End semester examination, March/April-2019

B Tech IV semester
CE434, Advanced Surveying

1.i. Fundamental Measurements

When aimed at an appropriate target, a total station measures three parameters
• The rotation of the instrument’s optical axis from the instrument north in a horizontal
plane i.e., horizontal angle
• The inclination of the optical axis from the local vertical i.e., vertical angle.
• The distance between the instrument and the target, slope distance.

i. Horizontal angle: It is measured from the zero direction on the horizontal scale.
a. When the user first sets up the instrument the choice of the zero direction is
made- this is instrument north.
b. The zero direction should be set so that it can be recovered if the instrument
was set up at the same location at some later date.
ii. Vertical angle: it is measured relative to the local vertical(plumb direction).
a. The vertical angle is usually measured as a zenith angle( 0° is vertically up, 90°
is horizontal and 180° is vertically down).
b. The telescope will be pointing downward for zenith angles greater than 90°
and upward for angles less than 90°.
iii. Slope distance: The instrument to reflector distance is measured using electronic
distance meter (EDM).
a. Most EDM’s use a diode to emit an infrared light beam. This beam is usually
modulated to two or more different frequencies. The infrared beam is emitted
from the total station, reflected by the reflector and received and amplified by
the total station.
b. The received signal is then compared with a reference signal generated by the
instrument( the same signal generator that transmits the microwave pulse) and
the phase shift is determined.
c. This phase shift is a measure of the travel time and thus the distance between
the total station and the reflector.
Basic calculations:
i. Horizontal distance: HD = SD Cos(90°-ZA)=SD sinZA
ii. Vertical difference
• Elevation difference, dZ= VD + IH –RH
• Vertical difference, VD = SD Sin(90°-ZA)=SD Cos ZA
• If the instrument is at a known elevation, IZ , then the elevation of the ground
beneath the reflector RZ is RZ = IZ + SD Cos ZA + IH –RH

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1.ii Types of aerial photogrammetry
Vertical Photographs
 If camera axis is vertical
Tilted Photograph
 If Camera axis is unintentionally tilted slightly form vertical (1 to 3 degree
Oblique Photographs
 If camera axis is intentionally tilted away from vertical
 High Oblique – Photograph includes horizon
 Low Oblique – No Horizon
Exposure station: It is a point in space, in the air, occupied by the camera lens at the instant
of exposure. Precisely, it is the space position of the front nodal point at the instant of
exposure.
Flying height: It is the elevation of the exposure station above the sea level or any other
selected datum.
Flight line: It is a line drawn on a map to represent the track of the aircraft.
Principal point: It is a point where a perpendicular dropped from the front nodal point strikes
the photograph. It is considered to coincide with the intersection of the x-axis and the y-axis.

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 2. Horizontal & Vertical Angles from Terrestrial Photograph
The horizontal and vertical angles to various points in a photograph can easily be found
analytically, graphically or instrumentally.
Figure shows two points A & B photographed with camera axis horizontal so that the picture
plane is vertical and the horizon line is horizontal.
The image of the ground points A & B appears at a and b respectively and their projections on
horizon line are at a’ and b’ respectively.
If f=ok= focal length of the lens, the horizontal angles αa and αb

Where xa and xb are the photographic x coordinates of a and b with respect to the principal
line as the y-axis.
Similarly, let βa and βb be the vertical angles to A and B, then we have
tan βa = aa’/oa’
aa’ = ya
oa’ = f sec αa
tan βa = ya /f sec αa
tan βb = yb /f sec αb

• k1 k2 represents the true horizon of the photograph. The line ko is constructed

perpendicular to k1 k2 and represents the optical axis, the distance ko being made equal to
f.

• With the pair of dividers, make ka’=xa and kb’= xb by making measurements from the
photographs.

• Join a’o and b’o. The angles αa and αb can then be measured.

• To find vertical angle, erect perpendiculars a’a and b’b to oa’ and ob’ respectively.

• Make a’a= ya and b’b=yb thus getting points a and b respectively.

• Join ao and bo.

• The angles aoa’ and bob’ are the desired vertical angles.

3. Radiation Laws
Stefan-Boltzmann Law: All bodies above the temperature of 0 K emit EM radiation and the
energy radiated by an object at a particular temperature is given by
M=σ T4
Where M= total spectral existence of a black body, W/m2 ,σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant=
5.6697 x 10-11 W/m2/K4, T= Absolute temperature

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A black body is a hypothetical ideal radiator that totally absorbs and remits all energy incident
upon it. The distribution of spectral existence for a black body at 5900K closely approximates
the sun’s spectral exitance curve, while the earth can be considered to act like a black body
with a temperature of 290K.
Wien’s displacement law: The wavelength at which a black body radiates its maximum
energy is inversely proportional to temperature and is given by
λm = A/T
λm = wavelength of maximum spectral exitance, A= Wien’s constant= 2.898 x 10-3 mK
T= Temperature of the body.
As the temperature of the black body increases, the dominant wavelength of the emitted
radiation shifts towards shorter wavelength.
Planck’s law: The total energy radiated in all directions by unit area in unit time in a spectral
band for a is given by

C1
Mλ  / λT )  1
λ5 e(C 2

Where Mλ = Spectral exitance per unit wavelength

C1 = first radiation constant= 3.742 x 10-16 W/m2
C2 = second radiation constant=1.4388 x 10-2 mK
It enables to assess the proportion of total radiant exitance within selected wavelength.

4. EM radiation and the atmosphere

In remote sensing, EM radiation must pass through atmosphere in order to reach the earth’s
surface and to the sensor after reflection and emission from earth’s surface features.The water
vapour, oxygen, ozone, CO2, aerosols etc present in the atmosphere influence EM radiation
through the mechanism of scattering and absorption.

i. Scattering

 It is unpredictable diffusion of radiation by molecules of the gases, dust and smoke in

the atmosphere. Scattering reduces the image contrast and changes the spectral
signatures of ground objects. Scattering is basically classified as selective and non-
selective, depending upon the size of particle with which the EMR interacts.

 The selective scatter is further classified as Rayleigh’s scatter and Mie’s scatter.

 Rayleigh’s scatter: in the upper part of the atmosphere, the diameter of the gas
molecules or particles is much less than the wavelength of radiation. Hence haze
results on the remotely sensed imagery, causing a bluish grey cast on the image, thus
reducing the contrast. Lesser the wavelength, more is the scattering.

• Mie’s scatter: in the lower layers of atmosphere, where the diameter of water vapour
or dust particles equals wavelength of radiation, Mie’s scatter occurs.

• Non-selective scatter: It occurs when the diameter of particles, is several times more
than radiation wavelength. For visible wavelengths, the main sources of non-selective

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 scattering are pollen grains, cloud droplets, ice and snow crystals and raindrops. It
scatters all wavelength of visible light with equal efficiency. It justifies the reason why
cloud appears white in the image.

ii. Absorption: in contrast to scattering, atmospheric absorption results the effective loss
of energy as a consequence of the attenuating nature of atmospheric constituents like
molecules of ozone, CO2 and water vapour. Oxygen absorbs in the UV region and
also has an absorption band centred on 6.3μm. Similarly, CO2 prevents a number
of wavelengths reaching the surface. Water vapour is an extremely important
absorber of EM radiation with IR part of the spectrum.

• Atmospheric Windows: The amount of scattering or absorption depends upon

wavelength and composite of the atmosphere. In order to minimise the effect of
atmosphere, it is essential to chose the regions with high transmittance. The
wavelength at which EM radiations are partially or wholly transmitted through the
atmosphere are known as atmospheric window and are used to acquire RS data.
Typical atmospheric windows on the regions of EMR are shown below. The sensors
on RS satellites must be designed in such a way as to obtain data within these well-
defined atmospheric windows.

5. Components of GIS
Geographical Information Systems have three important components, namely, computer
hardware, sets of application software modules, and a proper organisational setup. These
three components need to be in balance if the system is to function satisfactorily. GIS run on
the whole spectrum of computer systems ranges from portable personal computers to multi-
user supercomputers, and are programmed in a wide variety of software packages. Systems
are available that use dedicated and expensive work stations, with monitors and digitising
tables built in.

These include

i. the presence of a processor with sufficient power to run the software

ii. sufficient memory for the storage of large volumes of data
iii. a good quality, high resolution color graphics screen and
iv. data input and output devices, like digitisers, scanners, keyboards, printers
and plotters.
The general hardware components of a GIS include control processing unit which is linked to
mass storage units, such as, hard disk drives and tape drives, peripherals such as digitiser or
scanner, printer or plotter and Visual Display Unit (VDU).
There are a number of essential software elements that must allow the user to input, store,
manage, transform, analyse and output data. Therefore, the software package for a GIS
consists of four basic technical modules.
These basic modules are: (i) data input and verification, (ii) data storage and database
Management (iii) data transformation and manipulation, and (iv) data output and
presentation.
The GIS software package should have the capabilities performing all the four GIS
subsystems.

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 6. Attributes are the characteristics of the map features, and holding of the
descriptive information about the geographic features. Attributes are the non-
spatial data associated with time and area entities. They are considered
characteristics of entity.
The GIS attributes are represented using colours, textures, and linear or graphic symbols like
the gardens. The parks are shaded green, the church locations are designated using the special
symbol, the bus routes are drawn with a specific line width and style, as broken lines of 12
points width, Contour lines are brown in colour, and so on.

The actual value of the attribute that has been measured (sampled) and stored in the database
is called attribute value.

A classical example of attribute data associated with spatial entities, a point may represents a
hotel, a line may represents the road and area may represents the boundaries of the lake.
Broadly speaking two types of attributes may be distinguished: primary attributes and
secondary attributes. Socioeconomic characteristics, and physical properties of objects are
some of the examples of primary attributes. Flows of information levels, districts, capitals, and
mandal names are considered secondary attributes.

Topology: In GIS, topology is the term used to describe the geometric characteristic of objects
which do not change under transformations and are independent of any coordinate system.
The topological characteristics of an object are also independent of scale of measurement.
Topology, as it relates to spatial data, consists of three elements, namely, adjacency,
containment and connectivity. Topology may be defined as constituting those properties of
geometrical figures that are invariant under continuous deformation. Adjacency and
containment describe the geometric relationships which exist between area features. Areas
can be described as being adjacent when they share a common boundary. For ex, boundary of
the area of municipal corporation of Hyderabad and Secunderabad is common, or may be
adjacent.

Containment is an extension of the adjacency that describes area features which may be
wholly contained within another area feature, such as, an island within a lake.

Connectivity is a geometric property used to describe the linkages between line features, like
road network.

7. Overlay Analysis
Overlay analysis is an operation in GIS for superimposing the multiple layer of datasets that
representing different themes together for analysing or identifying relationship of each layer.
Overlay analysis represents a composite map by the combination of different attribute and
geometry of datasets or entity. Overlay operations performs many type of analysis for
example cropping pattern in the field, dominance of particular ethnic population in a region,
age and sex composition of region, physical landforms of the surface. Suppose I have to find
the potential park sites of population so I will create the map of density of population and the
map of distance to parks of populated area then I will superimpose the both layer and find
the suitable location

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Vector overlay:

Point in Polygon Overlay: This operation will generate combinative properties of point
attributes of one layer and the polygon attribute of the analysis layer.It is a spatial operation
in which one point coverage is overlaid with polygon coverage to determine which points
falls within the polygon boundaries. After overlay operation, points assume the attributes of
the polygons within which they fall. It helps in formulating hypothesis about the spatial
relationships between the occurrence of points and the attributes of the polygons. This kind
of overlay operation can also be used to calculate number of points located in each of the
polygon.

Line-in-polygon overlay: If it is required to know the parts of the roads passing through the
city. To do this, we need to overlay the road data on a data layer containing city polygon.

Polygon-on-polygon overlay: It is used to examine the provinces and its land use.

Raster overlay: A raster map overlay introduces the idea of map algebra or mapematics. Using
map algebra, input data layers may be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided to produce
output. Mathematical operations are performed on individual cell values from two or more
input layers to produce an output value.

Layer Code
Location of nursing home 1
Road 2
Agriculture land 3
Forest 5
Hill station 10

8. Functions of DBMS
The essential functions of the DBMS must provide the means to define the contents of a
database, insert new data, delete old data, ask about the database contents, and modify
the contents of the database, updating of data, minimisation of redundancy, and physical
data independence, security and integrity.

• Security: Not all users should have all modes of access to a database. Those
without proper knowledge or proper authority, should not have the liberty to
modify the contents of the database. Database management software allows a
user to access data efficiently without being concerned with its actual physical
storage implementation, and allows degrees of protection in terms of what a
user may see, and what a user is permitted to do. Security refers to the
protection of the data against accidental or intentional disclosure to
unauthorised persons and protection against unauthorised access,
modification, or destruction of the database.

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 Integrity: Integrity in DBMS is the ability to protect data from systems problems through
a variety of assurance measures like range checking, backup, and recovery. A DBMS
checks element as they are entered to enforce the necessary structural constraints of the
internal data. Users are forced to enter only those data fields that are required.

 Synchronisation: This refers to forms of protection against inconsistencies that can result
from multiple simultaneous users. A mechanism is required, so that when one user is
about to remove something from the collection, the other user is either warned or
prevented from accessing the information until the first has committed to the transaction.
This means we must be able to support simultaneous access to the database by multiple
users when required, as well as logically view the database as arbitrary subsets of the
entire physical database.

 Physical data independence: The underlying data storage and manipulation hardware
should not matter to the user. The hardware could be changed without users having any
awareness of the change. This independence permits us to change hardware as needs and
technology change, without rewriting the associated data manipulation software. Data
independence implies that data and the application programs that operate on them are
independent, so that either 'may be changed without affecting the other.

 Minimisation of redundancy: In a database, storing values that 'are dependent on other

stored values without explicitly keeping track of the dependencies can lead to disruption
of the database. At the same time, storing and manipulating the dependencies, in addition
to the data itself, increases the difficulties of working with the data. Redundancy in a
database is generally not desirable.

 Efficiency: Efficient data storage, retrieval, deletion, and updating are dependent upon
many parameters. In the creation of a spatial database, it is necessary to provide modes of
access for retrieval of both spatial and non-spatial information. Efficient data-retrieval
operations are largely dependent upon the volume of the data stored, the method of the
data encoding, the design of database structure and complexity of the query. These
operations affect the necessary calculations as well as the types and amounts of requests
to be made of the database management systems.

9. Global Positioning System (GPS)

It is a space-based all-weather radio navigation system that provides quickly, accurately and
inexpensively the time, position and velocity of the object anywhere on the globe at any time.
The GPS is comprised of three segments:

i. Satellite constellation-space segment.

ii. Ground control/monitoring network-operational control segment.
iii. User receiving equipment-user equipment segment.
The satellite constellation contains the satellites in orbit that provide the ranging signals and
data messages to the user equipment. The operational control segment (OCS) tracks and
maintains the satellite in space. The OCS monitors the satellite health, signal integrity and
maintains the orbital configuration of the satellites. It also updates the satellite clock
corrections and ephemerides as well as other parameters essential for the determination of

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 user position, velocity and time. The equipment segment performs the navigation, timing or
other related functions.

i. Satellite Constellation: It consists of the nominal 24 satellite constellation. The satellites

are positioned in 6 earth-centred orbital planes with 4 satellites in each plane. The nominal
orbital period of a GPS satellite is 11hr 58min.The orbits are nearly circular and equally
spaced.

ii. Operational control segment (OCS): It has the responsibility for maintaining the satellites
and their proper functioning. The control segment tracks all the satellites, ensures they are
operating properly, and computes their position in space. The computed positions of
satellites are used to derive parameters, which in turn are used to predict where the
satellite will be in later time. The prediction of current satellite position is transmitted to
the user in the data message. The OCS is comprised of master control station, monitor
station and ground antennas.

iii. Equipment segment: It receives and processes the band signals transmitted from the
satellites to determine user position, velocity and time. Almost all GPS receivers have
essentially the basic components- an antenna, a radio frequency section, a microprocessor,
a control and display unit, a recording device and a power supply.

10. Sources of errors in GIS

i. Errors arising from understanding and modelling of reality: Errors can originate
from the ways in which we perceive, study and model reality. These errors can be
termed as conceptual errors, since they are associated with the representation of the
real world for study and communication. This can create real errors and often gives
rise to inconsistencies between data collected by different surveyors, maps drawn by
different cartographers and databases created by different GIS users. Raster model
assumes that all real-world features can be represented as individual cells. This is
clearly not the case. The vector model assumes that all features can be given a single
coordinate or a collection of cartesian coordinates. Whatever GIS model we adopt, it
is a simplification of this reality and any simplification of reality will include errors of
generalization, completeness and consistency.

ii. Errors in source data for GIS: Our models of reality in GIS are built from a variety of
data sources including survey data, remotely sensed and map data. All sources of
spatial and attribute data for GIS are likely to include errors. Survey data can contain
errors due to mistakes made by people operating the equipment's or recording the
observations or due to technical problems with equipment’s. Remotely sensed and
aerial photography data could have spatial errors if they were spatially referenced
wrongly and mistakes in classification and interpretation would create attribute
errors. Maps contain both relatively straight forward spatial and attribute errors
caused by human or equipment failings and more subtle errors.

iii. Errors in data encoding: Data encoding is the process by which data are transferred
from some non-GIS source, such as the paper map, satellite image or survey, into a
GIS format. The method of data encoding, and the conditions under which it is carried
out, are perhaps the greatest source of error in most GIS. Despite the availability of

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 hardware for automatic conversion of paper maps into digital form, much of the
digitizing of paper maps is still done using manual digitizing table, which is the main
source of error.

iv. Errors in data editing and conversion: After data encoding is complete, cleaning and
editing are almost always required. These procedures are the last line of defence
against errors before the data are used for analysis. Of course, it is impossible to spot
and remove all the errors, but many problems can be eliminated by careful scrutiny of
the data. After cleaning and editing data it may be necessary to convert the data from
vector to raster or vice versa. During vector-to-raster conversion both the size of the
raster and the method of rasterization used have important implications for positional
error and in some cases, attribute uncertainty. Finer raster sizes can trace the path of a
line more precisely and therefore help to reduce classification error. The conversion of
data from raster to vector format is largely a question of geometric conversion.

v. Errors in data processing and analysis: GIS operations that can introduce errors
include the classification of data, aggregation or disaggregation of area data and the
integration of data using overlay techniques. Classified satellite images provide a
reflectance value for each pixel within a specific wavelength range or spectral band.
Raster maps of environmental variables, such as surface cover type, are derived by
classifying each pixel in the image according to typical reflectance values for the range
of individual cover types present in the image. Error can occur where different land
cover types have similar reflectance values and where shadows cast by terrain, trees
or buildings reduces the reflectance value of the surface. Careful choice of
classification method can help to reduce this type of error.

vi. Error in data input: From the preceding discussion it should be clear that all GIS
database will contain error. It is inevitable that all GIS output whether in the form of a
paper map or a digital database, will contain inaccuracies. The extent of these
inaccuracies will depend on the care and attention paid during the construction,
manipulation and analysis of the databases.

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