has special properties that moment does
not have, in particular the property of being independent of reference point.

Simple couple

The simplest kind of couple consists of two equal and opposite forces whose lines of
action do not coincide. This is called a "simple couple". The forces have a turning
effect or moment called a torque about an axis which is normal to the plane of the
forces. The SI unit for the torque of the couple is Newton Metre.

Centre of Gravity

The centre of mass of a system of particles is the point at which the system's whole
mass can be considered to be concentrated for the purpose of calculations. The centre
of mass is a function only of the positions and masses of the particles that compose
the system. In the case of a rigid body, the position of its centre of mass is fixed in
relation to the object (but not necessarily in contact with it).
The centre of mass is often called the centre of gravity but this is only true in a system
where the gravitational forces are uniform.

Mass & Balance

Some common words used within the subject area when calculating mass and balance
figures prior to loading an aircraft.

Ballast

Ballast is removable or permanently installed weight in an aircraft used to

bring the centre of gravity into the allowable range.

Centre-of-gravity (CG) limits

CG limits are specified longitudinal (forward and aft) and/or lateral (left and
right) limits within which the aircraft's centre of gravity must be located
during flight. The CG limits are indicated in the airplane flight manual. The
area between the limits is called the CG range of the aircraft.

Weight and balance

When the weight of the aircraft is at or below the allowable limit(s) for its
configuration (parked, ground movement, take-off, landing, etc.) and its centre
of gravity is within the allowable range, and both will remain so for the
duration of the flight, the aircraft is said to be within weight and balance.
Different maximum weights may be defined for different situations; for
 example, large aircraft may have maximum landing weights that are lower
than maximum take-off weights (because some weight is expected to lost as
fuel is burned during the flight). The centre-of-gravity may change over the
duration of the flight as the aircraft's weight changes due to fuel burn.
Reference datum

The reference datum is a reference plane that allows accurate, and uniform,
measurements to any point on the aircraft. The location of the reference datum
is established by the manufacturer and is defined in the aircraft flight manual.
The horizontal reference datum is an imaginary vertical plane or point,
arbitrarily fixed somewhere along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, from
which all horizontal distances are measured for weight and balance purposes.
There is no fixed rule for its location, and it may be located forward of the
nose of the aircraft. For helicopters, it may be located at the rotor mast, the
nose of the helicopter, or even at a point in space ahead of the helicopter.
While the horizontal reference datum can be anywhere the manufacturer
chooses, most small training helicopters have the horizontal reference datum
100 inches forward of the main rotor shaft centreline. This is to keep all the
computed values positive. The lateral reference datum, is usually located at the
centre of the helicopter.
Arm

The arm is the horizontal distance from the zero point of the datum to any
component of the aircraft or to any object located within the aircraft. Other
terms used interchangeably with arm are station and centroid (used on large
transport category aircraft).

Moment

The moment is a measure of force that results from an object’s weight acting
through an arc that is centred on the zero point of the reference datum
distance. Moment is also referred to as the tendency of an object to rotate or
pivot about a point (the zero point of the datum, in this case). The further an
object is from this point, the greater the force it exerts. Moment is calculated
by multiplying the weight of an object by its arm.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)

A specific chord line of a tapered wing. At the mean aerodynamic chord, the
centre of pressure has the same aerodynamic force, position, and area as it
does on the rest of the wing. The MAC represents the width of an equivalent
rectangular wing in given conditions. On some aircraft, the centre of gravity is
expressed as a percentage of the length of the MAC. In order to make such a
calculation, the position of the leading edge of the MAC must be known ahead
 of time. This position is defined as a distance from the reference datum and is
found in the aircraft's flight manual and also on the aircraft's type certificate
data sheet. If a general MAC is not given but a LeMAC (leading edge mean
aerodynamic chord) and a TeMAC (trailing edge mean aerodynamic chord)are
given (both of which would be referenced as an arm measured out from the
datum line) then your MAC can be found by finding the difference between
your LeMAC and your TeMAC.

Calculation

Center of gravity is calculated as follows:

1. Determine the weights and arms of all mass within the aircraft.
2. Multiply weights by arms for all mass to calculate moments.
3. Add the moments of all mass together.
4. Divide the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft to give an overall arm.

The arm that results from this calculation must be within the arm limits for the center
of gravity that are dictated by the manufacturer. If it is not, weight in the aircraft must
be removed, added (rarely), or redistributed until the center of gravity falls within the
prescribed limits.
In larger aircraft, weight and balance is often expressed as a percentage of mean
aerodynamic chord, or MAC. For example, assume that by using the calculation
method above, the center of gravity (CG) was found to be 76 inches aft of the
aircraft's datum and the leading edge of the MAC is 62 inches aft of the datum.
Therefore, the CG lies 14 inches aft of the leading edge of the MAC. If the MAC is 80
inches in length, the percentage of MAC is found by calculating what percentage 14 is
of 80. In this case, one could say that the CG is 17.5% of MAC. If the allowable limits
were 15% to 35%, the aircraft would be properly loaded.

Example

Given:
Weight (lb) Arm (in) Moment (lb-in)
Empty weight 1,495.0 101.4 151,593.0
Pilot and passengers 380.0 64.0 24,320.0
Fuel (30 gallons @ 6 lb/gal) 180.0 96.0 17,280.0
Totals 2,055.0 94.01 193,193.0

To find the centre of gravity, we divide the total moment of mass by the total mass of
the aircraft: 193,193 ÷ 2,055 = 94.01 inches behind the datum plane.