Stepped Pipeline Systems: 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Stepped Pipeline Systems
1 INTRODUCTION
When either a high pressure or a high vacuum is used for pneumatic conveying, it
is generally recommended that the pipeline should be stepped to a larger bore part
way along the length of the line at least once. This is the case whether the material
is being conveyed in dilute or dense phase, and whether the pipeline is long or
short. Stepping of the pipeline is particularly recommended if the material being
handled is either abrasive or friable. Problems of both erosive wear and particle
degradation increase markedly with increase in velocity and so stepping the pipe-
line can have a very significant effect on limiting conveying air velocity values,
and hence in minimizing the magnitude of erosion and degradation.
For many materials it is possible that the lower velocity profile achieved in a
stepped pipeline will also bring benefits in terms of improved conveying perform-
ance. A particular problem, however, is in the location of such steps, for if they are
incorrectly located, pipeline blockage could result.
The capability of purging material from a stepped bore pipeline is another
issue that might have to be taken into account. A situation in a continuous pipeline
in which the pipeline may require to be reduced in diameter, rather than increased
which is generally the norm, is where the pipeline incorporates a long section of
vertically downward flow.
Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

270 Chapter 9
2 CONVEYING AIR VELOCITY
For the pneumatic conveying of bulk particulate materials, one of the critical pa-
rameters is the minimum conveying air velocity necessary to convey a material.
For dilute phase conveying this is typically about 3000 ft/mm, but it does depend
very much upon the size, shape and density of the particles of the bulk material.
For dense phase conveying it can be as low as 600 ft/min, but this depends upon
the solids loading ratio at which the material is conveyed and the nature of the
conveyed material. If the velocity drops below the minimum value the pipeline is
likely to block. It is important, therefore, that the volumetric flow rate of air, speci-
fied for any conveying system, is sufficient to maintain the required minimum
value of velocity throughout the length of the conveying system.
2.1 Compressibility of Air

The following equations were presented in Chapter 5 and are presented below for
further development. The first of these is from Equation 5.2 and relates volumetric
flow rate with conveying air velocity:
TI d2 C
V = ft3/min - - (1)
576
The second is the Ideal Gas Law from Equation 5.4:
144/7 V = ma R T - (2)
The third comes from Equations 5.5 and 5.6 and is the direct derivative from
the Ideal Gas Law that equates any two points anywhere along the length of a
pipeline, and will also equate to free air conditions:
r, T2 TH
Using this group of equations the problem of compressibility with air in sin-
gle bore pipelines was demonstrated with Figure 5.6 and this is presented here in
Figure 9.1 for reference. A free air flow rate of 1500 ftVmin was selected and the
influence of pipeline bore and pressure are clearly illustrated. The lines of constant
pipeline bore represent the velocity profile through a pipeline in single bore pipe-
lines. It will be seen that the slope of the lines of constant pipeline bore change
constantly with pressure, and as the air pressure reduces the slope increases con-
siderably. The problem of air expansion, therefore, is very marked in low pressure
systems and particularly so in negative pressure systems [1],

Stepped Pipelines 271
6000
30 40
2
Air Pressure - Ibfin gauge
Figure 9.1 The influence of air pressure and pipeline bore on conveying air velocity for
a free air flow rate of 1500 ft3/min.
3 STEPPED PIPELINE SYSTEMS
Figure 9.1 shows quite clearly the nature of the problem of single bore pipeline
conveying, with respect to air expansion and hence conveying air velocities, par-
ticularly where high pressures or vacuums are employed. For both long distance,
and dense phase conveying, it is generally necessary to have a fairly high air pres-
sure at the start of the conveying line. As the pressure of the conveying air de-
creases along the length of the line, its density decreases, with a corresponding
increase in velocity, as illustrated above.
A simple means of limiting the very high velocities that can occur towards
the end of a pipeline is to step the pipeline to a larger bore once or twice along its
length. By this means it will also be possible to keep the conveying air velocity
within reasonable limits [2].
The ultimate solution, of course, is to use a tapered pipeline, for in this the
conveying air velocity could remain constant along the entire length of the pipe-
line. This, however, is neither practical nor possible, but it does provide the basis
for a model of what is required. A stepped pipeline, therefore, should be designed
to achieve a velocity profile that is as close as practically possible to a constant
value.
3.1 Step Location

The critical parameter in the design of any pipeline is the minimum value of con-
veying air velocity required for the given material and conveying conditions.

272 Chapter 9
Flow
~* (f) di-2
Direction ^^
Figure 9.2 Stepped pipeline notation.
In the design of a stepped pipeline system it is essential to ensure that the

conveying air velocity does not fall below the minimum value anywhere along the
length of the pipeline. In this respect it is the location of the steps to each larger
bore section of the pipeline that are crucial. With the air expanding into a larger
bore pipe the velocity will fall, approximately in proportion to the change in pipe
section area, at the step. The location of the step, therefore, must be such that the
pressure is low enough to ensure that the velocity in the larger bore section at the
step does not drop below the given minimum conveying air velocity.
A pipeline having two steps, and hence three sections of pipeline of different
bore, is shown diagrammatically in Figure 9.2. Reference numbers are assigned to
the start and end of each section, and provided that there is no leakage of air into or
out of the pipeline between the material feed point at © and the discharge point at
©, the air mass flow rate will remain constant and the continuity equation can be
used to equate conditions at any point along the length of the stepped pipeline.
By combining Equations 1 and 2 and substituting V from Equation 3 gives:
576 Po V0 T
C3 = -—f t / m i n- - - - - ( 4 )
n J _ /> T0
and substituting values for/?,, and T0 gives:
= 5-19 ~2-— ft/min

d
3-4 Pi
This will give the conveying air velocity at the start of the second section of
the stepped pipeline. By equating to the free air conditions in this way, the velocity
at any section of the pipeline can be evaluated.
If it is the pressure at a step in the pipeline that is required Equation 4 can be
rearranged to give:

576 Po V0 T3
P3 (5)
n
3—4 0 3
= 5-19 Ibf/in absolute
It should be noted that since the end of one section of pipeline terminates at
the point where the next section of pipeline starts, the pressure difference between
these two points can be disregarded, and so in the above case: p2 = p} and/?./ = ps.
It would generally be recommended that a tapered expansion section should be
used to join any two sections of pipeline at a step. As a first approximation, the
position of the steps can be judged in terms of the ratio of the pressure drop values
evaluated for the individual sections of pipeline, equating these in proportion to
the equivalent lengths of the pipeline, with due allowance for bends.
3.2 Dilute Phase Conveying

Figure 9.3 illustrates the case of a dilute phase conveying system. The minimum
conveying air velocity that must be maintained for the material is about 3000
ft/min, and 2000 ftVmin of free air is available to convey the material. The con-
veying line inlet air pressure is 45 Ibf/in 2 gauge.
14,660
12,000
10,000
_g
^ 8000
.4
.3
u
6000
I 4000
'&
g 2000
3
o 10 20 30 40 50
Air Pressure - Ibf/in 2 gauge
Figure 9.3 Stepped pipeline velocity profile for high pressure dilute phase system using
2000 ft3/min of air at free air conditions.

274 Chapter 9
From Figure 9.3 it will be seen that a 5 in bore pipeline will be required for
these conditions, and the resulting conveying line inlet air velocity will be about
3610 ft/min. If a single bore pipeline was to be used for the entire length of the line
the conveying line exit air velocity would be about 14,660 ft/min. The inlet air
pressure is 45 Ibf/in gauge, which is approximately 60 lbf/in 2 absolute, and so if
the discharge is to atmospheric pressure, a near four fold increase in air velocity
can be expected.
If the material being conveyed is only slightly abrasive, severe wear will oc-
cur at any bend towards the end of the pipeline, because of the excessive velocity,
and significant degradation of the conveyed material will also occur, even if the
material is not particularly friable.
If the velocity was allowed to rise to 7000 ft/min in this 5 in bore pipe a
change to a 6 in bore pipe would only reduce the velocity to 5000 ft/min. The ve-
locity in an 8 in bore pipe would be about 2800 ft/min, however, and this is
unlikely to be acceptable. A 7 in bore pipe would probably be satisfactory, but
care must be taken that standard pipe sizes are selected. Even in a 7 in bore pipe-
line the velocity at exit would be almost 7500 ft/min and so it is clear that two
steps and three different pipe sizes would be required.
The velocity profile for a possible combination of 5, 6 and 8 in bore pipes is
shown superimposed on Figure 9.3, but even with this the exit velocity is about
5725 ft/min, and the velocity at the end of the second pipe section reaches 6315
ft/min. A plot similar to that shown in Figure 9.3, however, will give a clear indi-
cation of what is possible. The velocities at the six reference points along the pipe-
line are also presented on Figure 9.3 and these can be evaluated by using Equa-
tions 4 and 5. It would always be recommended that a graph similar to that in-
cluded in Figure 9.3 be drawn for any proposed stepped pipeline system.
3.3 Dense Phase Conveying

Figure 9.4 illustrates the case of a dense phase conveying system. The minimum
conveying air velocity that must be maintained for the material is about 1200
ft/min, and 350 ft /min of free air is available to convey the material. The convey-
ing line inlet air pressure is 45 lbf/in gauge. From Figure 9.4 it will be seen that a
3 in bore pipeline will be required for these conditions, and the resulting convey-
ing line inlet air velocity will be about 1755 ft/min.
If a single bore pipeline is used the conveying line exit air velocity will be
about 7125 ft/min. Although this might be accepted in a dilute phase conveying
system it is quite unnecessary in a dense phase system. Apart from reducing prob-
lems of erosive wear and particle degradation, by reducing conveying air veloci-
ties, a stepped pipeline is also likely to achieve an improved conveying perform-
ance, compared with a single bore pipeline, for the same air flow conditions. The
velocity profile for a combination of 3, 4 and 5 in bore pipes is shown superim-
posed on Figure 9.4. This has resulted in the conveying air velocity being confined
to a relatively narrow band, with the maximum value being limited to 2640 ft/min.

6000
10 20 30 40 50
Air Pressure - Ibfin2 gauge
Figure 9.4 Stepped pipeline velocity profile for high pressure dense phase system us-
ing 350 ftVmin of air at free air conditions.
3.4 Vacuum Conveying

Although negative pressure systems are naturally limited to a maximum convey-
ing line pressure drop of less than 14-7 lbf/in 2 , stepping of the pipeline with vac-
uum conveying systems is just as important as it is with high positive pressure
conveying systems.
A typical vacuum conveying system is shown in Figure 9.5. It is drawn for a
dilute phase system, where a minimum conveying air velocity of 3000 ft/min must
be maintained, using 500 ftVmin of free air at a temperature of 59°F and exhaust-
ing to -9 lbf/in2 gauge (14-7 -9 = 5-7 lbf/in2 absolute). It must be remembered
that absolute values of temperature and pressure must be used in all the equations
relating to the evaluation of both velocity and pressure along the length of a pipe-
line.
If the vacuum were a little higher than 9 lbf/in 2 , a step to a third section of
pipeline of 8 in bore would be required. Even with a conveying line exit air pres-
sure of-7 lbf/in 2 gauge, a step could be usefully incorporated in the case presented
in Figure 9.5.
Because the slope of the constant pipe bore curves increase at an increasing
rate with decrease in pressure, steps are required more frequently at low air pres-
sures. From Equation 9.4 it will be seen that pressure is on the bottom line and so
when values get very low, as they will in high vacuum systems, a small change in
pressure will result in a large change in conveying air velocity.

276 Chapter 9
8000k
Figure 9.5 Stepped pipeline velocity profile for high vacuum system using 500 ft'/min
of air at free air conditions.
3.4.1 Step Position

A practical problem that arises from this is the actual positioning of the various
steps along the length of the pipeline. As a first approximation, in the absence of
any other information, pipeline lengths can be sized in proportion to the conveying
line pressure drop for each section, provided that a reasonably uniform value of
conveying air velocity is maintained along the length of the pipeline. It can be seen
from Figures 9.3 to 9.5 that if there is a risk of the velocity being too low at the
start of the next section, and the pipeline blocking, then the transition to the larger
pipe size should be moved a little further downstream, where the pressure will be
slightly lower.
4 PIPELINE STAGING
With reference to Figure 9.1 and Equation 4 it will be seen that with increase in
pressure the slope of the curves decrease. If a stepped pipeline system was to be
designed on the basis of a doubling in conveying air velocity, for each section of
pipeline, the working pressure for each section of pipeline would increase signifi-
cantly with increase in pressure, as shown in Table 9.1. If it were required to con-
vey a material over a distance of the order of 100 miles, it would only be eco-
nomical if an air supply pressure very much higher than 100 lbf/in 2 was to be used.
It would also be necessary to divide the system into stages, such that the material
was discharged from one system, when the pressure had fallen to a given value,
and be fed into the next system with high pressure air.

Table 9.1 Typical Working Pressures Relating to a 2:1 Conveying Line Air
Velocity Expansion Ratio
Air Inlet Pressure Air Outlet Pressure Pressure Difference
lbf/in 2 absolute lbf/in 2 gauge Ibf/in" gauge lbf/in 2
14-7 0 -7-35 7-35

294 14-7 0 14-7
58-8 44-1 14-7 29-4
117-6 102-9 44-1 58-8
235-2 220-5 102-9 117-6
470-4 455-7 220-5 235-2
With a conveying line inlet air pressure of 455-7 lbf/in 2 gauge, for example,
the first step would not be necessary until the pressure had fallen to 220-5 lbf/in 2
gauge, which gives a working pressure difference of 235-2 lbf/in 2 . If the system
discharged to atmospheric pressure, the pressure at entry to the last section of
pipeline would be 14-7 lbf/in 2 gauge and the working pressure difference would
only be 14-7 lbf/in2. This effect is shown in Figure 9.6, which illustrates the veloc-
ity profile for the latter sections of a very high pressure stepped pipeline system in
which the material is conveyed in dilute phase.
7000
6000
g 5000
I
^ 4000
M
3000
I
2000
0 100 200 300 400 500
Air Pressure - Ibfin2 gauge
Figure 9.6 Velocity profile for very high pressure stepped pipeline system.

278 Chapter 9
It would be recommended, therefore, that for a very long distance conveying

system, at the end of each stage along the pipeline, and at the very end of the pipe-
line, the material should be discharged at a pressure of at least 44 Ibfin 2 gauge. By
discharging at a high pressure, rather than atmospheric, the last two or three sec-
tions of the largest bore pipeline can be dispensed with. The reduction in working
pressure drop would be very small in comparison and it would make for a very
much simpler pipeline design and layout.
5 PIPELINE PURGING
In many applications it is necessary to purge the pipeline clear of material at the

end of a conveying run, particularly with perishable commodities and time-limited
products. In single bore pipelines this is rarely a problem, even if the material is
conveyed in dense phase, because the velocity at the end of the pipeline is usually
sufficiently high. There can, however, be problems with stepped pipelines. A
comparison of the velocity profiles for flow in single and stepped bore pipelines is
presented in Figure 9.7.
5.1 Dense Phase Conveying

Figure 9.7 is drawn for an air flow rate of 1000 ft3/min at free air conditions. It
relates to the dense phase conveying of a material for which the minimum convey-
ing air velocity is about 1000 ft/min. This is similar to the plot shown in Figure
9.4, except that the flow of air is from left to right with the new figure.
6000
5Q90f
Air Flow 5000
4000
I
Pipelinb 2860
Bore *• in 3000
2000
I
a
50 40 30 20 10
Air Pressure - Ibf/in2 gauge
Figure 9.7 Comparison of velocity profiles in single and stepped bore pipelines.

Although this may be more conventional in terms of system sketching, it

does mean that the air pressure axis is reversed, and is offered simply as an alter-
native means of presentation.
Figure 9.7 is developed further in Figure 9.8 with empty line velocity pro-
files added. This also provides a comparison between single bore and stepped bore
pipelines, with respect to purging, and clearly illustrates the problem towards the
end of a stepped pipeline. At the end of a conveying run, with no material to con-
vey, the pressure at the material feed point, at the start of the pipeline, will drop to
the air only pressure drop value.
For low velocity dense phase conveying the empty line pressure drop will
only be a fraction of the pressure drop required for conveying. Thus the velocity of
the air through a single bore empty pipeline will be very high throughout its
length. At the end of the pipeline the air velocity will be exactly the same as in the
conveying case, because the pressure here is always atmospheric. At the material
feed point, however, the air velocity will only be slightly lower than that at the exit
since the air pressure at the feed point is so much lower when material is not being
conveyed.
With the stepped bore pipeline this same volumetric flow rate of air has to
expand into the larger bore section of pipeline, and so its velocity will reduce, as
shown in Figure 9.9. At the end of the pipeline the situation is exactly the same as
in the single bore pipeline case. The velocity for both conveying and purging will
be the same, because the pressure here is always atmospheric. Since the purging
velocity will not be constant throughout the pipeline the potential for clearing ma-
terial from the latter sections of stepped pipelines by purging, therefore, will be
severely limited.
Purging Mode
Pipeline
Bore - in
40 30 20 10
2
Figure 9.8 Comparison of velocity profiles in single and stepped bore pipelines in both
conveying and purging modes.

280 Chapter 9
5.2 Material Deposition

To illustrate the problem of material deposition in pipelines with low velocity
conveying, data from a program of conveying trials carried out with a fine grade
of fly ash is presented in Figure 9.9 [3]. The fly ash was being conveyed through a
425 ft long pipeline of 2'A inch nominal bore that incorporated nine 90° bends.
5.2.7 Fly Ash

In tests conducted with low air flow rates, and hence at low conveying air veloci-
ties, it was observed that not all the batch of material in the blow tank was dis-
charged into the receiving hopper. The material was, in fact, being deposited in the
pipeline and remaining there at the end of the conveying run, when the conveying
air velocity used was too low to purge the pipeline clear.
The fly ash left in the pipeline did not represent a problem because it was
swept up with the next batch of fly ash conveyed. As a result the pipeline was only
purged for a short time before starting the next test run. To give some indication of
the potential problem of material deposition in a pipeline when conveying at low
velocity, the data for every test carried out was analyzed to provide a figure for the
percentage of the batch conveyed that was discharged into the receiving hopper.
100% data points simply mean that the entire batch of 1000 Ib was con-
veyed. For the very high velocity tests the data points have not been included. If
80% of the batch was conveyed, then 20% of the batch remained in the pipeline at
the end of the test run, which amounted to 200 Ib of fly ash. The results and analy-
sis are presented in Figure 9.9.
Percentage of
Batch Conveyed
'—! 1 1—i 1 1 1
40 80 120 160
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
Figure 9.9 Analysis of pipeline purging data for fine fly ash.

5.2.2 Cement
In an earlier program of work ordinary portland cement was similarly tested [4]. It
was conveyed through a 310 ft long pipeline of 4 in nominal bore having nine 90°
bends (Figure 7.13 pipeline). For this shorter pipeline of larger bore the batch size
of the cement was 2750 Ib, since tests with material flow rates up to about 100,000
Ib/h were undertaken. Testing was carried out with air supply pressures up to 40
lbf/in2 gauge. An analysis of the test data obtained with the cement is presented in
Figure 9.10.
The normal conveying characteristics for the material are presented in Fig-
ure 9.10, together with conveying air velocity data. This is in terms of a full set of
curves for the conveying line inlet air velocity and a parallel axis in terms of the
conveying line exit air velocity.
From Figure 9.10 it will be seen that the cement could be conveyed with
conveying line inlet air velocities down to about 500 ft/min and at solids loading
ratios of over 100. Lines showing the percentage of the batch that was conveyed
are also superimposed on Figure 9.10. In this case, when only 70% of the batch
was conveyed, 825 Ib of cement was left in the pipeline. As with the fly ash, this
cement was swept up by the next batch that was conveyed.
Conveying Line Inlet

Conveying Line
Air Velocity - ft/min
Solids Loading Pressure Drop - lbf/in 2
Ratio
14n i_ """-*. I
^ Conveying m }QQ J
80
x 10
120 ~ °
«c 100
X>
i 80
pi 1600
NO GO
I 60 AREA
2000
I 40
2400
20 Percentage of
Batch Conveyed
0
100 200 300 400
1000 2000 3000 4000

Conveying Line Exit Air Velocity - ft/min
Figure 9.10 Conveying characteristics for cement in 4 inch bore pipeline.

282 Chapter 9
6 DIVERSE MATERIAL CONVEYING
Not all pneumatic conveying systems are dedicated to the conveying of a single
material. There is often a need for a system to transport a number of different ma-
terials. In many industries, such as food and glass, a wide variety of materials have
to be conveyed by a common system, since there is a requirement to deliver a
given 'menu' for a particular process [5]. In the case of packet soups, for example,
it could involve more than twenty different materials. One of the authors came
across a total of 78 different materials, ranging from iron powder to vermiculite, in
a plant manufacturing welding rods.
Some of the materials to be transported may be capable of being conveyed
in dense phase, and hence at low velocity, while others may have no natural dense
phase conveying capability and will have to be conveyed in dilute phase with a
high conveying air velocity. The air requirements for the various materials, there-
fore, could differ widely.
This is illustrated with the case of floury and sandy grades of alumina, con-
veyed through the same pipeline, with conveying line inlet air pressures up to 45
lbf/in 2 gauge. The pipeline used was 155 ft long, of two inch nominal bore and
incorporated six 90° bends. Conveying characteristics for these two materials are
presented in Figure 9.11.
_, . Conveying Line Pressure ^ ,. ,

Conveying Drop . M/in2 Solids Solids
Limit \ / Loading Loading
Ratio Ratio \
\
Conveying Line
Pressure Drop
- Ibffitf
Conveying
Limit
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(a) (b)
Figure 9.11 Conveying characteristics for two grades of alumina conveyed through 155
ft long pipeline of 2 in bore incorporating six 90° bends, (a) Floury and (b) sandy.

6.1 Pipeline Selection

There is often a requirement for these two grades of alumina to be conveyed
through a common pipeline. From Figures 9.1 la and b, however, it will be seen
that there are considerable differences in the conveying capabilities of these two
materials. The floury alumina can be conveyed in dense phase and with conveying
air velocities down to about 600 ft/min, and with a conveying line pressure drop of
40 lbf/in 2 a material flow rate of 52,000 Ib/h can be achieved with a free air flow
rate of approximately 55 ftVmin. The sandy alumina, however, can only be con-
veyed in dilute phase and requires a minimum conveying air velocity of about
2000 ft/min, and with the same pressure drop of 40 lbf/in 2 a material flow rate of
only 32,000 Ib/h can be achieved and this requires a free air flow rate of approxi-
mately 170ft 3 /min.
If a 20% margin is allowed on minimum conveying air velocity, in order to
specify a conveying line inlet air velocity for design purposes, the value for the
sandy alumina will be 2400 ft/min and for the floury alumina it will be 720 ft/min.
To show how a common conveying system might be able to convey both materi-
als, a graph is plotted of conveying air pressure and a series of curves for different
pipeline bore is superimposed in Figure 9.12. Onto this are drawn possible veloc-
ity profiles for the two materials. Because of the extremely wide difference in
conveying air velocities a single bore line is suggested for the floury alumina, and
three steps are required in the pipeline for the sandy alumina, but it will be seen
that the pipeline system meets the requirements of both materials.
6000 h
e 5000 Pipeline
Bore - in
's
^4000
1
^ 3000
.5 2000
c
6 1000
20 30
2
Air Pressure - lbf/in gauge
Figure 9.12 Velocity profiles for sandy and floury alumina in a common positive pres-
sure conveying system for a free air flow rate of 1000 ftVmin.

284 Chapter 9
At entry to the reception hopper a common pipeline is possible in this case,

as shown, but this is not necessarily a requirement. The use of two completely
different pipelines is not likely to be a problem. The pipeline used for the floury
alumina in Figure 9.12, therefore, could well be stepped part way along its length
to 10 in bore, which could not possibly be used with the sandy alumina.
Consideration would have to be given in this case, however, to purging of
the pipeline, since the maximum value of conveying air velocity in the pipeline
would be only 2000 ft/min. There are many alternative solutions to the problem of
conveying diverse materials, but the one illustrated is probably the simplest as it
utilizes exactly the same air supply in terms of both pressure and volumetric flow
rate. Material flow rates will clearly be different, but an extremely complex system
would be needed to achieve this equality as will be seen from Figures 9.1 la and b.
A sketch of a system relating to the data given in Figure 9.12 is presented in Fig-
ure 9.13.
6.2 Low Pressure Systems

Although Figure 9.13 is drawn with a common pipeline feeding both materials
into the reception silo, this is not a requirement, as mentioned above. Indeed, with
a low pressure system this may not be a possibility. Two different pipelines, how-
ever, could be utilized in exactly the same way. There would probably be no need
to step any of the pipelines either.
Common 8 in Bore
^ \l
Hoppers for
X
y"
r Reception
Silo
\vy/
Floury Alumina
8 in Bore
\ /• . vv
if
//
/
X
=0-1 C9
|
1
Hoppers for
Sandy Alumina
6 in Bore
VRAA/
Compressor ^
1 5 in Bore
4 in Bore
Figure 9.13 Typical layout of a high positive pressure conveying system for conveying
diverse materials.

6.2.1 Vacuum Conveying Systems

Exactly the same principles apply to vacuum conveying systems. It may well be
possible to have a common pipeline delivering all materials into the reception silo
and for materials with no dense phase conveying capability a stepped pipeline
could be utilized to provide the necessary pick-up velocity for the given air flow
rate.
7 MATERIAL FLOW RATE
The influence that a stepped pipeline might have on material flow rate is not im-
mediately obvious. For the flow of air only through a pipeline models are well
established. That for pressure drop takes the form:
LoC1
Apa °c — Ibf/in 2 (6)
d
where Apa = air only pressure drop - Ibfin 2

L = pipeline length - ft
p = density of air - lb/ft3
C = conveying air velocity - ft/min
and d = pipeline bore - in
As pressure drop increases with increase in (velocity) , and decreases with

increase in pipeline bore, the pressure drop for a stepped pipeline will be signifi-
cantly lower than that for a single bore pipeline of the same length, the same initial
diameter and for the same volumetric flow rate of air.
7.1 Fine Fly Ash

Comparative data for the performance of single bore and stepped pipelines is
rather limited but such work has been carried out with a fine grade of fly ash [6]. A
380 ft long pipeline of 2 inch nominal bore and incorporating ten 90° bends was
built for the purpose. A fine grade of fly ash was used, since it is capable of being
conveyed over a very wide range of flow conditions. A sketch of the pipeline is
presented in Figure 9.14 for reference. This also indicates where the steps in the
pipeline were made to larger bore sections of pipe.
The conveying characteristics for the fly ash in the 380 ft length of single
bore pipeline are presented in Figure 9.15a. These are the reference set of convey-
ing characteristics for the basis of comparison with the stepped pipelines exam-
ined. From this it will be seen that the material could be conveyed at solids loading
ratios up to almost 200, with conveying line pressure drop values up to 45 Ibf/in2,
and over a very wide range of air flow rates.

286 Chapter 9
Return to Hopper
First Step
Second Step
Figure 9.14 Pipeline used for stepped pipeline conveying tests.
In order to provide a comparison with the single bore pipeline, the second
half of the pipeline was changed from 2 inch to 21/2 inch bore pipe. At the transi-
tion section the 2 in bore pipe was simply sleeved inside the 21/2 in bore pipe and
welded. The resulting conveying characteristics are presented in Figure 9.15b.
Conveying Line Conveying Line Solids

Pressure Drop Pressure Drop Loading
- Ibf7in 2 lbf/in 2 200 160 120
Ratio
80 Solids Loading
^—-"" Ratio
200 160 120
70 o 70
80
60 °60
50
I 40
30
20
10
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(a) (b)
Figure 9.15 Conveying characteristics for fine fly ash in 380 ft long pipeline of 2 inch
initial bore, (a) Single bore pipeline and (b) single step pipeline.

By comparing Figures 9.15 a and b it will be seen that there is a very sig-
nificant improvement in performance over the entire range of conveying condi-
tions considered as a consequence of this single step. Much higher values of fly
ash flow rate were achieved, and with lower values of conveying line pressure
drop.
To illustrate the magnitude of the improvement a comparison of the single
step and single bore pipelines is given in Figure 9.16a. For this purpose a grid was
drawn on each set of conveying characteristics at regular increments of conveying
line pressure drop and air flow rate, and the value of the fly ash flow rate was
noted at every grid point. The data points given on Figure 9.16a represent the ratio
of the fly ash flow rates and this shows that the material flow rate achieved
through the pipeline with the single step was about 1-9 times or 90% greater than
that for the single bore pipeline for exactly the same inlet air conditions and hence
power required.
It is interesting to note that there is little change in the value of this ratio
over the entire range of conveying conditions examined. The improvement applies
equally to low velocity dense phase conveying, and to high velocity dilute phase
conveying. Since there is no change in the air flow rate required to convey the
material it is unlikely that there would be any need to change the filtration re-
quirements for the conveying system either.
Solids Loading
Conveying
Line Pressure 200 160 120
Conveying Line Drop
80 2
Pressure Drop 80 - lhf/in
- lbf/in 2
70 70
60 60
50 50
o
a
40 oi 40
I
_0
1 30 CL< 30
| -20
20 20
<L>
1 10 10
0 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin
(a) (b)
Figure 9.16 Further conveying data and analysis for fly ash in 380 ft long pipeline of 2
inch initial bore, (a) Single step comparison and (b) double step pipeline data.

288 Chapter 9
For the second comparison the last quarter of the pipeline was changed from
2'/2 inch to 3 inch bore. Thus the first 190 ft was of 2 inch, the next 95 ft was 2'/2
inch and the last 95 ft was of 3 inch nominal bore pipeline. It should be noted that
these are by no means the ideal proportions. They were selected to illustrate the
potential improvement that might be achieved over a very wide range of convey-
ing conditions. The optimum position of the pipeline steps will depend very much
upon the air supply pressure and pipeline bores available.
The resulting conveying characteristics for this pipeline with two steps are
presented in Figure 9.16b. It will be seen from this that a further improvement
over the single step pipeline has been obtained. A similar analysis to that presented
in Figure 9.16a showed that the ratio of material flow rates between the double
step and the single bore pipelines was about 2-2:1 [6].
7.2 Existing Systems

Since the diameter of the first section of the pipeline remains the same, the air
flow rate also remains the same. This, therefore, has direct application to existing
systems, for if a single bore pipeline is used with a high pressure system, the only
change may be in terms of stepping the pipeline. It is also unlikely that changes
need be made to either the compressor or to the filtration plant.
7.3 Other Materials

It is suspected that the very significant improvement in material flow rates
achieved with the fine fly ash are mainly due to the nature of the conveying char-
acteristics for this type of material and are unlikely to be repeated to such a
marked extent for materials having different conveying characteristics. A compari-
son of constant pressures drop lines for a wide range of materials was presented in
Chapter 4 with Figure 4.18 and fly ash was clearly the steepest of the fifteen mate-
rial included.
The lines of constant conveying line pressure drop on the conveying charac-
teristics presented in Figure 9.15b, for example, have a steep negative slope over
the entire range of air flow rates and conveying capability. This means that as the
air flow rate, and hence conveying air velocity, is reduced, there is always an in-
crease in material flow rate, even at very low values of air flow rate.
This tends not to be the case for the low velocity conveying of polymeric
powders and pelletized materials. These materials often exhibit a pressure mini-
mum point in the conveying characteristics and at air flow rates below the pressure
minimum point the lines of constant pressure drop have a marked positive slope.
This was illustrated earlier with polyethylene pellets in Figures 4.12b and 7.3.
The conveying characteristics for terephthalic acid, which is a powder hav-
ing a mean particle size of about 60 micron, and nylon pellets, which are mono
sized having a mean particle size of about 0-15 inch, are presented in Figures 9.17a
and b to illustrate this point. The terephthalic acid was conveyed through a 165 ft
long pipeline of 2 inch nominal bore incorporating eight 90° bends.

Conveying Line
Conveying Line
Pressure Drop Solids Loading
Pressure Drop - lbf/in 2
50 Ratio
60 - lbf/in 2
Solids Loading
Ratio
50 o 40
o
X
40 15
- 30
£30
I30
-25
o I 20
10
I
10
0
c 50 100 150 200 0 100 200 300 400
Free Air Flow Rate - ft /min Free Air Flow Rate - ft3/min
(a) (b)
Figure 9.17 Conveying characteristics of materials exhibiting pressure minimum

points, (a) Terephthalic acid and (b) nylon pellets.
The nylon pellets were conveyed through a 160 ft long pipeline of 3 inch
nominal bore incorporating six 90° bends [7], It is suspected that the benefits of
stepping the pipeline will be very limited for the low velocity dense phase flow of
these materials, but should be well worthwhile for dilute phase suspension flow.
8 EXPANDED BENDS
Since the magnitude of both erosive wear and particle degradation are influenced
so markedly by conveying velocity, and that bends are the major cause or influ-
ence, it has been suggested that the bends themselves could be stepped to a larger
diameter. The idea is to install bends into the pipeline that have a much larger bore
than that of the pipeline [8].
The bends are fitted into the pipeline with tapered sections at inlet and out-
let. There is no change in diameter of the pipeline either leading to the bend or
following the bend. A sketch of such a bend is given in Figure 9.18. From this it
will be seen that the step is only to and from the bend.

290 Chapter 9
Solids Loading Ratio

Pressure
Gradient
' -Ibf/m 2 14
°
-per 100ft
20
20
10
50 100 150
Figure 9.18 Sketch of expanded bend Figure 9.19 Pressure gradient in vertically
down flow for fly ash.
In the expanding section prior to the bend the air velocity will fall and the
particles will be retarded. As a consequence the particles will impact against the
bend wall at a lower velocity and so any erosive wear or particle degradation will
be reduced. Although the air velocity may fall below the minimum value for con-
veying, the particles are decelerating and the turbulence in the region is so great
that pipeline blockage does not appear to be a problem.
9 CONVEYING VERTICALLY DOWN
For the flow of bulk particulate materials through horizontal pipelines there is an
associated pressure drop. The situation is the same for flow vertically up, except
that the pressure gradient values are approximately double those for horizontal
flow, as was discussed in the previous chapter. For flow vertically down, however,
the situation is very different.
For materials that can be conveyed in dense phase there can be an increase
in pressure as the material is conveyed vertically down the pipeline, if the material
is conveyed in dense phase. Data for cement, barite and a fine grade of pulverized

fuel ash, conveyed vertically down through a two inch nominal bore pipeline was
presented in the previous chapter [9]. That for the fly ash is reproduced here in
Figure 9.19 for reference.
Figure 9.19 is essentially the conveying characteristics for the material for
flow vertically down, with the pressure drop being in terms of a pressure gradient,
in lbf/in 2 per 100 ft of pipeline, rather than the pressure drop for the entire pipeline
system, as shown in Figures 9.16b to 17b, for example. From Figure 9.19 it will be
seen that if the material is conveyed at a solids loading ratio of about 35 there will
be no pressure drop associated with the conveying.
At increasingly higher values of solids loading ratio there is a pressure re-
covery, and hence the negative values on Figure 9.19, increasing with further in-
crease in solids loading ratio, and hence material flow rate. At solids loading ratios
below about 35, and hence for the entire dilute phase region of conveying, there
will be a pressure drop associated with the flow of the material.
9.1 Underground Stowing

In situations where materials need to be conveyed long distances vertically down,
very high pressures can be generated if the conveying conditions are carefully
selected. The transfer of fly ash and cement down mine shafts for underground
stowing and roof support are particular examples.
In these cases it is possible for the materials to be conveyed over a distance
of several thousand feet horizontally from the bottom of the mine shaft by virtue
of the pressure generated from the downward conveying of the materials. Provided
that the distance conveyed horizontally, prior to the vertical drop down the mine
shaft, is kept relatively short, this could theoretically be achieved with a very low
air supply pressure.
A particular problem here, however, is that the pressure generated could be
so high that the conveying air velocity in the following horizontal section of pipe-
line could be too low to support conveying and the pipeline could block. In this
case the pipeline would need to be reduced in diameter, rather than increased, in
order to increase the conveying air velocity.
The horizontal section of pipeline would need to be expanded to a larger di-
ameter along its length in the usual way, as it would be discharging material at
atmospheric pressure. A sketch of a pipeline for such an application is given in
Figure 9.20. A sketch of a velocity profile, for a free air flow rate of 900 ft3/min,
for the Figure 9.20 pipeline is presented in Figure 9.21.
A minimum conveying air velocity of about 800 ft/min for the vertically
down flow and approximately 1200 ft/min for the horizontal flow has been as-
sumed. The dotted lines represent the flow vertically down and the dashed lines
the horizontal flow. It will be seen that the conveying line inlet air pressure is
about 10 lbf/in 2 gauge and so a positive displacement blower is all that would be
required for the air supply, despite the fact that pressures of up to about 90 lbf/in2
are generated within the pipeline system.

292 Chapter 9
Material
Feed _
Point
/-. -J 1 1
Vertically Pipeline
Down Bore - in
4 5 6 8
, 1 1 I I
^ Material
Point
Figure 9.20 Proposal for a pipeline system for delivery of materials for underground
stowing.
The arrows on the dotted and dashed velocity profiles indicate the actual
flow direction through the various bore of pipeline utilized.
me
I 200°
g
'(3
_o
>
oolOOO
• Vertically
I _ Down
Minimum Velocity
I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J l_J—L -I L
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Air Pressure - lbf/in 2 gauge
Figure 9.21 Velocity profile for conveying system delivering materials for under-
ground stowing.

10 AIR ONLY PRESSURE DROP
Stepped pipelines were discussed earlier to illustrate the problems of air expansion
and velocity control along a pneumatic conveying system pipeline. The models
necessary to evaluate conveying air velocities and air only pressure drop were also
developed earlier, particularly in Chapter 6, and so it is now possible to consider
stepped pipelines further. A sketch of a two section stepped pipeline is given in
Figure 9.22.
From Equation 6.12, for a single bore pipeline, the following expression was
developed:
m RT
(7)
_ r-<
(8)
which gives:
4? = Pi ~P4 = dp 1-2+ AP3--I
Figure 9.22 Velocity and pressure profiles and notation for a stepped pipeline.

294 Chapter 9
either Apa = p - \ p2 - T
( Y'5 lbf/in 2 (9)
which is an expression in terms of the inlet pressure,/)/
or Apa = (pi + F) - p2 lbf/in 2 (10)
which is an expression in terms of the outlet pressure, p2
For a stepped pipeline the total pressure drop will be equal to the sum of the
individual pressure drops for each section. For a two section pipeline the unknown
pressure at the step can be eliminated by using both of the above expressions, and
noting that:
P2 = P3
and
dpa = Pi ~ P4 = Ap,_2 + Ap3-4
For the first section:

\o-s
r
= P\ ~ \Pl ~ i-2
and for the second section:

\o-5
2
Jps-4 = (p,
\
+ r3_4 i
adding these two expressions gives:
/ \0-5 / \0-5
PI - p4 = PI - P4 - \P\ - r,_ 2 j + \p\ + r3_4
which reduces to:
=
P\-PI r\.i + rw (ii)
This equation is of the same form as Equation 9.8 and so the solution can ei-
ther be in terms of the inlet pressure, plt as in Equation 9.9, or in terms of the exit
pressure, p4, as in Equation 9.10. The choice will depend upon which value is
known, and whether the stepped pipeline is for a positive pressure or a vacuum
system.

It should be noted that if the pipeline comprises more than one step, addi-
tional equations will be needed to solve the additional unknown pressures at the
steps.
10.1 Position of Steps

The position of the transition to a larger bore line must be such that the conveying
air velocity does not drop below that of the conveying line inlet air velocity em-
ployed at the start of the pipeline. As the pressure drops along the length of the
pipeline the velocity will increase, but a change in pipeline bore will significantly
alter the situation, as illustrated in Figure 9.22, and with the earlier examples
shown in Figures 9.3 to 9.8.
It was also mentioned earlier that as a first approximation, pipeline lengths
can be sized in proportion to the conveying line pressure drop for each section,
provided that a reasonably uniform value of conveying air velocity is maintained
along the length of the pipeline. With reference to Figure 9.22, the length of the
first section of pipeline, Lt.2, would be:
P\ - Pi
Li.2 = x L ft (12)
P^ - PA
The process would be similar for other pipeline sections. The pressure at the
steps can be evaluated from Equation 5, developed earlier, and the velocity at the
end of each section and along the length of the pipeline can be determined from
Equation 4.
10.2 Transition Sections

A tapered transition from one section to another would be recommended, in order
to recover as much of the energy as possible in the preceding high velocity flow.
The included angle of the transition would need to be about 5 to 10 degrees, as
shown in Figure 6.9.
REFERENCES
1. D. Mills. Optimizing pneumatic conveying. Chemical Engineering. Vol 107. No 13. pp

74-80. Dec 2000.
2. D. Mills. Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide. Butterworth-Heinemann. 1990.
3. D. Mills and V.K. Agarwal. Pneumatic conveying systems - design, selection, opera-
tion and troubleshooting with particular reference to pulverized fuel ash. 386 pp. Trans
Tech Publications. 2001.

296 Chapter 9
4. D. Mills, V.K. Agarwal, and M.D. Bharathi. The pneumatic conveying of fly ash and
cement at low velocity. Proc 24'1' Powder and Bulk Solids Conf. pp 147-163. Chicago
May 1999.
5. D. Mills. The use of stepped pipelines to enable different materials to be conveyed
pneumatically by a common system. Proc 7lh Int Conf on Bulk Materials Storage,
Handling and Transportation. The University of Newcastle, Australia. October 2001.
6. D. Mills and J.S. Mason. An analysis of stepped pipelines for pneumatic conveying
systems. Proc 12th Powder and Bulk Solids Conf. pp 696-704. Chicago. May 1987.
7. M.G. Jones and D. Mills. Performance characteristics for the pneumatic conveying of
plastic pellets. Proc 21 st Powder and Bulk Solids Conf. Chicago. May 1996.
8. V.K. Agarwal, N. Kulkarni, and D. Mills. The influence of expanded bends on wear
and particle degradation in pneumatic conveying system pipelines. Proc IMechE Conf
on Powder and Bulk Solids Handling, pp 307-317. London June 2000.
9. D. Mills, J.S. Mason and P. Marjanovic. Pneumatic conveying - vertically down. Proc
8th Powder and Bulk Solids Conf. pp 546-557. Atlanta. May 1983.

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Stepped Pipeline Systems

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2 CONVEYING AIR VELOCITY

2.1 Compressibility of Air

The second is the Ideal Gas Law from Equation 5.4:

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3 STEPPED PIPELINE SYSTEMS

3.1 Step Location

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Figure 9.2 Stepped pipeline notation.

In the design of a stepped pipeline system it is essential to ensure that the

and substituting values for/?,, and T0 gives:

= 5-19 ~2-— ft/min

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= 5-19 Ibf/in absolute

3.2 Dilute Phase Conveying

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3.3 Dense Phase Conveying

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3.4 Vacuum Conveying

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Air Pressure - Ibfin gauge

3.4.1 Step Position

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Air Inlet Pressure Air Outlet Pressure Pressure Difference

lbf/in 2 absolute lbf/in 2 gauge Ibf/in" gauge lbf/in 2

14-7 0 -7-35 7-35

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It would be recommended, therefore, that for a very long distance conveying

In many applications it is necessary to purge the pipeline clear of material at the

5.1 Dense Phase Conveying

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Although this may be more conventional in terms of system sketching, it

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5.2 Material Deposition

5.2.7 Fly Ash

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Conveying Line Inlet

1000 2000 3000 4000

Figure 9.10 Conveying characteristics for cement in 4 inch bore pipeline.

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6 DIVERSE MATERIAL CONVEYING

_, . Conveying Line Pressure ^ ,. ,

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6.1 Pipeline Selection

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At entry to the reception hopper a common pipeline is possible in this case,

6.2 Low Pressure Systems

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6.2.1 Vacuum Conveying Systems

7 MATERIAL FLOW RATE

where Apa = air only pressure drop - Ibfin 2

As pressure drop increases with increase in (velocity) , and decreases with

7.1 Fine Fly Ash

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Figure 9.14 Pipeline used for stepped pipeline conveying tests.

Conveying Line Conveying Line Solids

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Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

7.2 Existing Systems

7.3 Other Materials

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Figure 9.17 Conveying characteristics of materials exhibiting pressure minimum