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Stoomwezen
Sc = The yield stress at room temperature is referred to as Re in the code.
Sh1 = The yield stress at design temperature is referred to as Re (um) in the code.

Sh2 = not used

Sh3 = not used

FN = The average creep stress to produce one percent set is referred to as Rrg in the code. F2
is the average creep tensile stress to produce rupture and is referred to as Rmg in the
code. F3 is the minimum creep tensile stress to produce rupture and is referred to as
Rmmin in the code.
Eff = The cyclic reduction factor is referred to as Cf in the code.
Sy = The tensile strength at room temperature is referred to as Rm in the code.
Fac = A constant whose value is either 0.44 or 0.5. For more information, refer to
Stoomwezen Section 5.2.
Pvar = The Cm coefficient in the code whose value is usually 1.0.

Calculating reducers using Stoomwezen

Stoomwezen does not mention reducers for Stress Intensification Factor (SIF) calculations.

RCC-M Subsection C and D

Calculate pressure stiffening using RCC-M Subsection C and D

Pressure stiffening is not defined by default in the code. You can enable pressure stiffening on
bends in the analysis by including the Use Pressure Stiffening option in the configuration file.

Flanged end modifications using RCC-M

Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted providing the bend is not a widely
spaced miter.

Calculate stress intensification factors (SIFs) for intersections using RCC-M

Inplane and outplane SIFs for intersections are the same for these piping codes.
Calculate SIF for branch connection using RCC-M

If you do not want to use the SIF for branch connections, found in Figure C3680.1 of the code
for welding and reinforced reduced tees, include the No Reduced SIF For RFT and
WLT option in the configuration file.

Calculate the RCC-M allowable stress limits

Use the equations below to calculate the stress allowables.

Expansion Allowable = F (1.25Sc + 0.25Sh)+(Sh - SSL)

Sustained Allowable = Sh

Occasional Allowable = OCC * Sh

OCC defaults to 1.2 for Level B
OCC defaults to 1.8 for Level C
OCC defaults to 2.4 for Level D

Where:

F = Cyclic Reduction Factor

Sc = Cold Allowable

Sh = Hot Allowable

SSL = Sustained Stress (PD/4t + 0.75i Mb/Z)

OCC = Occasional Factor from the CAESAR II configuration file

Calculate Pvar using RCC-M

Pvar represents the difference between the operating pressure and Pmax, which is used in eq 10.
To satisfy equations 7 or 8 use iMc/Z stress as the maximum of either F(1.25Sc + 0.25Sh) or
F(1.25Sc + 0.25Sh) + (Sh - Ssl) where Ssl is the sustained stress as defined by equation 6.

Calculate reducers using RCC-M

For reducers RCC-M states that the flexibility factor is 1.0. The code also states that the SIF is:

The minimum of 2.0 or 0.5 + .01*alpha* SQRT(D2/t2)

Where:
D2 = Diameter of the Small End

t2 = Thickness of the Small End

Alpha is the reducer cone angle in degrees.

If not specified:

Alpha = atan[ 0.5 * (D1-D2) / (0.60 * length of the reducer element) ]

Alpha cannot exceed 60° and the larger of D1/t1 and D2/t2 cannot exceed 100.

CODETI
Modifications resulting from flanged ends using CODETI

Modifications resulting from flanged ends are permitted in the code for all bends, including
widely spaced miters.

Calculate stress intensification factors (SIFs) for intersections using CODETI

CODETI provides two separate equations to calculate the in-plane and out-plane SIFs for
intersections.

Calculate expansion stress using CODETI

CODETI provides an equation to calculate the expansion stress. This equation does not include
calculations for the longitudinal stress due to axial loads in the pipe. CAESAR II does not
include the F/A longitudinal stress component for stress in the expansion stress equation. You
can change this by setting Add F/A In Stress to the configuration file. The software adds the
F/A longitudinal stress component, by default, to the code stress component for all other stress
categories.

Calculate the CODETI allowable stress limits

Use the equations below to calculate the stress allowables.

Expansion Allowable = F [1.25 (Sc + Sh)] - Sl

Sustained Allowable = Sh

Occasional Allowable = OCC * Sh

Where:
F = Cyclic Reduction Factor

Sc = Cold Allowable Stress

Sh = Hot Allowable Stress

Sl = Sustained Stress

OCC = Occasional Load Factor from Configuration - Defaults to 1.15

Pressure stiffening using CODETI

Pressure stiffening of bends is automatically included as directed by the code. You can disable
pressure stiffening on bends in the analysis by excluding the Use Pressure Stiffening option in
the configuration file.

SIFs and flexibility coefficients using CODETI

Flexibility coefficients and SIFs are phased in for bends with an included angle between 15° and
45°. The default value for bends smaller than 15° is 1.0.

SIFs and fabricated tees using CODETI

To determine the SIF of a fabricated tee having an angle of incidence other than 90°divide it by
(sin a)3/2

CODETI recommended occasional load factor values

Recommended occasional load factor values are 1.15, 1.2, and 1.3, as per Code Table C3.3.

CODETI requires that when "the design temperature is such that the creep characteristics are
determinant, and if a section of the piping presents locally weaker characteristics," the sum of the
primary and secondary stresses must not exceed the value flexibility factor (from Section
C1.4.3). CAESAR II does not implement this requirement and is left for you to verify.

CODETI reducer default values

The default SIF value is 1.0. The default flexibility factor value is 1.0.

Norwegian (TBK 5-6)

Calculate pressure stiffening using TBK 5-6
Pressure stiffening of bends is required for flexibility factors only and is done by default. You
can disable pressure stiffening by excluding the Use Pressure Stiffening option in the setup file.
You can enable pressure stiffening for stress intensification factors (SIF)s as well by including
the Use Pressure Stiffening option.

Expansion stress in TBK 5-6

Summing the longitudinal component F/A into the stress calculation is not defined by default in
the code. You can enable the axial force term in the code stress by including the Add F/A In
Stress option in the configuration file.

The code uses a circumferential weld strength factor (Z) when calculating longitudinal pressure
stress. Enter this value as Eff.

Calculate cyclic reduction factor using TBK 5-6

You can calculate the cyclic reduction factor using the following equation: F = (7000/Ne)0.2

Where

Ne = Number of Anticipated Cycles

F may be as high as 2.34 but not greater than 1.0 when Rm governs the expansion stress
allowable.

Calculate SIFs for bends and intersections using TBK 5-6

In-plane and out-of-plane SIFs for bends and intersections use the same stress equation.

Calculate the Norwegian allowable stress limits

Use the equations below to calculate the stress allowables.

Expansion Allowable = Sr + F2 - SSUS

Sustained Allowable = F2

Occasional Allowable = Occ * F2

Where:

Sr = Minimum of 1.25F1 + 0.25F2; Fr * Rs - F2; or Fr (1.25 R1 + 0.25 R2) The latter for higher
temperatures; above 425°C for austenitic stainless steel, or above 370°C for other
materials.
F2 = Hot Allowable Stress (entered in Sh)

OCC Occasional Load Factor from the configuration file (defaults to 1.2)

SSUS = Sustained Stress

F1 = Allowable Stress at Ambient (entered in Sc)

Fr = Cyclic Reduction Factor

RS = Permissible Extent of Stress for 7000 Cycles (from Code Table 10.2)

R1 = Lesser of F1 and 0.267 RM

R2 = Lesser of F2 and 0.367 RM

Rm Ultimate Tensile Strength at room temperature

=

Calculate SIFs using TBK 5-6

SIFs for fitting types 6 (branch with raised edge radius), 7 (branch on locally thickened pipe), 13
(conical reducer with knuckles), and 14 (reducer without knuckles) have not been implemented
in CAESAR II so you must enter them manually. The Norwegian code offers an alternative
stress analysis method in Appendix D. However, CAESAR II does not implement this method.

TBK 5-6 reducer default values

Calculate the SIFs by using the following equation: 2.0 max or 0.5 + .01*alpha* SQRT(D2/t2).

Where:

D2 - Diameter of the Small End

t2 - Thickness of the Small End

alpha - the slope of the reducer

TBK 5-6 flexibility factor default value

The default flexibility factor value is 1.0.

FDBR
FDBR is similar to Code-Specific Settings in most requirements. For more information,
see Code-Specific Settings.

Calculate reinforced tees using FDBR

FDBR limits the pad thickness to a maximum equal to the header thickness. If you enter a pad
thickness that is greater than the header thickness, the software overrides it with the header
thickness.

Calculate reduced intersections using FDBR

Treat intersections similar to ASME NC. For more information, see .

Calculate butt welds using FDBR

Use either 1.0 or 1.8 depending on the thickness.

Calculate flexibility analysis using FDBR

You must use the Hot Modulus of Elasticity in your flexibility analysis.

Calculate the expansion case allowable stress using FDBR

Wen computing the expansion case allowable stress,you must include the ratio of Ehot to Ecold.
You can override the software-computed ratio by manually entering a value for Fac.

Calculate reducers using FDBR

The value for the flexibility factor is 1.0 and the equation to calculate reducer SIFs is:

2.0 max or 0.5 + .01*alpha* SQRT(D2/t2)

Where:

D1 - Diameter of the Large End

t1 - Thickness of the Large End

D2 - Diameter of the Small End

t2 - Thickness of the Small End

Alpha - Reducer Cone Angle in Degrees

When not entered:

Alpha = atan[ 0.5 * (D1-D2) / (0.60 * length of the reducer element) ]

Alpha cannot exceed 60° and the larger of D1/t1 and D2/t2 cannot exceed 100.

BS 7159
BS 7159 for Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) pipe requires that you evaluate the operating
load case only. You must verify the following operating load case combined stress requirements
are met:

If Sx is tensile:

(OPE)

and

(OPE)

or

if Sx is compressive:

If Fx/A > P(Dm)/(4t) and it is compressive

(OPE)

and

(OPE)

Circumferential Stress

for straight pipes

for bends

for tees

Dm and t are always for the Run Pipe

Calculate the allowable stress limits using BS 7159

BS 7159 allowables are based on material design strain d. Alowable stresses differ in the axial
and hoop directions by the ratio of the axial and hoop moduli of elasticity:

Sh = dEx SHOOP = (dEx) (Eh/Ex)

Enter the ratio Eh/Ex in the allowable stress Eff field. If left blank, the value defaults to 1.0 for
isotropic materials.

Calculate pressure stiffening using BS 7159

Pressure stiffening of bends is done assuming the bends are fully pressurized up to the design
strain of the components. You can exclude pressure stiffening on bends by including the Use
Pressure Stiffening option in the configuration file.

BS 7159 does not by default add F/A into the stress calculation (unless this puts an element into
compression as described above). Use the Add F/A in Stress option to tell CAESAR II to
include the axial force term into the code stress.

Calculate the fatigue factor using BS 7159

The fatigue factor Kn is used inversely relative to the cyclic reduction factor in most codes, so its
value should be greater than or equal to 1.0 (allowable stress is divided by this number). Kn is
calculated as:

Kn = 1.0 + 0.25 (As/n) (Log10(n) - 3.0)

Where:

As = Stress Range During Fatigue Cycle

n = Maximum Stress During Fatigue Cycle

n = Number of Cycles During Design Life

Enter Kn in the Cyclic Reduction Factor fields.

BS 7159 requires that you consider the thermal strain of the pipe material as being from 80% -
85% below the true material strain due to insulation effects of the pipe wall. Enter this reduction
factor K in the allowable stress FAC field. If left blank, this value defaults to 1.0.

Calculate the stress intensity and flexibility factors of bends using BS 7159

The stress intensity and flexibility factors of bends vary based on laminate type:

 All chopped strand mat (CSM) construction with internal and external surface tissue
reinforced layer.
 CSM and woven roving (WR) construction with internal and external surface tissue
reinforced layer.
 CSM and multi-filament roving construction with internal and external surface tissue
reinforced layer.
You can enter the laminate type in the Bend Type field, or set the type default on the Special
Execution Parameter dialog box.

Calculate SIFs for Reducers using BS 7159

BS 7159 does not mention reducers for SIF calculations.

UKOOA
The United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association (UKOOA) Specification and
Recommended Practice for the Use of GRP Piping Offshore is similar in many respects to the BS
7159, except that it simplifies the calculation requirements in exchange for imposing more
conservatism on the piping operating conditions. Rather than explicitly calculating a combined
stress, the specification defines an idealized envelope of combinations of axial and hoop stresses
which cause the equivalent stress to reach failure. This curve represents the plot of:

(x / -all)2 + hoop / hoop-all)2 - [x hoop / (x-all hoop-all)] 1.0

Where:

x-all = Allowable Stress Axial

hoop-all = Allowable Stress Hoop

The specification conservatively limits you to that part of the curve falling under the line
between x-all also known as a(0:1) and the intersection point on the curve where hoop is
twice x a natural condition for a pipe loaded only with pressure. An implicit modification to this
requirement is the fact that pressure stresses are given a factor of safety typically equal to 2/3
while other stresses are not. This gives an explicit requirement of:

Pdes f1 f2 f3 LTHP

Where:

Pdes = Allowable Design Pressure

f1 = Factor of Safety for 97.5% Lower Confidence Limit Usually 0.85

f2 = System Factor of Safety Usually 0.67

f3 = Ratio of Residual Allowable After Mechanical Loads

= 1 - (2 sab) / (r f1 LTHS)

sab = Axial Bending Stress Due to Mechanical Loads

r = a(0:1) / a(2:1)

a(0:1) = Long Term Axial Tensile Strength In Absence Of Pressure Load

a(2:1) = Long Term Axial Tensile Strength Under Pressure Loading Only

LTHS = Long Term Hydrostatic Strength Hoop Stress Allowable

LTHP = Long Term Hydrostatic Pressure Allowable

This is implemented in the CAESAR II using the following equations:

Code Stress Code Allowable

ab (f2 /r) + PDm / (4t)  (f1 f2 LTHS) / 2.0

Where:

P = Design Pressure

Dm = Pipe Mean Diameter

t = Pipe Wall Thickness

On the Allowable auxiliary dialog box, the product of f1 and LTHS is entered in
the SH1, SH2, SH3 fields; r is entered in the F1, F2, F3 fields; f2 is entered in the Eff field; and
the temperature reduction factor K (described for BS 7159 above) is entered in the Fac field if
omitted, it defaults to 1.0. K- and i-factors for bends and tees, and bending and pressure stresses
are calculated as described for the BS 7159.

Calculate SIFs using UKOOA

UKOOA refers to BS 7159 for SIF calculations.

IGE/TD/12
CAESAR II performs calculations as per the IGE/TD/12 Edition 2 code requirements. The
complexity of these requirements far exceeds what can be described here. We recommend that
you acquire a copy of this code from the International Institution of Gas Engineers & Managers.

Det Norske Veritas (DNV)

This code is entitled "Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems." The Allowable Stress Design
(ASD) provisions of the code are implemented here, rather than the limit state requirements.

Calculate the Stress Intensification Factors (SIFs), flexibility factors, or section moduli using
DNV

DNV does not provide any guidance on calculating SIFs, flexibility factors, or section moduli.
An informal poll of DNV experts and users was taken and the decision was made to use the
B31.1 Power Code. Make all stress calculations using the corroded wall thickness.

Calculate the expansion load case using DNV

There is no provision for a code check for the expansion load case, so no expansion cases are
generated under this code.

Calculate the operating, sustained, or occasional load cases using DNV

Treat the operating, sustained, or occasional load cases identically. For these load cases, you
must perform three stress calculations with different allowable limits. The stress calculation
causing the highest percent of allowable is reported in the stress report, along with its specific
allowable. These stress checks are:

Hoop Stress: Sh ns SMYS

Hoop Stress: Sh nu SMTS

Longitudinal Stress: SL  n SMYS

Equivalent Stress: Se  n SMYS

Where:

Sh = (Pi – Pe) (D – t) / 2t

Pi = Internal Pressure

Pe = External Pressure

D = Outer Diameter

t = Wall Thickness

ns = Hoop Stress Yielding Usage Factor; see Tables C1 and C2 of the DNV Code
SMYS = Specified Minimum Yield Strength at Operating Temperature

nu = Hoop Stress Bursting Usage Factor; see Tables C1 and C2 of the DNV Code

SMTS = Specified Minimum Tensile Strength at Operating Temperature

SL = Maximum Longitudinal Stress

n = Equivalent Stress Usage Factor; see Table C4 of the DNV Code

Se = [Sh2 + SL2 - ShSL + 3t2]1/2

t = Torsional Stress

Calculate reducers using DNV

DNV does not mention reducers for SIF calculations.

EN-13480
Flexibility calculations using EN-13480

EN-13480 uses the hot modulus of elasticity in the flexibility calculations (Sect 12.1.7.2). The
expansion allowable stress is subsequently modified by the ratio of Eh/Ec.

Calculate the flexibility stresses using EN-13480

EN-13480 provides two methods of determining the flexibility stresses. The CAESAR II default
implementation is to use Sections 12.3.2 through 12.3.6, which perform an SRSS of the bending
moments with a single SIF. As an alternative, the flexibility stresses can be determined by
distinguishing between in and out of plane bending, using distinct SIFs, as discussed in Section
12.3.1. The option to implement this alternative can be found on the "SIF & Stress" tab of the
configuration module.

EN-13480 pressure stiffening

EN-13480 does not consider pressure stiffening effects on bends.

EN-13480 creep

For more information, see Creep Loading

GPTC/Z380
The recommendations of this code apply only to above ground steel piping through 450°F.
GPTC/Z380 and B31.8, prior to 2004, recommendations are similar in many ways. The
differences between GPTC/Z380 and B31.8 display below:

 The longitudinal joint factors vary slightly between B31.8 Table 841.115a and
GPTC/Z380 Table 192.113.
 The design factor in B31.8 Table 841.114b provides more detail than GPTC/Z380 Table
192.11.
 The allowable for the combined stress calculation in GPTC/Z380 Section 192.159-1.5e
includes a "0.75" factor, while B31.8 Section 833.4 does not.
 GPTC/Z380 uses a single stress intensification factor (SIF) for both in-plane and out-of-
plane loads, while B31.8 distinguishes between in-plane and out-of-plane SIFs.

ISO-14692
ISO-14692 addresses the analysis of Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) pipe. Qualification is based
on the comparison of actual stresses, hoop and axial, to a failure envelope. See BS 7159 for the
CAESAR II approach for FRP pipe analysis.

HPGSL
Calculate stress intensification factors (SIFs) for intersections using HPGSL

HPGSL provides two separate equations to calculate the in-plane and out-plane stress
intensification factors (SIFs) for intersections.

Calculate expansion stress using HPGSL

HPGSL provides an equation to calculate the expansion stress. This equation does not include
calculations for the longitudinal stress due to axial loads in the pipe. CAESAR II does not
include the F/A longitudinal stress component for stress in the expansion stress equation. You
can change this by including the Add F/A In Stress option in the configuration file. The
program adds the F/A longitudinal stress component, by default, to the code stress component for
all other stress categories.

HPGSL girth butt welds default value

The default SIF value for a girth butt weld is 1.0. This is also Markl’s original basis for SIFs.

Calculate socket welds using HPGSL

HPGSL makes no distinction between socket welds with undercut and socket welds
without undercut. Codes that do differentiate use 1.3 for socket welds with no undercut, and 2.1
for all others. Unless you are specifying a fillet weld leg length, use a default SIF value of 1.3.
Calculate the HPGSL stress allowables

Use the equations below to calculate the stress allowables.

Expansion Allowable = f [ (1.25/Eff)(Sc+Sh) - Sl ]

Sustained Allowable = Sh/Eff

Occasional Allowable = (Occ)*Sh/Eff

Where:

f = Cyclic Reduction Factor

Eff = Weld Joint Efficiency Minimum Wall Thickness Only

Sc = Ambient (cold) Allowable Stress, the minimum of 0.66Syc or 0.33Suc

Sh = Hot Allowable Stress, the minimum of 0.66Sy or 0.33Su

SI = Sustained Stress

Occ = Occasional Load Factor Default is 1.33

When specifying a corrosion allowance, do not use a corrosion value in the sustained and
occasional stress calculations.

HPGSL reducer default values

The default SIF value is 1.0. The default Flexibility Factor value is 1.0.

HPGSL Pressure effects

Pressure effects on miters are allowed in this piping code.

Seismic Analysis

HPGSL uses load cases defined by Using KHK to Analyze Seismic Conditions.

JPI
Calculate stress intensification factors (SIFs) for intersections using JPI

JPI provides two separate equations to calculate the in-plane and out-plane SIFs for intersections.
Calculate expansion stress using JPI

JPI provides an equation to calculate the expansion stress. However, this equation does not
include calculations for the longitudinal stress due to axial loads in the pipe. CAESAR II does
not include the F/A longitudinal stress component for stress in the expansion stress equation. The
program adds the F/A longitudinal stress component, by default, to the code stress component for
all other stress categories.

JPI girth butt welds default value

The default SIF value for a girth butt weld is 1.0. This is also Markl’s original basis for SIFs.

Calculate socket welds using JPI

JPI makes no distinction between socket welds with undercut and socket welds without
undercut. Unless you are specifying a fillet weld leg length, use a default SIF value of 1.3.

Calculate the JPI Stress allowables

Expansion Allowable = f [ (1.25/Eff)(Sc+Sh) - Sl ]

Sustained Allowable = Sh/Eff

Occasional Allowable = (Occ)*Sh/Eff

Where:

f = Cyclic Reduction Factor

Eff = Weld Joint Efficiency minimum wall thickness only

Sc = Ambient (cold) Allowable Stress, the minimum of 0.66Syc or 0.33Suc

Sh = Hot Allowable Stress, the minimum of 0.66Sy or 0.33Su

SI = Sustained Stress

Occ = Occasional Load Factor Default - 1.33

When specifying a corrosion allowance, do not use a corrosion value in the sustained and
occasional stress calculations.

JPl reducer default value

The default SIF value is 1.0. The default Flexibility Factor value is 1.0.
Pressure effects and JPl

Pressure effects on miters are allowed in this piping code.

Seismic Analysis

JPI uses load cases defined by Using KHK to Analyze Seismic Conditions.

Local Coordinates
Many analytical models in engineering are based upon being able to define a real physical object
mathematically. This is accomplished by mapping the dimensions of the physical object into a
similar mathematical space. Mathematical space is usually assumed to be either two-dimensional
or three-dimensional. For piping analysis, the three-imensional space is necessary, because
almost all piping systems are three dimensional in nature.

Two typical three-dimensional mathematical systems are shown below in Figure 1. Both of these
systems are "Cartesian Coordinate Systems". Each axis in these systems is perpendicular to all
other axes.

Figure 1 – Typical Cartesian Coordinate Systems

In addition, for these Cartesian coordinate systems the "right hand rule" is used to define positive
rotation about each axis and the relationship, or ordering, between the axes. Before illustrating
the "right hand rule", there are several traits of the systems in Figure 1 that should be noted.

 Each axis can be thought of as a "number line", where the zero point is the point where
all of the axes intersect. While only the positive side of each axis is shown in Figure 1,
each axis has a negative side as well.
 The direction of the arrow heads indicates the positive direction of each axis.
 In Figure 1, the X-axis has one arrowhead, the Y-axis has two arrowheads, and the Z-axis
has three arrowheads. The circular arcs labeled RX, RY, and RZ define the direction of
positive rotation about each axis. (This point will be dis\-cussed later.)
 Any point in space can be mapped to these coordinate systems by using its position along
the number lines. For example, a point 5 units down the X-axis would have a coordinate
of (5.0, 0.0, 0.0). A point 5 units down the X-axis and 6 units down the Y-axis would
have a coordinate of (5.0, 6.0, 0.0).
 Notice that if the system on the right side of Figure 1 is rotated a positive 90-degrees
about the X-axis, the result is the system on the left side of Figure 1.
The coordinate system on the left side of Figure 1 is the default CAESAR II global coordinate
system. In this system, the X and Z axes define the horizontal plane, and the Y-axis is vertical.

The other coordinate system in Figure 1 can be obtained in CAESAR II by selecting the Z-axis
Vertical option, discussed later in this section.

All further discussion in this section targets this default coordinate system, unless other\-wise
noted.

Other Global Coordinate Systems

There are other types of coordinate systems that can be used to mathematically map a physical
object.

 A Polar coordinate system maps points in a two-dimensional space using a radius and a
rotation angle (r, theta).
 A Cylindrical coordinate system maps points using a radius, a rotation angle, and an
elevation (r, theta, z). The origin in this system could be considered the center of the
bottom of a cylinder. Cylindrical coordinates are convenient to use when there is an axis
of symmetry in the model.
 A Spherical coordinate system maps points using a radius and two rotation angles (r,
theta, phi). The origin in this system could be considered the center of a sphere.
Spherical coordinates are convenient to use when there is a point which is the center of
symmetry in the model.

Typically, none of these coordinate systems are easily used to map piping systems. Most piping
software deals exclusively with the Cartesian coordinate system.