READING DEVELOPMENT

Section 1.
Engineers must consider the use of every known type of material when
designing a new product. As the atom is the basic unit of internal structure of
5 matter, it comes essential in the study of materials and their properties.
Therefore, the initial concepts that involve individual atoms such as atomic number,
atomic class, periodic table, bonding forces, etc. will be helpful for understanding
poly-atomic structures and their associated properties.

10 Section 2.
The atomic weight of an element is the average weight of its isotopes, taking
into account the frequency of its natural occurrence, and expressed in atomic mass
units. Natural carbon contains approximately 1 percent C13, along with 98.9 percent
C12, therefore the average atomic weight of a carbon atom is 12.011. Atomic mass is
15 extremely small with respect to the common concept of mass, so for many
calculations we use the atomic mass unit, or amu, defined as one-twelfth of the
atomic mass of C 12 which is taken as standard. The precision values in the periodic
table (H 1.0079 amu; C 12.001 amu; O 15.9994 amu, etc.) can be rounded off (H 1
amu; C 12 amu; O 16 amu, etc.) for all but the most precise calculations. To find
20 the number of particles (molecules, atoms, ions, etc.) we frequently use a conversion
factor known as Avogadro's number (6.022 x 1023 ).
The atomic number, which is used to position the elements in the periodic table,
indicates the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. An electrically neutral atom
has an equal number of protons and of electrons. All the isotopes of an element have
25 the same atomic number although different isotopes have different mass
numbers. The atomic number is often symbolized with the letter Z and shown as
a numerical subscript to the left of its chemical symbol. For example, 126C indicates a
carbon atom of atomic mass 12 and atomic number 6, the difference being equal to the
number of neutrons in the nucleus. However, it is the electrons — particularly
30 the outermost ones around the nucleus — that affect most physical and chemical
properties of materials. Therefore, specific attention must be paid to their distribution
and energy levels as they have to do with (1) the size of the atom; (2) the chemical
properties; (3) the nature of the inter-atomic bonding, from which the mechanical
and strength characteristics derive; (4) the electrical conductivity; and (5), the
35 optical characteristics.
The periodic table is a classification and tabulation of the chemical elements
arranged by their sequentially higher atomic numbers. The table can be read either
horizontally or vertically. When it is read horizontally, the elements are arranged
in a series not only by atomic weight, but also by valence. On the other hand,
40 when it is read vertically, the columns, called groups, comprise a family of elements
having similar chemical and electronic characteristics. For example, the elements at
the far left characterize because they are readily ionized to give positive ions, called
cations, whereas those in the upper-right corner, excepting the group of
 noble gases, are electronegative because they more readily share or accept
electrons.

Section 3.
5 Electrons are the negatively charged subatomic components of all atoms,
being their negative electrical charge commonly regarded as unity. This charge is
equal to 1.60218 x 10-19 coulombs.
The electrons in an atom are subjected to strict rules of behaviour
because they have the characteristics of standing waves during their
10 movements in t he nei ghbourhood of the atomi c n ucleus. These
characteristics can be identified with the following facts. Within individual atoms,
electrons have specific energy states, called orbitals. The available electron energy
states around the hydrogen atom can be identified definitely. However, large ranges
of intermediate energies are not available for the electrons. The values in
15 these ranges are forbidden because the corresponding frequencies do not
permit standing waves. Unless excited by external means, the one electron of a
hydrogen atom will occupy the lowest orbital.
As for sodium, each of the lowest orbitals contains no more than two electrons
that circulate in opposite spins, existing between them forbidden energy gaps that are
20 unavailable for electron occupancy.
The topmost occupied orbital has special significance, since it contains the
valence electrons that may be removed by a relatively small electric field, to give us
the positive cations. The energy required is called the ionization energy. Valence
electrons are also delocalized in metallic solids, being thus free to move throughout
25 the metal rather than remaining bound to individual atoms, which provides the basis
for electrical and thermal conductivity.
When the valence orbitals are not filled, the atom may accept a limited number
of extra electrons within these unfilled energy states to become a negative ion, or
anion. These electronegative atoms with unfilled valence orbitals may also share
30 electrons, a feature of great value in covalent bonding.